Forest Measurements & Tools

FOREST MEASUREMENTS & TOOLS

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Forestry is a science based on measurements. In this section you will learn

to use the same instruments and collect the same data that professional
foresters use to learn and manage forest resources.

At the end of this chapter, you should:

 Demonstrate proficiency in pacing to measure distances and determine
how many paces you have in a chain (66 ft.).
 Demonstrate proficiency in the use of the Biltmore Stick and Wedge
Prism.
 Conduct a sample plot as part of a forest inventory using forestry
instruments.
 Apply data to specific charts and tables to determine forest growth
conditions.

PACING

The most basic forest measurement is pacing or counting your number of

steps to determine how far you’ve traveled in the woods. A compass helps
you determine which direction you are walking, but pacing allows you to
determine distance.

In forestry the standard unit of distance measurement is the chain or

Gunter’s chain, which equals 66 feet. Years ago surveyors literally
dragged a 66-foot-long chain around with them to measure properties,
which were measured in chains and links. It may seem like an awkward
number to use, but the number 66 divides evenly into 5,280, which is the
number of feet in a mile. There are exactly 80 chains in a mile. In addition,
if you have an area of 10 square chains, you have exactly an acre. These
numbers are easy to remember.

Today, foresters measure chains by knowing how many paces they take in
66 feet. A pace is equal to two steps. To determine your pace, measure out
66 feet using a 100-foot measuring tape, and count every other step (for
example, every time your left foot hits the ground). People range between
10-17 paces per chain.

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CHAIN FACTS:
 1 pace = 2 relaxed steps
 80 chains = 1 mile
 10 square chains = 1 acre
 Several forestry tools are calibrated to be accurate from a distance of one chain.

TREE MEASUREMENT

Trees are measured to determine the volume and growth of both the
individual tree and the entire forest stand. Measurements taken from trees
form the data on which forestry policies are based. Decisions such as cutting
schedules, thinning, and regeneration are dependent on tree measurements.
Tree measurements also determine timber value and are used in predicting
the future conditions of forested areas.

Diameter

Diameter is always measured outside the bark at 4.5

feet above the ground. This is called Diameter Breast
Height, or DBH (Figure 10.1).

Diameter measurements are used to determine the type

of product for which a tree may be used. Minimum
diameters vary from product to product and from mill to
mill, but some general rules apply in Florida for
pulpwood and sawtimber. Pulpwood is timber suitable
for chipping and processing into pulp and paper
products. Sawtimber is suitable for lumber production.

Fig. 10.1. Diameter is

measured 4.5 feet
above ground.

Minimum dbh for pine pulpwood

is 4.6 inches. Trees with smaller
dbh are usually considered too
small for pulpwood. Minimum
dbh for pine sawtimber is 9.6
inches. See Figure 10.2.

Figure 10.2. .Minimum DBH for product types.

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Diameter is measured with a variety of

instruments. The most frequently used tool is
the logger’s tape, which is calibrated to
determine diameter by measuring girth (Figures
10.1 and 10.3). Diameters may also be
measured using a tree scale or Biltmore stick
(Appendix A explains how to make your own
Biltmore stick). Diameters are usually tallied to
the nearest inch. See Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.3 Logger’s Tape

Figure 10.4. The Biltmore stick is a simple tool for reading tree diameters.

How to use measure diameter using the Biltmore stick:

1. Holding the Biltmore Stick against the tree, stand 25 inches from the
tree. Almost all Biltmore sticks are 25 inches in length which will help
you determine how far away to stand. If you have a homemade
Biltmore stick, stand the distance away from the tree for which you
made calculations. For example, if the markings on your stick are
taken from the calculations for a 21-inch stick; stand 21 inches from
the tree.
2. Hold the Biltmore stick at DBH.
3. Using only one eye, line the left end of the Biltmore Stick with the left
edge of the tree.
4. Line the right edge of the tree with the corresponding number on the
Biltmore Stick. This is your first diameter measurement.
5. Move perpendicular to your first measurement and take a second
diameter reading. (A second measurement is necessary since trees are
not perfectly round!)
6. Take the average of your two measurements and voila’; you have your
diameter.

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Height

Foresters use tree heights to determine

growth, site productivity, tree and stand
volumes, and tree vigor. A distinction is
made here between total tree height and
merchantable height. Merchantable
height is the upper limit of usable wood for
a given product on a tree stem. See Figure
10.5.

To determine the volume of a tree, we

must first know how many logs or sticks
are in the tree.
 A log is a unit of measurement
equalling 16 feet. Merchantable
height for sawtimber is measured in
logs and is measured from the stump Figure 10.5. Merchantable height
of the tree to an 8-inch diameter top. is dependent on the desired forest
product and tree taper.
 For pulpwood, we measure the
number of 5-1/4 foot sticks from the base of the tree to a 4-inch
diameter top. **NOTE: There are roughly 3 sticks per log

The insturment used to measure logs

and sticks is the Merritt Hypsometer,
which can be found on one side of the
Biltmore Stick. Here’s how you use the
Merritt Hypsometer:

1. Standing one chain away from the

tree, hold the stick upright 25 inches
away from your eye with the Merritt
Hypsometer side of the stick facing
you. **Note; if you made a 21-inch
Biltmore Stick, hold the Biltmore
Stick 21 inches away from your eye.
2. With the butt of the stick aligned
with the base of the tree, count the
number of 16-foot logs by matching the Figure 10.6. The Merritt hypsometer
graduations on the stick to the trunk of on a Biltmore stick can be used to
the tree until you reach an 8-inch top measure merchantable height of pine
sawtimber, as well as pulpwood.
or the first major defect in the tree. A
defect may be a large branch, a bend in

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the trunk, or a hollow cavity that would cause that part of the tree to be
unusable at the sawmill. Measure to the nearest half-log (for example:
1-1/2 or 3-1/2 logs is OK).
3. For pulpwood, measure to a 4-inch top, defects are less critical because
the tree will be ground up into chips, not sawn into lumber. Don’t forget
to convert merchantable height into 5-1/4 foot sticks!

Volume

With diameter and merchantable height measurements in hand, the forester

is able to determine timber volumes by referring to tree volume tables.
Volume tables vary by product, species, geographic location, date, and user
preference. The Florida Division of Forestry’s county foresters use the Hawes
pulpwood volume tables for pine pulpwood and the Mesavage and Girard
Scribner 78 Form Class volume tables for pine sawtimber. Pulpwood volume
tables give tree volumes in terms of cubic feet of solid wood.

Pulpwood is bought and sold on the basis of a cord. A cord of wood is a

stack of wood that measures 4 feet high, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet long and
contains 128 cubic feet. However, the 128-cubic foot stack also includes air
space and bark, so the conversion factor of 90 cubic feet of solid wood per
cord is used for standing timber.

Sawtimber volume tables yield tree volumes in board feet. A board foot is a
piece of lumber that is 12 inches wide, 12 inches long, and 1 inch thick.
Sawtimber tables take saw kerf into account. Kerf is the amount of wood
removed as sawdust in the sawing operation. Generally, 1 cubic foot of wood
will yield approximately 6 board feet of lumber after removal of slabs, bark,
and sawdust. Sawtimber is sold on the basis of 1,000 board feet (MBF).
MBF is Millen Board Feet, not million. Millen is Greek for one thousand.

Listed below are volume tables and sample problems for both pulpwood and
sawtimber. You must not memorize volume tables, but you must know how
to work these tables for the contest.

Table 10.1 Pulpwood Volume Table. Volume is measured in cubic feet.

Number of 5-1/4 foot sticks
DBH 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5" 2.0 2.5 - - - - -
6" 2.8 3.6 4.2 4.9 - - -
7" 3.7 4.7 5.6 6.5 7.4 - -
8" 4.8 6.0 7.2 8.5 9.5 10.8 -
9" 5.9 7.4 8.9 10.4 11.9 13.4 14.9
10” 7.1 8.9 10.6 12.5 14.3 16.1 17.8
11” 8.5 10.6 12.7 14.8 16.9 19.0 21.2

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Table 10.2 Sawtimber Volume Table. Volume is measured in Board Feet.

Number of Usable 16-foot logs
DBH 1 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 3-1/2 4
10" 28 36 44 48 52 - -
11" 38 49 60 67 74 - -
12" 47 61 75 85 95 100 106
13" 58 76 94 107 120 128 136
14" 69 92 114 130 146 156 166
15" 82 109 136 157 178 192 206
16" 95 127 159 185 211 229 247
17" 109 146 184 215 246 268 289
18" 123 166 209 244 280 306 331
19" 140 190 240 281 322 352 382
20" 157 214 270 317 364 398 432
21" 176 240 304 358 411 450 490
22" 194 266 338 398 458 504 549
23" 214 294 374 441 508 558 607
24" 234 322 409 484 558 611 665

To compute pulp or wood volume, simply measure the tree’s DBH, find it on
the table, then line it up with its corresponding height.

Example #1. A tree has a 5.7" DBH with 39' of merchantable height. What
is this tree’s volume? Answer: 6-in. DBH, 7 sticks; 4.9 cubic feet

Example #2. A tree has an 8.9" DBH with a merchantable height of 51'.
What is this tree’s volume? Answer: 9-in. DBH, 9 sticks; 13.4 cubic feet

Example #3 A tree has a 12.1" DBH with 33' of merchantable height. What
is this tree’s volume? Answer: 12-in. DBH, 2 logs; 75 board feet

Example #4. A tree has an 22.6" DBH with a merchantable height of 55'.
What is this tree’s volume? Answer: 23-in. DBH, 3 logs; 508 board feet

Example #5. How many cords are found within a load of 5490 cubic feet of
pulpwood? Answer: 5690 cu.ft. / 1 cord per 90 cu.ft. = 61 cords

Example #6. How many MBF are found in a load of sawtimber containing
895,430 BF? Answer: 895 MBF

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Growth Measurements

Tree growth is often measured to predict future forest characteristics and to

determine effects of certain forestry management practices on growth rates.
Growth can be measured in any of a number of ways, one of which is
determining height growth. Total tree height is measured prior to the growth
season and is measured again after the growing season. A drawback to this
method is the time period required to complete the growing season.

An easier and quicker method of

determining growth is to measure
diameter growth using an increment
borer, which extracts a small core of
wood from the tree at dbh. The forester
can then count the annual rings in the
core to determine growth and also the age
of the tree. The increment borer enables
the forester to measure growth and
predict future volumes of the forest
without cutting the tree down to count the Fig. 10.7 Increment borer (blue handle
rings. with hollow, threaded bit).

Fig. 10.8 The forester inserts

the increment borer by
turning the threaded tip into
the tree.

Fig. 10.9 The core extractor is

inserted into the hollow increment
borer.

Fig. 10.10 The core is removed. Growth rings can be counted and observed for growth patterns.

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Figure 10.11. The increment core

to the left shows 169 annual
rings. The center of the tree was
missed, not showing
approximately 4-5 rings. The core
was taken at 4.5 feet from the
ground, so an additional 5 years
should be added. Total age is
about 179 years.

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MAPS

Maps are used in forestry to locate land boundaries, determine timber types,
calculate areas, locate wildfires, and help keep a person unfamiliar with an
area from getting lost.

Two of the more common maps used in Florida forestry are the U.S.
Geological Survey topographic (“topo”) quadrangle maps and the Florida
Department of Transportation county highway maps. Topo maps are highly
detailed, showing locations of structures, trails, and depressions as well as
ground elevations and land contours. The county highway maps are useful
for establishing property boundaries and land locations.

Legal Descriptions

Distances between two

points can be determined
through the proper use of
the map scale. For
purposes of standardizing
property lines throughout
the state, Florida is
divided into blocks, called
townships, measuring 6
miles by 6 miles (Fig.
10.12). The sides of the
townships running east
and west are called
township lines. Those
running north and south
are called range lines.
The numbering system for
the whole state begins
from a concrete
monument called the
Figure 10.12 Florida is divided into townships. Range
Prime Meridian marker lines run N-S; Township lines run E-W.
near the state Capitol in
Tallahassee. The numbers
grow larger as distance from the Prime Meridian marker increases. Each
township line also is designated either north or south and each range
number as east or west, depending upon the direction from the Prime
Meridian marker.

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 Forest Measurements & Tools

Each township is divided into 36

sections, each of which is 1 mile
square (640 acres). Sections are
numbered from east to west, top
to bottom. Legal descriptions
indicate section first, then
township, then range. This is
called the “S-T-R” of the
property. For example Section 1,
Township 10 S, Range 10 E.

Figure 10.13. There are 36 sections in each

Township.

Sections can be further divided

into quarters and again into
quarters (Figure 10.14). During
the Indian River Lagoon
Envirothon, you may be asked to
identify the S-T-R for a location on
a map.

Figure 10.14. One standard section is 640

acres and is one mile square.

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Land Area Calculations

It is important to know the size of the parcel when making land

management decisions. Knowing the parcel size will determine the number
of trees that will be needed for planting, the number of people required for a
prescribed burn, or the cost of site preparation.

There 43,560 square feet in an acre. By measuring the dimensions of a

parcel of land, either on foot, with a map or with an aerial photo, the
acreage can be calculated utilizing geometry.

Example #1: Calculate the acres in Figure 10.15 2000 ft.

2000 ft. x 2000 ft. = 4,000,000 sq. ft.

2000 ft.
4,000,000 sq. ft. / (43,560 sq. ft./1 acre) =

91.8 acres
Figure 10.15

Example #2: Calculate the acres in Figure 10.16

2000 ft.

Area of the square: 2000 ft. x 2000 ft. =

2000 ft.

4,000,000 sq. ft.

Area of the triangle: (1000 ft. x 2000 ft.)/2 = 3000 ft.

1,000,000 sq. ft.
Figure 10.16

(4,000,000 sq. ft. + 1,000,000 sq. ft.)/(43,560 sq. ft./1 ac.) =

114.8 acres

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SITE INDEX (S.I.)

Site index indicates the

productive capacity of an
area of forestland for a
specific tree species.
There are many ways to
determine this productive
capacity, but the most
common is to measure the
relationship between tree
height and tree age.

To determine the site

index, the heights of
several dominant and co-
dominant trees are
measured. The age of
these trees is found by
taking a core sample and
Figure 10.17. Example of site index curves for loblolly
counting the growth rings. pine in Virginia, South Carolina, & North Carolina.

The average age (in

years) is located on the x-axis
and the average height (in feet) Fig. 10.18. S.I. curves
is located on the y-axis. Where for longleaf pine
these lines intersect on the site plantations on old
curve is the site index. Site index fileds.
curves showing average height of
various ages have been prepared
for different species, by region.

Example of how to use a site

index curve:

What is the S.I. for longleaf pine

whose height is 65 feet and age
is 23 years? Answer 69.

What is the S.I. for longleaf pine

whose height is 40 feet and age
is 20 years? Answer 45-46.

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WEDGE PRISM

Once you’ve learned how to take measurements on individual trees, we will

now look at the characteristics of the forest community. One important
measurement is determining the basal area , or level of tree stocking on a
particular site. Basal area is the measurement of the cross-sectional area of
a given tree stem (or trunk) expressed in square feet at DBH. The basal
area of a forest stand is the sum of the basal areas of individual trees, and is
expressed in square feet per acre. The basal area of all trees in an area
describes how much area is occupied by those trees.

Foresters use simple yet

innovative instrument to
determine the basal area
on a specific site of a
sample point. The wedge
prism is a small piece of Wedge Prism
glass that has been
ground to refract light
rays at a specific offset
angle, which creates an
“optical illusion” (Figure
10.19). Each tree that is
measured or tallied is
equal to 10 square feet of
basal area, so we are
using a wedge prism that Figure 10.19
has a basal area factor of
10 (BAF=10).

Foresters can determine the amount of basal area in a forest by measuring

the trees in parts of the forest called plots. When a forester measures these
plots, it is assumed that these small areas of the forest are representative of
the entire forest. When using the wedge prism, it is very important to
remember that the instrument must always be held directly above the “plot
center” for accuracy.

The optical illusion the wedge prism creates appears to “offset” a portion of
the tree’s stem or trunk when viewed, preferably at DBH. If the offset
portion appears to connect with the main stem of the tree, you tally that
tree as “in” or “countable.” If the offset portion appears completely
removed from the main stem of the tree, do not tally that tree because it is
considered “out” or “not countable.” For trees that appear to be borderline
or on the edge, simply count the first borderline tree then tally every other
borderline tree after that. See Figure 10.20.

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Figure 10.20 This is what trees will look like when viewed through a wedge prism.
Remember, view all trees at DBH. Tally the first borderline tree in your sample plot, then
tally every other borderline tree after that.

After determining the number of “in” or countable trees, as well as every

other “borderline” tree, multiply that number by 10 to determine your basal
area (because you are using a 10 BAF prism). For example, if you have 8
“in” trees, your basal area is 80, or you have 80 square feet of basal area
per acre. If you were using a wedge prism with a BAF of 5, your basal area
would be 40.

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