Measuring cylinders use perpendicular reading, bottom of meniscus and that’s where scale markings

are

Physics P6 Revision Guide

1-Why do we take more readings?
 To reduce effect of error and to reduce uncertainty
 To take average
 Increase accuracy
 To make up for
o reaction times
o difficult to judge of when to stop/start, or when balanced, difficulty of judging
center of mass)
o Inaccuracy of measuring (maybe due to difficulty like center of mass over rule)

We do not take much more readings, for example 200, because we might lose
track or count or apparatus may stop

2-How to increase accuracy of taking lengths?

We measure to center of bob always

 Determine center of object (e.g. bob, by putting it in a set square and measure diameter
and calculate radius and then mark)
 Measure to top and then add on half diameters measured with blocks, rule or calipers.
 Measure to top and bottom and then average (For bobs)
 Perpendicular viewing (reducing parallax)
 Parallel (Vertical) rule, close to object, and use set square as a fiducial aid/horizontal
reference.
 For circular objects, repeat taking lengths for different diameters around the object.
(Measure in at least two places and take the average or ill kill you ).
 With straight aids to find diameter do, ensure surface is smooth, no dirt between object
and aids, no lips.
 For using protractors generally on vertical objects:-
o Use of plumb line
o Measure from line of stand
o Use of spirit level
Set square can be used to
o Attach protractor behind objects
ensure rule is vertical
3-How to increase accuracy of taking timings
 Repeat
 Start counting at nought (Count down)
 Use fiducial mark

Beware when units cancel each other like r 1/r2 (resistances) have the unit ohms but these cancel and
therefore has no unit
Measuring cylinders use perpendicular reading, bottom of meniscus and that’s where scale markings
are
 Light gates
USE HALF OF THE LINE WHEN GRADIENT

4-How to increase accuracy of experiments generally?

 The above (repeat, counting at nought, fiducial mark etc.)
 Increase readings
 Use different lengths
 Plot a graph
 Use additional independent values (for example d/cm, resistance)
 Count more readings (e.g. swings, more sets of resistance)

5-How to know if justification is correct?

If difference between two results is beyond experimental uncertainty and accuracy limits then it is incorrect
(also include comparative values)

6-Variables Common points in investigations:-

 Do slowly
 Hole size for falling depends on:-
 Trial experiment to find range to
o Height from which it fell
use
o Mass of ball
 Repeat
o Dampness of the ground
 Record and plot
 Springs depend on:- (difficulty: stand might topple,
 Stated range
use small loads as might overstretch, extension not
 How to apply independent
uniform)
variable
o Measure from same point (e.g. bottom of
ring)
o Wait till stops bouncing
o Use horizontal aid/ensure rule vertical
o Bench surface not uniform
o Rule close to spring
o Length of spring
o Material type
o Thickness of spring
o Amplitude of displacement
o Coil spacing

7-Difficulties and remedies in moments experiment

To find balance point of rule, Place on pivot and keep doing this until you find the balance point

o Balance difficult to obtain as ruler tips one way then the other. (Allow to tip one way then the other
then take average, or just repeat and take average)
o Mass obscuring mark

Beware when units cancel each other like r 1/r2 (resistances) have the unit ohms but these cancel and
therefore has no unit
Measuring cylinders use perpendicular reading, bottom of meniscus and that’s where scale markings
are
o Place either side of position
o Mark center of mass so that it can be read against rule, or mark the side of rule in desired
position
o Take right side measurement and left side and take average to get position of center/masses
position
o Mass/rule sliding (Could use a duct tape/stabilizers)
o Irregular masses (Make into regular shape and decrease contact)

8-Sources of error
o Outline too thick
o Precision of ruler
o Precision of forcemeter (large gaps)
o Block not of uniform thickness
o Shape of object not exactly a regular one when measuring dimensions
o When taking mass, object not dry (measure at start)
o Difficult to fill with water to brim and then pour
o Splashing of water (refill with dropper)
o Volume of string or finger
o Water droplets stick to other object
o Air bubbles (shake to remove air)(might also be compressed)
o Zero error
o Parallax error
o Clamp error (measure from below the clamp)
o Difficulty in reading measurements
o Load values not exact
o Slipping of load
o Weight not evenly distributed
o Same width, thickness, posture

o Thermometer at same depth

o Wait until thermometer has stopped
o Circumference (thickness of string, stretching of string, thickness of mark, gaps between turns,
winding of turns at an angle)(average circumference : do at top and bottom then average)

9-How to make sure an object is horizontal?

o Use of spirit level
o Measure height between surface and horizontal surface at two different places
o Line up with a horizontal surface

10-How to check proportionality of an object?

o Repeat with different sized objects/Values/etc.
o Obtain at least 3 more set of results and evaluate
o Plot a graph and check whether there is a straight line through origin.

Beware when units cancel each other like r 1/r2 (resistances) have the unit ohms but these cancel and
therefore has no unit
Measuring cylinders use perpendicular reading, bottom of meniscus and that’s where scale markings
are

11-Appropriateness of s.f
Usually it is 2 s.f. not 3 because:-

o Cannot read measurements to that level of accuracy

o Cannot plot to this level of accuracy
o If rest of the data is 2 s.f.
o Increase chance of inaccuracy

12-Investigation
o Apparatus (If not given but only materials then describe how like springs are made by winding
around rods)
o Method and
o Range suggested
o Apply test and how
o Criteria of judging
o How to record result
o Repeat each reading and take average
o Repeat for other subjects (Total 5)
o Record results into table
o Additional points (trial experiment)
o Variables (lengths: diameter, thickness, length, coil spacing, load range used)
o Precautions and Difficulties (don’t use excessive, do slowly, be wary of holder like clamp, )
o Conclusion

13-Temperature Precautions and Improvements

o Uniform insulation and lid
o More layers of insulation
o Make sure insulation is dry
o Avoid overlapping insulation
o Taking measurements at same initial temperature
o Time intervals
o Same volume of water
o Plot cooling curves
o Stirring must be same and before reading (amount must be controlled)
o Positioning of thermometer must be in mid of liquid (also same depth)
o Use thinner glass tubes
o Use same test tube thickness in each experiment

QUALITY OF EXPERIMENT IS POOR IF SMALL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESULTS

To increase difference
 Use insulative beaker

Beware when units cancel each other like r 1/r2 (resistances) have the unit ohms but these cancel and
therefore has no unit
Measuring cylinders use perpendicular reading, bottom of meniscus and that’s where scale markings
are
 Insulate sides
 Use wider beaker
 Use heating mat
 Thicker lid
 Use of fan
o If temp cannot reach max (leave for longer)
o If object lost heat while transfer, transfer more quickly
o Use insulated tongs when transferring
o If object lost heat that did not increase temperature, might because energy transfer to beaker or
apparatus or evaporation (you can use a less conductive material, insulate or put lid)

13-Factors affecting Temp drop

o Initial hot water temperature
o Initial cold water temperature
o Room temperature
o Insulation
o Heat loss to surroundings
o Less water (Volume of water)
o Submerging of object or test tube into water bath (so that all of object has same surrounding
temperature)
o Time delays in adding water
o Longer time intervals
o Draughts
o Humidity
o Surface area (Container shape)
o Container material

14-Lights-Precautions
o Carry out in dark room (or image might not be distinct) (To increase focus: move back and forth,
dark room, object with finer detail, measure at middle of the range)
o Lens and object same height above bench (or image might not appear)
o Lens, object and screen vertical (or image might be distorted and to obtain complete, sharp image)
o Move screen/lens slowly to obtain sharp image (might not be correctly be focused)
o Fix rule on the bench (might move and give incorrect measurements)
o Mark center of lens on holder
o Repeat readings
o Measure image height accurately but do not obscure (maybe by using translucent screen and
viewing from behind, using transparent ruler, or fix a grid or ruler on screen)
o Make sure screen does not move (clamp screen onto place)

Pin Experiment (n)

o Large pin separation (Hard to line up accurately but greater distance reduces uncertainty)
o View bases of pin
o View from small angle to normal
o Ensure pins are vertical

Beware when units cancel each other like r 1/r2 (resistances) have the unit ohms but these cancel and
therefore has no unit
Measuring cylinders use perpendicular reading, bottom of meniscus and that’s where scale markings
are
o Use thin pins
o Draw thin lines/ with sharp pencil
o Repeat

Difficulties

o Difficulty in aligning pins (close one eye)

o Difficulty to judge when pins are exactly vertical
o Lines too thick
o Pins too thick
o Thickness of mirror
o Protractor measuring +-1 only (INACCURACY IN READING FROM PROTRACTOR)
o Block depth too small (smaller lengths give greater uncertainties)
o Difficulty in deciding exact position of lens to obtain sharp image (because small range of
appropriate positions, not all of image is entirely focused at same time, chromatic aberration)
o Difficulty in measuring to centre of lens
o Room too bright
o Image edges too blurred

Difference in images

o Could be inverted
o Bigger/Smaller
o Brighter/dimmer
o Colours seen round edge/edges blurred

(subtraction, smaller masses, more readings, round offs increase inaccuracy and uncertainty)

Limitation to distance

 Image could be virtual

 Image could be too dim
 Must be greater than focal length

15-Electricity
To design and experiment effect of voltage, current, or resistance you need to:-

 Increase supply voltage

 Use variable resistor
 Use voltmeter and ammeter with larger range

Sources of error:-

 Zero error (subtract zero error)

 If voltage comes from other source, for example:
o Solar Panels (do in complete darkness)
o Fan (Height, length, width, pitch, of blades, height of fan, distance between fan and
blades, same blades used)
When repeating:-

Beware when units cancel each other like r 1/r2 (resistances) have the unit ohms but these cancel and
therefore has no unit
Measuring cylinders use perpendicular reading, bottom of meniscus and that’s where scale markings
are
 Width of sliding contact
 Achieving same position on wire
 Heating changes of wire (If gets too hot then you could reduce voltage supply, use thinner or
longer wire, or material with greater resistivity or switch off between readings to keep constant,
a larger current would either overheat or would be too large for ammeter to depict, switch on
for short time)
 Cell may run down
 Difficulty in reading from voltmeter or ammeter
 Resistance changed
 Take average
 For diameters use micrometer screw gauge
Variables:-
 Temperature
 Material
 Diameter
 Length

How to check if a component is broken?

If there is a current reading inside it then it is not broken, or if p.d. across component is not equal to e.m.f. of
battery, or put in parallel and check, replace with other component, or change current to see if glows

Beware when units cancel each other like r 1/r2 (resistances) have the unit ohms but these cancel and
therefore has no unit