DYEING PREPARATORY PROCESSING

FOR

COTTON AND WOOL

Submitted To: - Submitted By :-

Mr. Krishnaraj G Anjali
M F tech-Ist sem
Apparel Production
Roll No. 05
 CONTENTS

Processing of Cotton
1) Introduction 4
2) Impurities in grey fabric 5
3) Standard Process Sequence 6
4) Grey Checking 7
5) Stitching 8
6) Shearing and Cropping 9
7) Singeing 10
8) Desizing 14
9) Scouring 19
10) Bleaching 24
11) Mercerization 29

Processing of Wool
1) Introduction 35
2) Cropping 36
3) Scouring 37
4) Crabbing 39
5) Carbonizing 40
6) Milling 41
7) Bleaching 42

Bibliography 44

2
PROCESSING
OF
COTTON

3
 INTRODUCTION

After the grey fabric comes out of the loom shed, for a layman it is a ready
cloth but it still contains heap of impurities, defect and need to be given
some physical and chemical treatment so as to make wearable. It is here that
the work of textile chemist begins.
This processing of grey fabric into a wearable cloth is mainly
chemical in nature and termed as “wet processing”.
The word wet is used because the processing involved in the
conversion of the grey fabric into the finished cloth is generally done with
wet treatment as in dry state it is troublesome. So the work of processor is a
vital and key piece in getting the cloth from the loom to market and finally
on the body.

A generalized component in the cotton fabric is: -

COMPONENT PROPORTION
Cellulose 80-85%
Waxes and fatty acid 0.4-1%
Proteins 0.8-1.8%
Pectins 0.3-1%
Mineral matter 1-1.8%
Moisture 6-8%
Others 1-4%
(Gums and lignous substance)

4
 IMPURITIES IN GREY FABRIC

There are three types of impurities present in the grey fabric. They are as
follows: -

1) Natural impurities: - The various types of natural impurities present in

grey fabric are: -
a) Waxes
b) Pectins
c) Pigments
d) Colloid substances
e) Color
These mask the absorbency of the fabric.

2) Added impurities: - The various added impurities are deliberately

added for improvement of certain properties during weaving
operations. Some are: -
a) Gums
b) Poly vinyl alcohol
c) Fatty compound

3) In process impurities: - These are produced in the grey

fabric due to the development of the cellulose material during
process. These are: -
a) Broken cotton seeds known as kitties (black
spots on the fabric)
b) Leafy material
c) Oil stains
d) Lubricants

5
 SEQUENCE PROCESS STANDARD

A generalized sequence that can be followed for processing is: -

Grey Checking
↓
Stitching
↓
Shearing and Cropping
↓
Singeing
↓
Desizing
↓
Scouring
↓
Bleaching
↓
Mercerization

The end use of the textile will determine whether all of

those stages are necessary. In some cases the stages may occur in a
different order or two stages may be combined into one. Above
sequence is only generalized one.

6
 GREY CHECKING

When a grey fabric enters a process house then the first process that is
carried out is grey checking and mend able defects are removed. The whole
process is carried out on a fabric inspection table.

Various parts of a fabric inspection table are: -

1) Beam stand: - Manually or automatic which holds the fabric beam on
it
2) Fabric beam: - It is roll of fabric from loom
3) Guide rollers: - They help in fabric movement and are negatively
driven by the surface contact of the fabric
4) Inclined plate: - This is the main part and is made of wood or metal
on the two ends and of glass in the middle, as illuminator works better
on the glass. It is adjustable and generally set at an angle of 45.
5) Rollers: -They grab the fabric coming and pull it and are positively
driven by the motor
6) Meter Reading device: - This device works for noting the fabric
length
7) Illuminator: - These are light sources either below or above the glass
plate
Whenever some defect is seen on the fabric then the flow of the fabric is
stopped by pressing down the handle at the lower end of the plate and after
mending the defect the machine is started by lifting the handle up.

The two main defects are mended at the fabric inspection table: -
1) Loose ends: - The grey fabric contains several loose ends along
the selvedge of the fabric which are removed by cutting them at
the inclined plate
2) Stains: - The grey fabric may have some stains on it, which can be
removed by using stain removers of two types.
The two types are: -
a) Water based: - In this water itself is used as solvent
b) Solvent based: - In this some solvents are used to emulsify
the stains out. They are efficient but the particular portion
of which the stain is removed becomes highly absorbent
which creates problem in dying as it gets darker than rest of
fabric

7
 STITCHING

After grey checking the next process in sequence is “stitching”. In order to

maintain the continuity of the process long length of the fabric is required
and the several length of the fabric of same type are stitched using stitching
machine.

Different types of stitching are done. These are: -

1) Loop stitch: - This is the most common type of stitching used for
ordinary fabrics. The machine is stationary and the fabric moves.
2) Flag stitch: - This is used for delicate fabrics; in this a small piece of
fabric is folded and put in between the two ends of the two fabrics. It
provides strength so that fabric withstands the processing tension.
3) Narrow stitch: - In this type the fabric is stationary and the stitching
machine moves. This is done for export quality fabrics as stitching is
absolutely straight and crease free.

SORT NUMBER: - The different length of either same or different

quality fabrics are stitched and are marked with a number for
identification by yellow marker on both ends of a length of the fabric
known as sort no.

LOT NUMBER: - The total length of fabric of same quality that is

processed in single day or shift is given lot no. in order to identify the
fabric and is written in yellow marker which is not removable in further
processing.

8
 SHEARING AND CROPPING

The fabric after grey checking and stitching still have certain defects
which are to be removed mechanically. There are certain loose fibers and
loose yarns over the fabrics. The maximum length of the loose yarns that
are removed here is about 8cm.
Shearing means cutting off and Cropping means cutting the
loose yarns as short as possible.

The process of shearing and cropping is done in a sequence. The fabric in

its full width is subjected to the curved blade roller cutter and before this the
fabric is passed over brush roller so that: -
a) Any small loose fibers which can be taken up are taken up by
the brush roller
b) The loose yarns are all raised up by the brushes

After passed through a pair of brush roller and a cutter the fabric is again
passed through another pair of the brush rollers and cutter. This helps in
shearing both sides of the fabrics.
A problem arises if the stitched part passes over the cutter with the same
speed, hence a seam detector is placed about 3-4m before the cutter.
When a seam is detected than cutter is being stopped and it move back so
that the stitch portion passes unsheared. More the no. of seams less is the
efficiency of the cutter.

Cropping efficiency (%)= A-B ×100

A

A is no. of yarns originally present.

B is no. of uncut yarns.

9
 SINGEING

After having done the shearing and cropping still very small fibers are
left out on the surface of the fabric. These are termed as Protruding
fibers. This process of removing these short fibers by means of heat or
burning is termed as SINGEING. Cotton and cellulosic fibers behave
ideally on singeing as they form light pale dusty ash on singeing as they
can be easily removed. In case of blend fabrics composed of cellulosic
and synthetic fibers, the pills are formed due to abrasion and singeing can
minimize this.
The protruding fibers if left in fabric may cause the following
problems: -
1) They may cause capillary action during dying and hence they will
look darker than the rest of the fabric
2) In case of roller printing when the blade remove the extra color than
these fibers may cause the slippage of the blade and hence uneven
printing
3) They give harsh feel to the finished fabric
4) They also cause problem in printing of fabric.

There are some operations that must be performed before

singeing. They are: -
1) The fabric should be completely dried before singeing by passing
over drying cylinders.
2) The anti mildew agents should be removed from the fabric otherwise
at high temperature gets converted into HCl and degrades the fabric.

Singeing is continuous process carried out on dry open width of the

fabric. Speed of 150-400 meters per minute is typical to avoid the
scorching of the fabric. The aim is to burn down the protruding fibers and
not the fibers locked inside the yarn, which are not protruding. The exact
running speed is largely determined by the amount of hairiness and
construction of yarn and fabric.

10
 There are mainly three types of singeing: -

1) PLATE SINGEING
This machine consists of a pair of curved copper plate on which the
fabric is passed in full width. The plates are heated from bottom by oil or
gas oven. When the fabric comes in contact with the red hot plates the
protruding parts of fibers burns off. The transverse motion of the fabric is
arranged so that the fabric remains in contact with the plate but at
different parts so that local cooling of the plate doesn’t take place.
The main drawback of this process is that protruding fibers
lying in the interstices are not singed. It also causes uneven singeing due to
uneven heating.

2) ROLLER SINGEING
In this machine roller or cylinder made up of copper or cast iron,
which are internally heated, are used. The fabric moves over the heated
cylinder in direction opposite to the direction of the cylinder.
Here effect of local cooling is less. But here also fibers in the interstices
are not singed and fabric also gets some lusture. Also due to the passage
of same width of the fabric for long time, groove is formed over that
region so when wider fabric is singed only selvedges get singed and
this creates problem of uneven dyeing.

3) GAS SINGEING MACHINE

Now a days most widely used singeing machine is gas-singeing
machine. Here the fabric is just passed over a burning flame this singe off
all the protruding fibers in the interstices. No unwanted lusture is
obtained and both sides are uniformly singed under control flame.

The advanced modern singeing machine is mostly preferred industrially

and uses following sequence:-
Feeding unit
It is concerned with giving the tight and continuous slackness supply of
the fabric to the machine. For this Guide rollers, Pneumatic rollers and
Tension device are used.
Guide rollers are circular rollers, which guide the fabric over its width.
Pneumatic rollers are used to keep the selvedge of the fabric slackness
and uncurled, for this a flat plate with rollers in between is used.

11
Tension devices are provided at the entry of the singeing unit and this
arrangement consist of a flat plate in between two rollers. The
arrangement can be inclined to increase the path length.

Brushing unit
This unit is used to clean up the loose fibers and yarns over the surface of
the fabric. For this there is simple arrangement with an adjustable roller
and a brush roller. Also the protruding fibers get raised up and singeing
becomes much more efficient.

Singeing unit
This unit is used to singe off the short protruding fibers from the fabric
surface. For getting the protruding fiber burn off a burner pair is used
with a direct flame. The fuel used is mostly LPG. The gap between the
flame and the fabric and the angle of flame depends on the fabric and the
extent of the singeing required. During the process the fabric gets a high
temperature and to avoid the chances of catching fire there is cooling unit
and exhaust unit. In cooling unit the fabric is passed over metal roller in
which flows cold water and bring temperature down whereas the exhaust
fans take off the exhaust hot air out of department.

Quenching unit
After singeing the fabric is exposed to the “live steam arrangement”
which just aims at putting off any fire if present on the fabric purpose. In
this arrangement a long cylindrical pipe with a very small slit is used.
The fabric is at lower temperature than the steam hence when
steam comes in contact with the fabric it condenses and brings down its
temperature.

Desizing unit
After quenching we go for the removal of the size known as desizing.
The process is carried out in desizing bath, which can be open or closed.
The temperature of bath is about 60 ºC

Nipping and Batching

Nipping is the process of squeezing away the extra liquid from the fabric,
for this the fabric is passed between the two rollers, which are arranged
such that the squeezed liquid goes back to the desized bath.

12
 Batching is done after nipping, as fabric is to be stored for 6-8 hours for
proper desizing to take place. For this the fabric is wound over roller
made of rubber or ebonite.

fig 1. Modern Gas Singeing Machine

Safety Precautions during singeing

1) It should be separate from other units
2) It should have fire proof doors which may be closed in case of fire to
prevent the spreading
3) Burners should be put off carefully. Now a days automatically burner
goes off if the machine stops
4) Fire extinguisher should be there at hand

As there is always fear of fire in singeing unit so above

precautions should be taken carefully and seriously.

DESIZING

13
Now once the fabric is singed off we have to remove the size that is
deliberately added on the yarns during the pre weaving processes so as to
increase the strength of yarn, as yarn has to under go great stress and
strain on the loom.
Size is nothing but a mixture of starch, PVA, softeners, gums etc.
This process of desizing is necessary otherwise the fabric will give
varying and uneven results in the dying printing etc.
Desizing is nothing but the removal of the starch by hydrolyzing it into
small water-soluble compounds and to get the fabric starch free.

Methods Of Desizing
It can be done in no. of ways. Some of the methods are: -

Rot Steeping
This is an outdated method of desizing. The fabric to be desized is kept
impregnated in warm water and then squeezed and stored in large pits for
about 24 hours. The fabric is given hot wash followed by cold wash.
During storage there is development of microorganism, which
secretes some starch hydrolyzing substances.
The advantage of this process is that it is very safe as no chemical is used
but the demerit includes the amount of large time and space for pits
required.

Acid Desizing
In this process the low concentrated mineral acids are used to hydrolyze
the starch, generally concentration of 0.5% is used.
The fabric is padded in the acid solution and then squeezed and stored
for about 60 minutes. After this the fabric is given a thorough hot wash
followed by the cold wash.
The main merit is that the process is very fast, efficient and economical.
But there is possibility of tendering of the fabric if acidity of solution is
high, also if any part of the fabric is exposed to the air during the process
then local drying of that area take place and increases the concentration
of acid at that part band degrade that part.

Alkali Desizing

14
Starch can also be hydrolyzed using 2-3% solution of an alkali like
NaOH. The fabric is padded in the alkali solution then squeezed and
stored for about 4-6 hours. It is then given a thorough hot wash followed
by cold wash. The main advantage is that some scouring action also
takes place during this process. But the process is expensive and there is
risk of degradation of the fabric due to local drying.

Enzymatic Desizing
It is one of the most commonly used methods in the industry as it is
absolutely safe process. The desize bath contains bacterial enzymes,
common salt, wetting agent and acetic acid.
The fabric is passed through this desize bath maintained at a specific
temperature and pH range, after this the fabric is squeezed and then
batched and stored for about 8 hours followed by hot and cold wash.
While carrying out this process temperature limit is to be
maintained, as enzymes are active within a narrow limit of temperature.
They work best at 60 ºC Thermal stabilizers are also used.
Enzymes need a slightly alkaline solution to work out their best;
hence range of 5.5-6.5 is needed. The pH is adjusted using acetic acid.
The wetting agent used should be compatible with the fabric enzymes
and other chemical used.
Enzymes are nothing but biocatalyst. They work for rapid
hydrolyzation of the starch into smaller compounds. They are also termed
as Amylase as they work for removing starch Amylose.
These are highly sensitive to catalyst and work within the narrow
range of temperature, ph and other chemicals. If conditions are not
adequate either they don’t activate or get deactivated.

Enzyme Temp. pH
Malt extract 50-60 ºC 6-7.5
(vegetable origin)
Pancreatic 50-60 ºC 6.5-7.5
(animal origin)
Bacterial 60-70 ºC 5.5-7.5
(vegetable origin)

The amylase is further of two types: -

15
 a) ά-Amylase
b) β-Amylase
In case of the Pancreatic and Bacterial enzyme there is 95-99%
of the ά-amylase but in case of malt extract the two types are in
ratio of 1:5 to 1:6 respectively.

Action Of Enzymes On The Starch: -

The work of the enzymes is to help in rapid hydrolysis of the starch.
Starch itself is a combination of two types of polysaccharides namely
Amylose and Amylopectin.

fig.2 Structure of amylose

fig 3. Structure of amylopectin

Amylose is a straight chain polymer and Amylopectin is branched polymer.

Both of the Amylose and Amylopectin are water insoluble, hence their
conversion into water soluble compound is required in order to remove
them.
In case of Amylose the degree of polymerization is 100-120 and in case
of Amylopectin it is 500-1000.
The hydrolysis of the starch takes place in a very progressive way.

16
 Starch (Insoluble)
↓
Dextrins (Insoluble)
↓
Dextrins (Soluble)
↓
Maltose (Soluble)
↓
ά-Glucose (Soluble)

Commercially we don’t go up to last step shown but just restrict ourselves to

Dextrin (Soluble) just to avoid chemicals used and time as well.
Amylose is attacked by the ά-amylase in a very random way.
Similarly it attacks the amylopectin. The β-amylase gets attached to one of
the end of the broken simple chain and keep on removing the maltose units
that are formed. ά-amylase is largely preferred for use than the other.

Oxidative Desizing
In this process the desizing is carried out by the oxidation of the oxidizing
agents like: -
1) Sodium Hypo chlorite
2) Hydrogen Peroxide
3) Sodium Bromite
The oxidizing agents under optimum chemical and
temperature conditions liberate nascent oxygen, which help in the
oxidation of the starch into water-soluble form.

1) Using Sodium Hypo chlorite

This is also known as Grey Chemicking because NaOCl is also
used as bleaching agent.
For this process the fabric is padded in a solution of NaOCl
(2gpl) and stored for 1 to2 hour followed by hot and cold wash. The
chemical concentration, temperature and pH are to be maintained.

2) Using Hydrogen Peroxide

17
 This chemical is very strong oxidizing as well as a bleaching
agent. Hence it can carry out both the process in one go.
The Hydrogen Peroxide (1%) acts as an oxidative desizing agent,
the sodium silicate (1%) acts as a stabilizer and soda ash (0.5%) is just
used to adjust the ph of the solution.
For the process the fabric is padded in solution containing the
above chemicals in right proportion and then kept in closed vessel after
batching where it is steamed at 80-85 ºC. At this temperature the
chemicals are active and little scouring also take place.
This is not preferred as it is quite expensive.

3) Using Sodium Bromite

In this process solution of sodium bromite (0.1%-0. 3%) is made
and fabric is padded in it at 60 ºC for about 1 hour. After this the fabric
is scoured or given hot wash followed by cold wash.

The oxidative desizing combines the action of scouring and desizing

and help in increasing the basic whiteness of the fabric but is costly
and not suitable for light and delicate fabrics.

Tests For Desizing Efficiency

We can check how far our aim is fulfilled both quantitatively and
qualitatively.
a) Quantitative method
% Wt loss = wt of sized f/c – wt of desized f/c ×100
Wt of sized f/c
b) Qualitative method
For this method we take the desized fabric and put a drop of
iodine on it, and check the results.
1) If the fabric turns blue or violet it confirms the
presence of starch. Hence desizing has not been done
properly and redesizing is required.
2) If the spot becomes brownish it confirms that
no more starch is present on the fabric and hence sizing is
perfect and we can proceed to
further processes.

SCOURING

18
 After the fabric is desized it still contains certain fats and oil and other
impurities, which are mainly hydrophobic in nature and reduce the
absorbency of the fabric and cause problem in subsequent processes.
This process of removing off the hydrophobic impurities from
a desized fabric is known as scouring. Circulating a boiling mixture of alkali
through it at a high temperature carries this out.

A series of reaction takes place in the fabric. These are: -

1) NaOH converts all all the saponifiable oils into soluble soap and
soluble glycerine.
2) Proteins are all degraded into soluble amino acid
3) All types of mineral matters is dissolved
4) All dust dirt particles are removed by the detergents
5) Waxes are emulsified by the soluble soaps.

Chemicals Used For Scouring Process

1) Alkali like NaOH
2) Wetting agent like soluble soap
3) Sequestering agent which help in keeping metal ions away
4) pH stabilizer like soda ash
5) Reducing agent

The main actions, which take place during scouring, are

1) Saponification
2) Emulsification
3) Detergency

Saponification: -
This is a process of conversion of insoluble and water immiscible oil into
water-soluble product. The oil present in the size are all water insoluble.
When these are treated with an alkali say NaOH at high temperature the
outcome is not sufficient, this is because of the high surface tension of
water and avoids the wetting of the hydrophobic surface. For this
problem we uses wetting agent which have tendency to reduce the
surface tension of the water e.g. soap
In the presence of this the higher fatty acid are converted into fatty acid
and glycerine, glycerine is water soluble and fatty acid formed is further
reacted with alkali giving the soluble salt of alkali.

19
Emulsification: -
When we saponify the fabric we get the oils removed but mineral oils are
still present and are removed by this method.
Emulsion is a stable mixture of two otherwise immiscible liquids. We use
an emulsifying agent, which keeps the emulsion formed for a longer
time. When the mineral oil or waxes are emulsified they can be easily
removed by washing.

Detergency: -
The dust and dirt particles are removed by using a good detergent. The
detergent keeps the dirt and dust particles in a stable suspension in water
and does not allow them to settle again.

The scouring can be done in following ways: -

1) Kier and J-Box when scouring is to be done in rope form
2) Open width pad roll system when open width treatment is required

A) Kier is the most often used machine for the scouring process in the
industry. They are horizontal and vertical cylindrical vessel in which the
fabric is piled up in the rope form and then hot alkaline scouring liquor is
circulated through the fabric. They are generally made up of iron and are
available in various capacities; generally 2-ton kier is used.
The kier can be horizontal or vertical and open or pressure kier.
The process of arrangement of the fabric in a particular way is known as
piling. It can be done automatically with the help of vertical trunk that
keep moving backward and forward to ensure even piling. Along with
this scouring liquid is also passed so that rapid impregnation fabric with
chemicals and water takes of place. This is termed as mechanical piling.
Another is done manually in which a worker is required but this is
not uniform and also scouring liquor cannot be poured at this time. Hence
it can also lead to seepage of scouring liquor and improper impregnation
and hence improper scouring.
The process of getting the fabric piled up, the liquor
circulating inside the kier is known as kiering. It consists of following
steps. First the fabric is being piled up and then the scouring recipe is
prepared. After pouring the recipe with the help of the ring spray as it
help in evenly spraying of the liquor, heating and circulation of the liquor
is done. Removal of air is being done, as air must be avoided.
It is done to prevent the tendering of the fabric. This is done with the help
of the air vent valve. Set the pressure to optimum level.

20
 The overloading of the fabric is being avoided as it causes
improper scouring of the fabric.
The temperature should be kept 130˚C and pressure should be
1.8kg/cm for about 8-10 hours. The M.L.R should be about 1:4 to 1:5.
A safety valve is provided over the lid of the pressure kier
to allow the excess pressure to go off in the form of the steam if the
pressure exceeds the desired value. The process of unloading the fabric is
known as dekiering. It is done by pressure reduction with the help of
safety air vent valve. Draining of the excess liquor and then wash is given
to the fabric at least two times and finally unload the fabric.

The Open Kier differs from a pressure kier in not having a lid for closing
of kier that is there is no pressure in an open kier. The rest of conditions
are same except the temperature is 80-90˚C

B) J-Box is another important machinery for scouring and is termed as

this because the shape of machine resembles to the letter J. The fabric is
treated with the alkali solution before it enters the J-Box. The fabric is
passed in the rope form and evenly piled up and then treated with steam
for about 60-90 minutes. The scouring time being less the concentration
of the alkali solution is as high as 4-5%. The process of the J-Box
scouring can be made continuous by taking out the scoured fabric from
one end and at the same time feeding up of the unscoured fabric from the
other end.
The fabric after being squeezed off from the rollers passes through
pre heater where the cold fabric is being conditioned to the temperature
of the machine as this help in good scouring. In the saturator the fabric is
impregnated in the scouring solution. The fabric is piled up evenly in the
U shape structure of the J-Box and exposed to stem for about 60-90
minutes at about 95-97˚C. The steam being condensed is drained off.

21
C) Open width or pad roll process is another method but here the fabric
passes in full width and hence prevents the rope markings on the fabric.
The time required for the processing is 90-150 minutes and the
temperature is 97-99ºC but the concentration of the alkali is 5% on the
wt of the fabric.
The fabric in its full width is passed through a trough, which
has a large number of the bottom and top rollers and is full of scouring
solution, after squeezing the fabric is moved to the reaction chamber. The
reaction chamber has two types of steam pipes. One is used for direct
heating other is used for indirect heating. The direct heating is used for
rise of temperature and indirect heating is used for maintaining the
temperature.

22
 BLEACHING

The process of desizing and scouring make the fabric more absorbent. But it
still has the pale appearance due to the presence of the natural color material
like pigments etc. These pigments cannot be removed. The only way to
tackle these pigments is to decolorize those using suitable oxidizing agents.
This process is known as Bleaching. The process of bleaching gives a
sparkling whiteness to the fabric and hence makes it suitable for further
processing like dyeing.

A good bleaching agent should have following properties: -

1) It should ensure a pure and permanent whiteness to the
fabric.
2) It should give level dyeing properties.
3) It should not cause any tendering of the fabric, which
cause the loss in tensile strength of the fabric.

Types Of Bleaching: -
Different methods and different chemicals are available to carry out
the process of bleaching. The various chemicals used are: -
1) By using dilute Sodium Hypo chlorite solution at room
temperature
2) By using Hydrogen Peroxide solution at 80-85ºC.
3) By using Sodium Chlorite solution at boil.
4) By using certain compounds like per acetic acid

A) Sodium Hypochlorite Bleaching: -

Sodium Hypo chlorite bleaching is done by using Sodium Hypo
chlorite as a bleaching agent. This process is also known as Chemicking
Sodium Hypo chlorite, NaOCl is a salt of Hypochlorous acid
HOCl. NaOCl is a highly unstable compound at normal conditions of
temperature and pH. It does not exist in the solid form and is present in
aqueous solution. It have tendency to undergo self-decomposition.
3NaOCl → 2NaCl + NaClO3
At the same time one other reaction also proceeds that is
2NaOCl→2NaCl +O2
This oxygen helps in the oxidation, which helps in the bleaching
action.

23
 Hence in order to keep the NaOCl solution in a stable form we
require the following condition: -
1) Temperature should be 0-5ºC
2) Concentration should be 2N
3) Store in a cool and dark place.

The pH of the solution highly influences the action of

this bleaching agent. Take small amount of the NaOCl solution and
titrate it against 1N HCl solution and observe the change in the pH.
It is observed that at 8.4 pH even by the small addition of
HCl there is sudden drop in the pH. Again the pH becomes regularly
moving until it gets a similar change at pH 4.6. The two points of
Inflexion are due to following reason: -
At pH 8.4 the NaOH present gets completely neutralized by the HCl
and the HOCl is formed by the action of the NaOCl
NaOCl + HCl →HOCl +NaCl
Hence the absence of the alkali causes the drop in that pH. Between
8.4 to 4.6 the NaOCl gets titrated against HCl and gives HOCl
At pH 4.6 NaOCl gets exhausted and HOCl gives Cl2 on
reaction with HCl
Hence the absence of any alkali at pH 4.6 causes a steep
drop in the pH on the addition of even small amount of the HCl.
Now we can divide the whole NaOCl bleaching in three
zones:-
1) pH 12 to 8.4 (NaOH, NaOCl, NaCl)
2) pH 8.4 to 4.6 (NaOCl, NaCl, HOCl)
3) pH 4.6 to 1 (NaCl, HOCl, Cl2)

The NaOCl is having a very strong bleaching action at pH 7,

which causes the tendering of the fabric. At pH below 4.6 the free
chlorine is liberated during bleaching action and may cause the
undesirable effects. At pH more than 8.4 there is not such problem
and hence generally the bleaching is carried out at 10-11 pH.

24
 Taking the bleached fabric and treating it with N/25 NaOCl solution
and the time in which the concentration of the NaOCl becomes half
the original that is known as time of half change can also determine
the effect of the pH on the action.
For the pH where NaOCl has strong oxidative action the time of half
change is less and vice a versa. This indicates that the action of the
Sodium Hypo chlorite is very strong between pH 8.4 to 4.6 and is
strongest at pH 7.

Conditions For Hypo chlorite Bleaching

a) Concentration of NaOCl: -
The concentration used should be just enough to give 2-3 gm/l of
the available chlorine
b) Temperature: -
The bleaching should be carried out at Room Temperature. The
NaOCl bleaching done at elevated temperature causes a rapid
oxidation, which may even, causes tendering of the fabric itself.
c) pH: -
The pH maintained is generally between 10-11.

Preparation Of NaOCl
Commercially the NaOCl is prepared by passing free chlorine
gas through a beaker containing NaOH solution. The reaction between
the two gives NaOCl.
2NaOH +Cl2 →NaCl +NaOCl +H2O
This reaction is highly exothermic in nature and in order to
prevent any accident the temperature of the set up should be
maintained as low as 5-10ºC
Main Features Of NaOCl Bleaching: -
1) It gives after yellowing that is it gives temporary whiteness
2) It is suitable for cellulosic fibers but cannot be used for wool, silk
etc.
3) It requires more water for washing
4) It is relatively unsafe
5) It cannot be used for bleaching the colored material as it may even
bleach the color
6) It doesn’t have any scouring action
7) It is relatively cheap process

B) Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching: -

25
The bleaching carried out by NaOCl is known as Half Bleach. Now
using a further strong oxidizing agent that is H2O2 can also carry out
the process of bleaching. This bleaching is known as Full Bleach. The
use of H2O2 is preferred because it gives permanent and more
whiteness to the material.
The reaction involved in the preparation of the H2O2 is: -
BaO2 + 2HCl →BaCl2 +H2O2
Properties of H2O2: -
1) It is colorless and syrupy liquid
2) It is absolutely stable under acidic conditions
3) It is sensitive to sunlight
4) It decomposes if allowed to react with heavy metals
5) It i8s highly unstable under alkali condition

The decomposition of the H2O2 is given by the following reaction: –

2H2O2→2H2O + O2
Normally the concentration of the Hydrogen Peroxide is expressed in
volume. It is the volume of oxygen in ml liberated by 1 ml of the H2O2
at NTP on complete decomposition.

Conditions for Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching: -

1) pH
Since it is known that this chemical is stable under acidic
conditions, hence we need alkaline pH for its decomposition. With
increase in the pH the action of this becomes more prominent.
2) Temperature
The temperature is leading factor in this bleaching. The optimum
temperature used is 80-85ºC. If the temperature is less than the
optimum than the action of the H2O2 is very less known as Under
Bleaching. If the temperature is above the mentioned one than the
action of H2O2 becomes very strong known as Over Bleaching.
So the temperature should be controlled efficiently. For this
purpose we use Stabilizer, which works for the two purposes: -
1) It helps in the controlled oxidation of the Hydrogen Peroxide
2) It keeps the metal ions away thereby hindering the rapid
decomposition of H2O2

The commonly used stabilizer is Sodium Silicate. Now its use is

avoided, as its removal from the fabric after the process is difficult.
Dyeing carried out on a fabric containing the traces of this chemical

26
 shows the light spots on the dyed fabric. So now a day Non Silicate
stabilizer is used such as Stabilizer NS.
The bleaching is carried out mainly in the following types of the
machines: -
1) Kiers
2) J-Box
3) Open width Pad Roll system

Bleaching Recipe: -
H2O2 0.5-0.8% owf
Sodium Silicate 0.5-1% owf
Na2CO3 0.5-1% owf
Sequestering agent 0.03-0.05% owf
pH 9.5-10.5
Temperature 80-85ºC

Action of H2O2: -
When we bleach a fabric in presence of some alkali like NaOH
than a Per hydroxyl ion is released. It is this Per Hydroxyl ion that acts as an
oxidizing agent.
Main Features of Peroxide Bleach: -
1) It give permanent whiteness and gives scouring action
2) It is universal bleaching agent that is can be used for all kinds of
fabric
3) It requires less water for washing
4) It is a safer and costlier process
5) It can be used for colored material as doesn’t bleach the color.

C) Sodium Chlorite Bleaching

Besides the above two methods of the bleaching we can also use
Sodium Chlorite as bleaching agent. It is stable under alkaline and neutral

27
condition but under acidic condition it rapidly decomposes giving out
Chlorine dioxide, which acts as a good oxidizing agent
This type of bleaching is not used commonly because
NaClO2 have a corrosive action on the equipment and the ClO2 liberated
have a very obnoxious smell.

Treatment Conditions
Temperature 95-100ºC
Time 1-2 hours
pH 4-5

SOURING
After bleaching is over we usually go for an intermediate process
before dyeing this is known as Souring.
After bleaching the fabric contains certain water insoluble salts,
which are not removed by washing. These if not removed gives a
harsh feel to the fabric and also gives an uneven dyeing. Hence we go
for a souring in which the bleached fabric us treated with a small
amount of very dilute acid likes HCl. This treatment removes the
water insoluble salts; the chlorine present and even removes the alkali
traces. No washing is done after scouring.

MERCERIZING

28
 Mercerization is an optional process in the sequence of the wet
processing. Also it is applicable to some specific fibers like cotton etc.
It can be done any time prior to dyeing but mostly it is done after
bleaching.
John Mercer developed the process of mercerization. It
involves the treatment of the fabric with the highly concentrated
alkaline solution. Generally the material is treated with 25% of NaOH
for relatively short time says 40-45 seconds. This is because the
longer duration may even cause the degradation of the fabric. After
the treatment the fabric is thoroughly washed to remove the traces of
the alkali.
Caustization is the process of treating the cotton with 17% of
NaOH solution. This process increases the dye ability of the fabric but
doesn’t add to its lusture.

Stages of the Mercerization: -

1) Grey stage
Here the mercerization is not optimum as grey fabric lacks in
proper absorbency. So some wetting agent is added but they are also
not stable under mercerization conditions. Also the recovery of the
caustic is not easy as grey fabric is full of impurities and they go into
the NaOH solution. But at the same time some desizing and scouring
may also takes place.
2) Desized stage
This stage of mercerization also have same problem as above
but here the recovery of caustic is easier as level of impurities is less
and the residual alkali can directly be used for scouring.
3) Scouring / Bleaching stage
This stage gives very good lusture property and mercerization
action as the degree of absorbency is high and is generally preferred.

The cotton fabric is generally mercerized in the under given forms: -

1) Yarn form
2) Fabric form

Effects of Mercerization
1) Swelling

29
 During this process there occurs the lateral swelling of the
fiber. This occurs due to preferential uptake of the NaOH. The cross-
section of the fiber before mercerize action is elliptical and after the
process becomes relatively circular.
2) Lusture
Since the fiber cross-section becomes circular, the overall
surface becomes more even and hence gives better reflection of light
and so the lusture increases.
3) Tensile Strength
The lumen or the hollow part of the fiber cross-section comes
close to such extent that sometimes the lumen may even disappear due
to the mercerization process. This is due to thickening of the fiber
lumen and hence the tensile strength increases.

fig 4. Change in crossection of cotton

Change in the Cellulose Structure: -

By the X ray studies it was found that the dimension of the unit
cell structure are altered in the mercerization process. The nature of
cellulose structure is rhombus. So during the mercerization there is
slight movement in the crystal lattice due to change in the angle. This
movement exposes the –OH groups of the cellulose to the NaOH and
hence the reactivity of the material increases and the Cellulose I is
converted into Cellulose II. The complete conversion of the Cellulose
I to Cellulose II is possible only under slack condition, when done
under tension only partial conversion takes place.

30
 Tests for Efficiency of Mercerization
1) Barium activity Number
2) Lusture
3) Axial ratio
4) Deconvolution count

Barium Activity Number depends upon the amount of Barium

Hydroxide absorbed by the mercerized fabric. The absorption of the
mercerized fabric is more than the unmercerized one.
Making the light incident on the mercerized sample at the 45º
and 90º and then the amount of the light reflected is then checked tests
Lusture. The angle of reflection will be 45º if the surface is smooth
and the sample is properly mercerized.

Axial Ratio decreases when the cotton fabric is mercerized and is

checked by the microscope. This is so because the cotton fiber has
elliptical cross section and it becomes relatively circular on
mercerization.

Deconvolution Count is the counting of the fibers, which don’t

have any convolution. Convolution is the fold and twist, which are
present in the cotton fiber. The number of the convolution free fibers
per 100 fibers is termed as deconvolution count.

fig 5.
Graph showing the increase in volume of cotton fiber

Ways of Mercerization

31
1) Treating the material with NaOH and then stretching but this
process doesn’t gives lusture and require more force for stretching
2) Stretching the material during treatment with NaOH and this
requires less force in stretching and gives better lusture.

Woven Fabric Mercerization

Mostly two methods are followed in the woven fabric
mercerization. These are: -
1) The Chain Mercerization
2) The Chainless Mercerization

The Chain Mercerization

The fabric is dipped twice and squeezed in the padding mangle
and then passed through air passage over the cylinder, which ensures
the good absorption of the caustic. The fabric is maintained under
tension by the series of clips and then the fabric passes under water
spray to wash the alkali out again. The fabric may shrink if width of
the selvedges were not gripped.

The Chainless Mercerization

In this the mangle is replaced with impregnation tanks
through which the cloth passes in contact with he bowed rollers and
these rollers are also used in the rinsing stage to maintain the tension.
The curvature of the rollers is such that they pull the fabric in the
direction of the selvedge but at the same time the cloth attempt to
shrink in width as a result of the swelling action of the alkali. These
outward and inward pull results in the tension in the fabric.

fig. 6
Diagram showing Chainless Mercerization
Knitted Fabric Mercerization

32
 Since the mercerization take place in tension and this can be
easily done in case of woven fabric but in the knitted ones it is very
difficult to apply the tension as it can distort the fabric structure in
serious and irrecoverable way. So the process would be carried out
with the fabric in tubular form on machinery specially designed for
the purpose and Sodium Hydroxide is used as above.

Yarn Mercerization
Using the Hank mercerization and Cone-to-Cone mercerization
can do it.
In the Hank mercerization hanks are loaded on to the pairs of
the tension rollers and then the rollers move in the vertical direction to
apply tension on the hanks and at the same time the spray release the
NaOH on the yarn and the squeeze rollers start squeezing the yarn and
assist the absorption of the alkali. The tension rollers also for the even
impregnation of the alkali and in washing the wash water and the acid.
The sprayer than sprays the hot water and then he cold water in order
to remove the caustic and finally as tension is released then he acid is
sprayed to neutralize the fabric.
In the Continuous Yarn Mercerization the continuous package
is processed. Hank mercerization is batch operation and is the
continuous one. The stretch wheel is a device which causes the yarn to
be held back slightly and hence the take up package is therefore
winding on the yarn somewhat faster than it is leaving the let off
package. This creates the stretch that in turn provides the tension to
the fabric. This process is more uniform and hence more economical
also.

33
PROCESSING
OF
WOOL

INTRODUCTION

34
Wool is animal protein fiber mainly obtained from sheep. The wool obtained
from sheep is not pure and hence we go for purification. The pure wool is
about 50-60% of raw wool taken and this quantity differs from breed to
breed.
The impurities in raw wool vary from 30-75%. The impurities mean
Pectins, dirt, wax and mineral matter etc.

COMPOSITION OF WOOL

COMPONENT %AGE
Keratin 33
Dirt 26
Suint 28
Wax 12
Mineral matter 1

Among the impurities the two components that are removed

chemically are suint and wax.
Suint is the water-soluble impurity present in the wool. It is
formed due to the drying up of the sweat secreted by the sweat glands. Also
the photochemical and atmospheric action that wool undergoes also helps in
the production of the suint. The suint mainly contains the potassium salts of
the fatty acids like oleic acid, stearic acid. It also contains the organic acid
like acetic acid, lactic acid. Suint also contains amino acids. The inorganic
matter present in suint is generally 56% and acids are 34%.

Wool wax is the non-saponifiable impurity present in the wool and is often
called as wool fat. Wool wax is made up of the fatty acid and cholesterol.
For its removal the wool is treated with KOH solution for prolonged period
of time at high temperature and the wool wax dissociate into salts of fatty
acid and cholesterol. The alkaline conditions are maintained carefully during
this process so as to prevent the degradation of the wool.

Dirt is mainly deposited on the wool due to the greasy matter present on the
skin of the sheep. Along with the removal of the wax the dirt is also gets
removed.

CROPPING

35
Wool and wool rich blends are not normally singed to remove the
surface hair. The problem with protein fibers is that when they burn
they form a hard black residue, which is much difficult to remove
from the fabric surface than the pale dusty ash that is formed in case
of the cellulosic fibers. The alternate method for removing surface
hair is to take it off by some mechanical technique known as
cropping. The cropping machine is fitted with series of helical blades,
which rotate at very high speed. The fabric passes beneath these
blades and the hair is removed by the cutting action created between
the rotary blade and the stationary blade beneath the fabric.

Several sets of blade are used so that if hairs are not removed
in single pass than other ones remove them causing the efficient
cropping. The process is slow but at the same time can be controlled
easily. This process can be performed again in the finishing also.

SCOURING

36
 The scouring of wool is done in order to get rid of the wool wax
present on the wool as this may cause the trouble in the further processing.
The scouring of wool is different from cotton scouring in following way: -
1) In the cotton the waxy material is less than 0.5% but in the wool it is
about 30-70%
2) In the case of cotton high temperature and high alkaline condition are
there but in case of wool the strong alkali cannot be used as wool is
sensitive to alkali and mild alkali is used to avoid fabric damage.

The wool can be scoured in many ways that is either in loose fiber
form, yarn form or in fabric form. The different machines are used
depending upon the state in which we are scouring.

Harrow machine
This machine is used for the open fiber wool scouring.
There are rakes that reciprocate and allow wool to move. During this
movement the wool fiber gets opened up leading to the removal of dirt.
The trough is filled up with a mixture of alkali and soap. The soap causes
the detergency action on the wool. The heavy material gets settled at the
bottom. The wool is then squeezed to remove the excess liquor. There are
four bowls in sequence for efficient scouring. The concentration of the
soap and alkali in these bowls is different. There is counter flow process
that involves the movement of water from 1st bowl to 2nd and then to 3rd
and 4th.This can be achieved by having different bowls at different height.
This mechanism helps in saving water and in proper scouring. The
temperature involved in the open fiber scouring is 50 deg Celsius. This is
most important process as most of impurities get removed in this process.

Tape scouring machine

This machine is so called because it carries out the process of scouring by
the motion of two felts, which are in continuous motion. This machine is
used for the yarn scouring of the wool. This carry out the scouring at
relatively milder alkalinity. The hanks of the yarn are placed between the
two moving felts.

Fabric scouring machine

The wool can also be scoured in its fabric form by using this machine.
The machine consists of large trough containing the scouring solution in

37
which the fabric lies in the rope form. Above the trough there is pair of
squeezing rollers through which the fabric in rope form is passed with the
help of guide rollers. The fabric is in endless form by stitching the two
ends together to increase the efficiency. The scouring liquor is made up
of Soda Ash and soap solution in which the fabric remains dip for most
of the time and then is taken out by squeezing the excess liquor which
flow back to box

Fig 7.
Diagram of wool
fabric scouring machine

CRABBING

The main problem that rises due to the scouring of the wool is
that the woolen fabric becomes distorted and gave a crumble effect. To
avoid this we go for a pre scouring process called as Crabbing.

The crabbing is nothing but a setting process in which the

various possible distortion of the fabric is all eliminated. Wool during its
pre processes undergoes various types of strain which when fabric is
relaxed then these strain develops distortions in the fabric. Shrinkage also
takes place, to avoid all the above problems we go for crabbing.

38
 In this process the wool fabric in open width is passed
through hot water and is then batched within the hot water and kept for
10 minutes. This process sets the fabric in a particular shape and hence
avoids distortion. Small amount of the wetting agents may also be added
to the water to activate the process. The pH should be 7 but the efficiency
of the process increased at slightly alkaline conditions provided that it
should be done with utmost care as alkaline solution may degrade the
fabric. Crabbing action at acidic pH is not efficient. Moreover the alkali
crabbing also gives some scouring action and hence we generally go for
alkaline scouring at 9.2 pH.

The amount of liquor, temperature and pressure of squeezing should be

taken care of for efficient process. In order to get even treatment the
batched fabric is wounded back to initial roller.

CARBONISING

This is the subsidiary process followed along with the scouring

process. There are several types of the cellulosic impurities like vegetable
matter present in the wool. These if not removed may cause problem
during spinning, weaving and even during dyeing.
The process of the removal of the cellulosic impurities is
known as carbonizing. Treating the wool with strong mineral acid does
this removal, which hydrolyze and then solublize the impurities giving
the pure wool.

39
 There is dry and wet carbonizing. In the dry carbonizing the material
is exposed to the fumes of HCl acid in a closed chamber at a temp of 90-
94 deg. Celsius.
Generally we go for wet carbonizing in case of wool fiber form. We
take 8% of the mineral acid and treat the material in acid solution,
squeeze it off and dry at a temp of 80-90 deg. Celsius. The dry material
may be taken into crusher to crush the small cellulosic impurities. Then
the fabric is thoroughly washed and gives mild alkali treatment to
neutralize but this is not necessary as dyeing of wool is good under acidic
conditions. Mostly we go for batch carbonization.

fig.8 Diagram showing Carbonizing of wool

MILLING

This is neither a preparatory nor a scouring process but more of a

finishing process. This process makes the woolen fabric more full and
compact. This process mostly done in fabric form and is fully mechanical
process carried out by the pressure factor. We can also combine milling
with scouring if the impurities present are high.

There are two types of milling machine that are available. These
are: -
1) Rotary machine

40
2) Fulling’s stocks machine

Rotary machine: - In this machine fabric is batched on a roller and

the fabric is then beated up continuously with mechanical hammer. It is
relatively older machine and is not used now a day.

Fulling’s stock machine: - A relatively better machine and is similar

to the rope scouring machine. The fabric is passed through mouthpiece,
then through pair of squeezing rollers and then through a spout and back
to the solution. The fabric is passed as this causes compactness and
sufficient scouring action also.

There are two types of milling, acid and alkali milling. In the acid we
uses 0.2-0.5% of sulphuric acid. The best milling action is at pH 10 and
mild alkali like Soda Ash is used.

BLEACHING

Unlike cotton wool cannot be bleached with oxidizing agents like

NaOCl. This is because these cause an after yellowing of the woolen
fabric and they also cause the degradation of the wool. But we can use
the universal bleaching agent like Hydrogen Peroxide. Sulphur dioxide
can also be used.

Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide: -

41
 This can be used under following conditions: -
MLR 1:8 to 1:10
pH 8-9
Temperature 50-55 deg Celsius
EDTA 2gm/l
Liq.Ammonia Traces
Hydrogen Peroxide 0.3-0.5% owf

During bleaching the pH is kept between 8-9 because higher

alkalinity may degrade the fabric. EDTA is sequestering agent, which
keep away the metal ions as they may catalyze the action of bleaching
agent. The treatment time is about overnight but we can reduce this to 3-5
hours by using the machine. In the bath bleaching we can use the liquor
again after removal of fabric by adding the required amount of chemicals
again. If the wool material is at acidic pH liquid ammonia is used to
increase the pH of the wool. Sometime at low temperature and pH the
stabilizer is not used, as action Hydrogen Peroxide is very slow.

For the dyed woolen material the bleaching is done in acidic

conditions. The dyed yarns get decolorized in the alkaline condition but
under acidic pH the decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide is very slow.
The treatment time is about 24 hours and dull whiteness is obtained.

Bleaching with Sulphur Dioxide: -

This is relatively old method. Here this is reducing agent used for wool
bleaching. This is also known as Stoving because treatment is given on
the stove, which is enclosed chamber on which the woolen material is
kept. Below we had the provision for keeping 2.3-3.2 kg of sulphur and it
was then burnt. This released Sulphur dioxide, which does the bleaching
action. The material is exposed for about 8 hours.
This type is not preferred because Wool does not get a durable
whiteness and color fades on exposure to air, light etc. The material also
gives bad smell. Also if any trace of Sulphur Dioxide is left in material it
may get oxidize to form Sulphuric acid, which cause irritative feel to the
skin of the wearer.

42
 Bleaching with Sodium Dithionate
It is white powder highly reductive in nature. It is prepared by passing
Sulphur Dioxide over Zinc dust and then NaOH treatment. This is
commonly known as Sodium Hydrosulphite, which is readily soluble in
water. This is not used generally as gives harsh feel to fabric and unstable
during use. This is used in Stripping.

BIBLOGRAPHY

1) Technology of bleaching and mercerization

V A Shenai
2) Textile scouring and bleaching
E R Trotman
3) Textile chemistry
R H Peters
4) Introduction to Textile mercerizing
J T Marsh
5) The Motivate Series

43
 Andrea Wynne
6) Understanding Textiles
Tortora
7) Introduction to textile processing machinery
R S Bhagwat
8) Bleaching Mercerization and Dyeing of cotton
Prayag
9) http://www.thesmarttime.com/Desizing.machines.html ( fig. 1)

10) http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/carbohydrates1.html ( fig. 2,3)

11) http://www.textileinfo.com/en/tech/mercerize/Page02.html ( fig. 4)

12) http://www.textileinfo.com/en/tex/mercerize/Page03.html ( fig. 5)

13) http://aida.ineris.fr/bref/bref_text/bref/angalais/bref/BREF_tex-fig.2.11
(fig. 6)

14) Fig. 10.4

http://aida.ineris.fr/bref/bref_text/breftext/anglais/bref/BREF_tex_gb55.html
(fig. 7)

15) http://aida.ineris.fr/bref/bref_text/bref/angalais/bref/BREF_tex-fig.2.13
(fig. 8)

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