K ABDUL AJEEJ

17MST0002
MACHINE FOUNDATION
DIGITAL ASSIGNMENT 2
Q] Write a detailed report on structures and photos on
(1)Types of machines, capacity, operating frequency
(2)Types of foundations for machines
(3)Evaluation of required dynamic soil properties and field tests
(4)Design procedure with reference to relevant IS, ASTM, EURO and
BRITISH codes
(5)Construction Procedure for Machine Foundation
(6)Detailed Report for petrol refinery.

(1) TYPES OF MACHINES, CAPACITY, OPERATING FREQUENCY:

 Machines are categorized in to major groups.
 Reciprocating machines,
 Rotary machines (High speed; Low speed),
 Impact machines.

Reciprocating Machines:
 Reciprocating machines are probably the oldest machines used by mankind. The classical
example is a crank mechanism which is used to convert translatory motion into rotary
motion and vice versa
 Internal combustion engines, Steam engines, Piston-type pumps and Compressors and
other similar machines having a crank mechanism.
 This category of machines includes internal combustion engines, steam engines, piston-
type pumps and compressors and other similar machines having a crank mechanism.
 It consists of a piston that moves within a cylinder, a connecting rod, a piston rod and a
crank. The crank rotates with a constant angular velocity.
 The direction of piston movement may be horizontal or vertical. Most reciprocating
machines have operating speeds that are smaller than 1200-1500 rpm.
 The foundations for reciprocating machines usually consist of rigid concrete blocks that
have openings for mounting the machines. The machine may be mounted directly on a
concrete block or on suitably designed elastic pads. Block foundations resting on springs
are also sometimes used.
 The foundation requirements for reciprocating machines with respect to dynamic stability
are as follows:
1. There should be at least 30 percent difference between the operating speed of the
machine and the natural frequency of the soil foundation system.
2. The amplitudes of vibration must be less than the specified permissible values.
3. In the soil, the resultant stresses occasioned by the combined action of static and
dynamic loads should not exceed the permissible values.

Figure: Reciprocating Machine

ROTARY MACHINES:
 Machines such as gas and steam turbines, generators, rotary compressors, and turbo
blowers fall in the category of high-speed rotary machines.
 The operating speeds of these machines are generally 3000 rpm or 3600 rpm and may
range up to 10000 rpm. Turbine units operating at 1500 and 1800 rpm are also sometimes
used.
 Turbogenerator (T.G.) units are available in different capacities or power rating ranging
from 2 MW to 2000 MW. The capacity of T.G. Units in nuclear power plants generally
varies from 200 to 1100 MW. Units of 2000 MW capacity are used in superthermal fossil
power stations.
 Low speed Rotary machines operating at less than 1500 rpm. Motor generators,
centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers, crushing mills, and roll mills are some examples of
low-speed rotary machines. For these machines both the massive-block-type and frame-
type foundations are used.
 For rotary machines such as turbines, rotary pumps, rotary compressor, fans, etc., the
mounting parts can be balanced so that no dynamic loads exists.
 In practice however perfect balance is not achieved and dynamic loads may be caused by
misalignment or wear of moving parts.
 If the eccentricity of unbalanced mass is known the amplitude of the dynamic load at any
frequency can be determined from the expression for centrifugal force.
 Natural frequencies of the foundation-soil system should be at least 30 percent away from
the operating speed of the machine.
 Amplitudes of vibration should be within the permissible limits specified by machine
manufacturer. In case specifications by manufacturers are not available, limiting values of
design amplitudes may be adopted as follows:
 Figure: ROTARY MACHINE

IMPACT MACHINES:
 Hammers are most typical of impact machines and are of many types. According to their
functions, they may be classified into forging hammers (proper) and drop hammers. Drop
hammers are used for a variety of purposes such as forging, stamping, and ore breaking.

 The weight of the tup may vary from 0.25 to 10 tons. The height of the drop may range
from 0.3 to 2.0 m or more.
 These are many industrial processor, typically impact forging, which requires suitable or
repeated blows with a hammer, kinetic energy is given to the hammer either by some
external source of power such as steam, or more usually by gravity.
 These machines consists of a falling ram, an anvil and a frame. Its natural frequency should
be either 30 percent smaller or 2.5 times the frequency of the impacts.
 Drop hammer for die stamping for=60 to 150 blows.
 Figure: IMPACT MACHINES

Figure: Schematic diagram of a machine-foundation system subjected to dynamic loads.

References:
1. Prakash, S. and Puri, V.K. (1988). “Foundations for Machines: Analysis and Design”, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, U.S.A.
2. Advanced Foundation Engineering, Prof.T.G. Sitharam Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore
(2) TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS FOR MACHINES:
Machine foundations are special types of foundations required for machines, machine
tools and heavy equipment which have wide range of speeds, loads and operating conditions.
These foundations are designed considering the shocks and vibrations (dynamic forces)
resulting from operation of machines. Following are the types of machine foundations
generally used:
• Block Type Machine Foundation
• Box or Caisson Type Machine Foundation
• Wall Type Machine Foundation
• Framed Type Machine Foundation
• Non-Rigid or Flexible type of Machine Foundation

Block Type Machine Foundation:

Following figure shows block type machine foundation. This type of foundation
consists of a pedestal resting on a footing have has large mass and a small natural frequency.
A block foundation consists of a pedestal resting on a footing. If more than one machine of
similar nature is to be installed in a workshop, they can be profitably mounted on one
continuous mat.

A block foundation has a large mass and smaller natural frequency. Usually block
foundation is provided for compressors and reciprocating engines.
Through its mass, oftentimes three to eight times that of the machinery, it absorbs
those dynamic forces which are a by-product of the work being performed by the machine.
The more evenly balanced and smooth-running the machine, the less unbalanced
forces there are which must be transmitted from the machine, through the grout and into the
foundation. An understanding of this function points out the importance of a good grout and
anchor bolt system to join the machine to the concrete block. Excessive vibration is often a
symptom of a problem in one of the links in the attachment system. It also can be from an
abnormal machinery operating condition, where the unbalanced forces have increased
beyond normal operating forces.

Box or Caisson Type Machine Foundation:

Box type foundation consists of a hollow concrete block as shown in figure below. The
mass of this foundation is less than block type machine foundation as it is hollow. The natural
frequency of the box type machine foundation is increased.

Wall Type Machine Foundation:

This type of machine foundation consists of a pair of walls with a slab resting on top.
This type of foundation is constructed of homogeneous materials. It is used for small
machines and the machine is rested on the top slab.
This type of foundation consists of a system of wall-columns and beam-slabs. Each
element of such a foundation is relatively flexible. Steam turbines are provided with wall type
of foundations. It is used for larger machines.

Framed Type Machine Foundation:

This type of machine foundation consists of vertical columns with horizontal frame at
their tops. It is used for larger machines. The machines are rested on the top of frames. The
vertical and horizontal members of this foundation can be constructed by different materials.
 For low speed rotary machines like crushing mills, motor generators, compressors, and
rolling mill stands. Framed-foundation supported either on a raft/pile foundations are the
suitable solution for such machines, which can prevent vibrations. The option of raft or pile
foundation depends.
The formulations used for manual computations cover only standard/ideal frames,
i.e., frame beam is rectangular in cross-section having machine mass at its center. Analysis of
a single portal frame is based on the premise that longitudinal beams of a frame foundation
are flexible enough to permit transverse frames to vibrate independently. These procedures
are only for very ideal cases, and most of the real-life machine foundations do not fall under
this category.

Non-Rigid or Flexible type of Machine Foundation

If a machine is rigidly bolted to the floor, the vibratory movement of the machine itself
may be reduced, but the vibration transmitted to the floor will be large. This may produce
harmful effects even at large distances. On the other hand, if a flexible support is provided
under the machine or its foundation, the vibration transmitted to the floor will be
considerably reduced, but this may cause significant motion to the machine itself during
normal operation or during the starting and stopping stages. Some compromise has to be
reached between the two requirements. This is achieved in design practice by selecting a
suitable natural frequency for the machine foundation.

Reference:
Prakash, S. and Puri, V.K. (1988). “Foundations for Machines: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, U.S.A.
(3) EVALUATION OF REQUIRED DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES BY FIELD
METHODS:
Dynamic Soil Properties:
In general, problems involving the dynamic loading of soils are divided into small and
large strain amplitude responses. In a machine foundation, the amplitudes of dynamic motion
and, consequently, the strains in the soil are usually low, whereas a structure that is subjected
to an earthquake or blast loading may undergo large deformations and thus induce large
strains in the soil.
A large number of field and laboratory methods have been developed for
determination of the dynamic soil properties. The principal properties that are determined
by many of these methods are:
1. Shear strength, which is evaluated in terms of strain rates and stress strain characteristics;
2. Liquefaction parameters, such as cyclic shearing stress ratio, cyclic deformation, and pore-
pressure response;
3. Dynamic moduli, such as Young's modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, and constrained
modulus with corresponding spring constants;
4. Damping; and
5. Poisson's ratio.
In machine foundations, an understanding of dynamic soil moduli (with corresponding
elastic spring constants) and damping is frequently required. Poisson's ratio is also needed,
even though it is frequently not determined. The following methods for determining dynamic
properties of soil are in use in different parts of the world.
1. Cross-borehole wave propagation test
2. Up-hole or down-hole wave propagation test
3. Surface wave propagation test
4. Vertical footing resonance test
5. Horizontal footing resonance test
6. Free vibration test on footings
7. Cyclic plate load test
8. Standard penetration test

1. Cross-borehole wave propagation test:

In the cross-borehole method, the velocity of wave propagation is measured from one
borehole to another. A minimum of two boreholes are required, one for generating an
impulse and the other for the sensors. In Fig, the impulse rod is struck on top, causing an
impulse to travel down the rod to the soil at the bottom of the hole. The shearing between
the rod and the soil creates shear waves that travel horizontally through the soil to the vertical
motion sensor in the second hole; the time required for a shear wave to traverse this known
distance is monitored.
There are four important considerations in conducting a cross-borehole shear wave
propagation test:
(1) The boreholes,
(2) The seismic source,
(3) The seismic receiver, and
(4) The recording and timing equipment.
The major criteria for a seismic source are:
(1) It must be capable of generating predominantly one kind of wave.
(2) It must be capable of repeating desired characteristics at a predetermined energy level.
Velocity transducers (geophones) that have natural frequencies of 4 to 15 Hz are adequate
for detecting (receiving) the shear waves as they arrive from the source. The receivers must
be oriented in the shearing mode and should be securely coupled to the sides of the boring.
The recording equipment should be able to resolve arrival times of up to 0.2 msec or 5 percent
of the travel time. Storage oscilloscopes are also often used.

2. Up-Hole or Down-Hole Wave Propagation Tests:

Up-hole and down-hole tests are performed by using only one borehole. In the up-
hole method, the receiver is placed at the surface, and shear waves are generated at different
depths within the borehole.
In the down-hole method, the excitation is applied at the surface and one or more
receivers are placed at different depths within the hole. Both the up-hole and the down-hole
methods give average values of wave velocities for the soil between the excitation and the
receiver if one receiver is used, or between the receivers, if more than one is used in the
borehole.

3. Surface-Wave Propagation Test

Rayleigh waves and L'llve waves can be used to determine the shear moduli of soils
near the surface. The Rayleigh wave (R-wave) travels in a zone close to the surface. An
electromagnetic or other harmonic vibrator can be used to generate a steady-state R-wave,
and the ground surface can be deformed as shown in Fig. 4.34. A mechanical oscillator is
usually set to work at approximately 10Hz. One ray is drawn away from the centreline of the
oscillator.
One of the geophones connected to the horizontal plates of the oscilloscope is fixed
30cm away from the oscillator along the ray so that the sensing axis of the geophone is
vertical. A similar geophone, connected to the vertical plates of the oscilloscope, is moved
along this ray away from the oscillator.
The second geophone is moved until the Lissajous figure on the oscilloscope screen
becomes a circle. The two signals are at the same frequency and 90° out of phase. In case of
uniform soil up to infinite depths and the Lissajous figure of a circle, the wave length of the
propagating waves is given by

4. Vertical Footing Resonance Test:

The block (footing) resonance test can be used for determining modulus and damping
values. According to IS 5249 a test block 1.5 x 0.75 x 0.70 m high is cast either at the surface
or in a pit 4.5 X 2.75 mat a suitable depth (Fig. 4.35a) and is excited in vertical vibrations. Two
acceleration or displacement transducers are mounted on top of the block (Fig. 4.35b)
Determination of Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Compression of Soil C". The amplitude
of vibration Az at a given frequency f, is given by

in which az represents the vertical acceleration of the block in mm/sec2 , and f is the
frequency in Hz.
Amplitude vs. frequency curves are plotted for each force level to obtain the natural
frequency of the soil and the foundation system tested (Fig. 4.36). The natural frequency, fnz,
at different force levels is different because different forces cause different strain levels below
the block. This is accounted for when the appropriate design parameters are being chosen.
The coefficient of elastic uniform compression, Cu of the soil is then determined from Eq.

in which fnz is the natural frequency in vertical vibrations, m the mass of the block, oscillator,
and motor, and A the contact area of the block (footing) with the soil.
5. Horizontal Footing Resonance Test:
For a horizontal footing (block) resonance test, the mechanical oscillator is mounted on the
block so that horizontal sinusoidal vibrations are generated in the direction of the longitudinal
axis of the block. Three acceleration or displacement transducers are mounted on the side of
the block with one near the top, a second near the bottom, and the third in the middle along
the vertical centreline of the transverse face of the block to sense horizontal vibrations (Fig.
4.35a). The oscillator is excited in several steps, starting from rest. The signal of each
acceleration pickup is amplified and monitored. The remaining procedure is the same as for
vertical resonance test. Similar tests may be performed by exciting the block in the direction
of transverse axis.
Determination of Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Shear of Soil, Cx,. In a horizontal-vibration
test, the amplitude of horizontal vibrations, Ax is determined by the equation

in which ax is the horizontal acceleration in the direction under consideration, and f the
frequency of the horizontal vibrations in hertz. Amplitude vs. frequency curves are plotted for
each force level to obtain the natural frequency, fnx, of the soil and block tested as for the
case of vertical vibrations. The coefficient of elastic uniform shear (C,) of the soil is then
determined by using Eq.

in which Y is equal to Mm/Mm0, fnx is the horizontal resonant frequency of block soil system,
A0 is equal to A/M, I0 is equal to 3.46 (I/Mm0), Mm is the mass moment of inertia of the block,
oscillator, and motor about the horizontal axis passing through the centre of gravity of the
block and perpendicular to the direction of vibration, Mm0 the mass moment of inertia of the
block, oscillator, and motor about the horizontal axis passing through the centre of the
contact area of the block and soil and perpendicular to the direction of vibration, and I the
moment of inertia of the foundation contact area about the horizontal axis passing through
the centre of gravity of the area and perpendicular to the direction of vibration

6. Free Vibration Test on Footings:

Free vibration tests may be performed by pulling the block and releasing it in a longitudinal
direction or by hitting it with a hammer for vertical excitation. From the observed natural
frequency, values can then be determined.

7. Cyclic Plate Load Test:

The equipment for a cyclic-plate load test is similar to that used in a static-plate load
test. It is assembled according to details given in the American Society for Testing Materials
(1977) or Barkan (1962).
After the equipment has been set up and arranged, the initial readings of the dial
gauges are noted, and the first increment of static load is applied to the plate. This load is
kept constant for some time until no further settlement occurs or until the rate of settlement
becomes negligible. The final readings of the dial gauges are then recorded. The entire load
is removed and the plate is allowed to rebound. When no further rebound occurs, the
readings of the dial gauges are again noted. The load is then gradually increased until its
magnitude is equal in value to the next higher proposed stage of loading; the load is
maintained constant and the final dial gauge readings are noted. The entire load is then
reduced to zero and final dial gauge readings are recorded when the rate of rebound'
becomes negligible.
The cycles of loading, unloading, and reloading are continued until the estimated
ultimate load has been reached; the final values of dial gauge readings are noted each time.
The magnitude of the load increment is such that the ultimate load is reached in five to six
increments.
The elastic rebound of the plate corresponding to each intensity of loading can be obtained
from the data obtained during cyclic-plate load tests, as shown in Fig. 4.37a. The load intensity
versus the elastic rebound is plotted as shown in Fig. 4.37b.
8. Standard Penetration Test:
In the standard penetration test (SPT}, a standard split spoon sampler is driven with a
140-lb hammer that falls freely through a distance of 30 in. The number of blows for 12 in of
penetration of the split spoon sampler is designated as the N value. This is Nmeasured· In a design
problem using N values, a correction for effective overburden pressure is applied, although
the test is designated as a standard test, there are several personal errors as well as errors
that are equipment based. Therefore, the use of SPT to measure any soil property has been
questioned by many engineers (Woods, 1978). The "uses and abuses" of SPT have been
described by Fletcher (1965}, Mohr (1966), and Ireland et al. (1970}. De Mello (1971}
presented an extensive review of SPT from which it is evident that although SPT is used
extensively in soil investigations, there has been no documented, carefully controlled
research conducted on it. Schmertmann Imai (1977) reported a correlation between
(uncorrected) N and shear wave velocity, V,(m/sec) in 943 recordings at four urban locations
in Japan and was able to establish the following relationship:

In arriving at the above relationship, be converted the N values over 50 or under 1

from the penetrating length at the time of 50 or 1 blows into the number of blows necessary
for penetration as deep as 30 cm.

Reference:
1. Prakash, S. and Puri, V.K. (1988). “Foundations for Machines: Analysis and Design”, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, U.S.A.
2. Bhatia, K.G. (2006). “Machine Foundation Design—A State of the Art”, Journal of Structural
Engineering, SERC, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 69–80.
3. Barkan, D.D. (1962). “Dynamics of Bases and Foundations”, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, U.S.A.
(4) DESIGN PROCEDURE WITH REFERENCE TO RELEVANT CODES
ASTM CODE, IS-CODE, EURO CODE
The design of machine foundations is a trial-and error process involving the following main
steps
(a) Estimate the magnitude and characteristics of the dynamic loads.
(b) Establish the soil profile and determine the appropriate shear modulus and damping, G
and D, for each soil layer
(c) Guided by experience select the type and trial dimensions of the foundation and establish
performance criteria (see below Figure)
(d) Estimate the dynamic response of this trial foundation subjected to the load of step (a)
and supported by the soil deposit established in step (b). This key step of the design process
usually starts with simplifying and idealizing soil profile and foundation geometry, and
involves selecting the most suitable method of dynamic soil-foundation interaction analysis.
(e) Check whether the estimated response amplitude of step (d) at the particular operation
frequency conforms to the performance criteria given by machine manufacturers or below
Figure.
(f) Monitor the actual motion of the completed foundation and compare with the theoretical
prediction of step (d)
(g) Finally, if the actual performance of the constructed foundation does not meet the
aforesaid design criteria, step(c), remedial measures must be devised. This may be, change of
the mass of the foundation or the location of the machinery; stiffening of the sub-soil through,
for example, grouting; increasing the soil-foundation contact surface; etc. Steps (d), (e) and
(f) must be repeated until satisfactory design is finally achieved

Figure: Typical performance requirement for machine foundation

I.S Code Procedure:
Criteria for the Design of Machine Foundations
1. Static Loading
Without shear failure
Without any excessive settlement
2. Dynamic loading
No resonance
As per 2974 part1, r<0.5 (under tuned)
r>0.5 (over tuned)
The amplitude of motion should not exceed limiting amplitude. Permissible amplitude is
0.2mm.Vibrations must not be annoying to the persons working in factory or surroundings.

Figure: Displacement amplitude vs. frequency (Richard 1962)

Method of Analysis
1. Linear elastic weightless spring MSD model
2. Linear elastic theory
Degrees of freedom for block type foundation

Figure: Degrees of freedom for block type foundation

Linear Elastic Weightless Spring MSD Model

Coefficient of uniform elastic compression (Cu)

Where A=area of test plate

Coefficient of linear elastic shear

Barken (1962) proposed the following values:

According to IS: 5249:

Vertical Vibration of the Block

Sliding Vibration of the Block

Linear Elastic Theory

Vertical Vibration of the Block

Equation of Vertical Motion:

Sliding Vibration of the Block

Design Recommendations by Considered Codes

The design recommendations by all the considered codes/standards are presented in
the form of tables as presented in Table1. Among them, the Indian Standards have given
their recommendations for the analysis and design of machine foundations based on the
type of machine to be mounted on the foundation. Hence, the recommendations by
the Indian Standards are represented separately in Table 2.The recommendations for the
analysis and design of both foundation block and pile foundation have been discussed.
Apart from that, the important parameters viz., eccentricity, frequency ratio and limiting
amplitude have been compared for the considered codes/standards.
Euro code Procedure
Optimal design of the machine foundation from the point of view of Euro code the
engineer-designer has taken into account following influences:
• Impact of machine vibration to structures.
• Impact of machine vibration to the people and operation (mechanic, acoustic, optic).
• Impact of machine vibration to the technology (requirements of manufacturer).
On the base of the evaluation of all influences it is necessary to check following
assessment:
• Criterion of limit state design of structures,
• Physiological criterion,
• Functionality criterion. The design forces and displacements are calculated using the
harmonic response analysis of the structures for normal and extreme operation. The
maximum displacements and velocities must be checked to the criterion of standard:
• Machine frequencies < 10 Hz Maximum displacement amplitude – for normal operation
umax ≤ 63 μm – for initial state (n =0) umax ≤ 23 μm
• Machine frequencies > 10 Hz Maximum velocity amplitude – for normal operation vmax ≤
2.8 mm/s – for initial state (n = 0) vmax ≤ 1.0 mm/s.

Harmonic response analysis:

The harmonic response analysis solves the time-dependent equations of motion for
linear structures undergoing steady-state vibration. The equation of motion for a structural
system is defined in the following form

Reliability criteria for seismic resistance of structure Reliability of the foundation

structures is analysed in accordance of national and Euro code standard requirements for
ultimate and serviceability limit state. Horizontal reinforced plane structures are designed
on the bending and shear loads for ultimate limit state function in the next form

Sensitivity analysis:
Analysis of the influence of the variable input parameters to the reliability of the
structures depends on the statistical independency between input and output parameters.
Matrix of correlation coefficients of the input and output parameters is defined by
Spearman in the form

Soil-foundation interaction:
The dynamic response is other in the case of stiff and soft soil due to soil-foundation
interaction effects. There are following aspects:
• Soil move can affect the rotation of foundation about its horizontal axis,
• First period of foundation under soft soil will be longer as in the case of stiff soil,
• Eigenvalues and a participation factors will be different in the case of soft and stiff soil,
• Non proportional damping is depend on the radial and reflex damping of soil under
foundation and different damping of foundation structure.

References:
1. ACI: 351-3R-2004, "Foundations for Dynamic Equipment", American Concrete Institute.
2. CP: 2012 (Part I)-1974, "Code of practice for Foundations for Machinery", BSI, London.
3. DIN: 4024 (Part I)-1988,"Machine Foundations –Flexible Structures that Support Machines
with Rotating Elements", German Standards.
4. DIN: 4024 (Part II)-1988,"Machine Foundations –Rigid Structures that Support Machines
with Periodic Excitation", German Standards.
5. IS: 2974 (Part I)-1982, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundation for Reciprocating Type Machines”, BIS New Delhi, India.
6. IS: 2974 (Part II)-1980, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundations for Impact Type Machines (Hammer Foundations)”, BIS New Delhi,
India.
7. IS: 2974 (Part III)-1992, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundation for Rotary Type Machines (Medium and High Frequency)”, BIS New
Delhi, India.
8. IS: 2974 (Part IV)-1979, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundation for Rotary Type Machines of Low Frequency”, BIS New Delhi, India.
9. IS: 2974 (Part V)-1987, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundations for Impact Machines other than Hammers”, BIS New Delhi, India.
10. SAES: Q–007-2003, "Foundations and Supporting Structures for Heavy Machinery",
Onshore Structures, Saudi Arabia.
(5) Construction Procedure for Machine Foundations:
Apart from the normal requirements of reinforced concrete construction as given in
relevant codes of practice, a few additional points especially applicable to the construction of
machine foundations are pertinent here.

1. Concrete
M 150 concrete should be used for block foundations and M 200 concrete for framed
foundations. The concreting should preferably be done in a single operation. The location of
construction joints should be judiciously chosen. Proper treatment of the joints with a suitable
number of dowels and shear keys is required. Cement grout with non-shrinkable additive
should be used under the machine bed-plate and for pockets of anchor-bolts.

2. Reinforcement
Reinforcement should be used on all surfaces, openings, cavities, etc., required to be
provided in the machine foundation. In block-type foundation, reinforcements should be used
in the three directions. The minimum reinforcement should be 250 N/cum of concrete. The
reinforcement usually consists of 16 to 25 mm bars kept at 200 to 300 mm spacing in both
directions, and also on the lateral faces. The concrete cover should be a minimum of 75 mm
at bottom and50 mm on sides and at top. Around all openings, steel reinforcement equal to
0.50 to 0.75% of cross-sectional area of the opening shall be provided, in the form of a cage.

3. Expansion Joints
Machine foundations should be separated from adjoining structural elements by
expansion joints to prevent transmission of vibration.

4. Connecting Elements
Base plates and anchor bolts are used to fix machines to the foundation. For this
purpose, concreting should be stopped at the level of the base plate. This gap will be filled
later by cement mortar. A 150 mm × 150 mm hole is generally sufficient for bolt holes. A
minimum clearance of 80 mm should be provided from the edge of the bolt hole to the
nearest edge of the foundation. The length of a bolt to be concreted is generally 30 to 40
times the diameter. Boltholes should be invariably filled with concrete. Concreting the spaces
under the machines should be done with extreme care using 1:2 mortar mix.
Machines should not be operated for at least 15 days after under-filling, since
vibrations are harmful to fresh mortar. The edges of the foundation should be protected by
providing a border of steel angles.

5. Spring Absorbers
Spring absorbers are commonly used for providing isolation in machine foundations.
These can be installed by using either ‘supported system’ or ‘suspended system’. In the
former, the springs are placed directly under the machine or the foundation; in the latter, the
foundation is suspended from springs located at or close to the floor level. In the suspended
system, access to the springs becomes easy for future maintenance or replacement. For well-
balanced machines, relatively smaller springs are adequate; in such cases, the supported
system may be used. For machines with large exciting forces, heavy springs will be required;
in this case, the suspended system is preferred.

Provision for Tuning

When the necessary margin of safety cannot be realised in design to avoid resonance,
it is desirable to give due provision in the construction for tuning the foundation at a later
stage. By tuning” is meant changing the natural frequency of the foundation system if found
necessary at a later stage. To facilitate subsequent enlargement of the foundation, dowels
should be let projecting. It has been suggested that hollows be left in the foundation block
which may be subsequently concreted, if required, to increase the mass of the foundation
with the same base area.

(6) DETAILED REPORT ON PETROLEUM REFINERY:

Project proposed a preliminary design of the steel structure and concrete footings at
an oil refinery facility in Newfoundland, Canada. It was then evaluated by the project design
team according to economic, infrastructural, environmental, and effectiveness constraints
specific to the facility. Finally, a complete cooler foundation design was developed in STAAD
Pro software, and design requirements and appropriate modeling materials for the cooler
foundation were determined.

Introduction
An oil refinery facility is designed to split crude oil into several components, which
then are reprocessed into final products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, petroleum solvents and
lubricating oils. Oil refinery facilities include many process units, including storage tanks,
furnaces, distillation towers, reactors, air and water cooled heat exchangers, and
compressors. Oil refinery facilities require cooling systems to lower the temperature of liquid
products to permit safe handling. Liquid products include, but are not limited to, oils used in
the compressor, phenols, and glycol.
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industry that provides professional consulting services in planning, engineering, architecture,
interior design, environmental sciences, and many other sustainable community design
aspects. It is seeking to develop design recommendations for an oil refinery compressor
foundation in Newfoundland, Canada.
To support Stantec in attaining this goal, this Major Qualifying Project focused on
developing a steel and concrete foundations design for the new cooler system. A cooler
foundation design was developed for the cooler system, accounting for size and weight of the
cooler to be installed. Steel frame loads and design specifications were determined with
STAAD Pro software. Concrete footing size and shape were calculated using the load
distribution values in the steel frame.
In order to accomplish the goal of the project, the following objectives were
completed:
1) Characterize the scope of the project and existing plant conditions
2) Specify design requirements and appropriate modelling materials and tools for the
preliminary foundation design
3) Make iterative design decisions during preliminary design process

Fin Fan Coolers in an Oil Refinery

Air Cooled Heat Exchangers, also called Fin Fan Coolers, are used in applications where
large quantities of heat need to be transferred, such as chemical and petrochemical
industries, power stations, and waste-to-energy facilities. In fin fan coolers, hot process fluids
or gases flow through tubes, and the outside cooling air flows across the outside of the tube.
Refineries and petrochemical plants use fin fan coolers to remove excess heat from their
processes, since plant operation might be limited when unable to remove the excess heat.

Cooler Foundation Design Elements

Air coolers are used in fundamentally different and sometimes extremely difficult
ambient conditions. This refers to both production processes and climate-related conditions.
An effective foundation design satisfies those requirements, as well as customers’ wishes.

Geotechnical Investigation
Geotechnical inspection of the building site focuses on soil, rock, and other types of
earth materials that are of importance to the future foundation design. There are 5 phases to
a typical geotechnical investigation, including preliminary investigations, detailed site
investigations, laboratory testing of samples, report, and recommendations development
Preliminary investigation involves assessment of a site and soil suitability, as well as of
the elastic and shear modulus values. Detailed site inspection then requires field drilling and
sampling, and groundwater records. Following lab testing of samples, a final report is
developed, including findings on the field investigations and recommendations on
appropriate foundation depth, potential settlement and design bearing values

Design Loads
Loads are forces and pressures applied to the building structure that can impose
deformations (National Building Code of Canada). Every building must be designed such that
all loads to be sustained during the lifetime of the structure will be sustained with an
appropriate margin of safety, and deformations of the structure will not exceed acceptable
levels (Butcher, 1976).
 Permanent loads vary with a small or negligible altitude over time, whereas variable
loads change frequently in magnitude, direction or location (Seattle Building Code, 2009).
Loads that are considered in designing a cooler frame and footings are dead, live, snow, and
wind loads. Dead loads are permanent loads, and consist of the weight of the materials of
construction supported by the member, and the load due to earth, plants and trees. Live,
snow, and wind loads are variable loads, and depend on intended use and occupancy and
local weather conditions.

Methodology
Stantec’s client requires a design for installing a new fin fan cooler foundation.
Information to develop a design of a new cooler foundation for the facility was therefore
needed. The goal of this project was to investigate different cooler foundation elements and
provide a design for the most feasible one, using Staad-Pro software.
To achieve this goal, the following objectives were completed:
1) Characterize the scope of the project and existing plant conditions
2) Specify design requirements and appropriate modeling materials and tools for the
preliminary foundation design
3) Make iterative design decisions during preliminary design process
4) Create an engineering presentation of the design feasibility, societal impact and trade-offs
The following sections describe methods that were used to achieve each of these objectives.

Project scope and existing conditions

Characterizing the scope of the project involved consulting different online resources
on civil engineering and oil refinery processes. Also, textbooks were consulted for details on
steel and concrete foundation design steps. Through background research, different elements
of fin fan cooler foundation design were identified. A project scope report prepared by
Stantec engineers was consulted in order to find out the planned cooler system location and
dimensions, as well as information on the proposed renovation of other components of the
client refinery. Finally, the STAAD Pro manual was consulted to learn necessary skills to create
a 2- and 3-D model of the structure.
The next step was to characterize existing plant conditions, which involved
collaboration with Stantec staff and the client plant managers. Stantec staff was consulted to
identify their view on the compressor foundation design for the plant. Again, the project
scope report developed by Stantec engineers was consulted. Lastly, a geotechnical
investigation was conducted on site by an independent geotechnical engineer. His report
provided information on current subsurface soil and bedrock conditions, as well as an
estimation of the elastic and shear modulus values important for foundation design.
Gathering and investigating this information was essential for identifying potential foundation
design options.
Preliminary foundation design requirements
The second objective was to define the overall system configuration and provide
schematics, diagrams, and layouts of the project both in STAAD pro software and on paper.
To define the general framework and operating parameters, the Canada Building Code
manual was consulted. Multiple structural engineering textbooks on steel and concrete
foundation basics were referred to in order to fulfil this objective. After consulting textbooks
and the building code requirements, a project was started in STAAD Pro for designing the
steel frame of the foundation. STAAD Pro manuals were consulted throughout the entire
period, in order to ensure proper use of the software and appropriate design of the
foundation.

Steel Frame Design Loads Identification and Calculations

To start computing design loads for a foundation, it was necessary to determine width
and height of the structure. Next, design loads were computed, including ground snow load,
wind speed, live and dead loads. To perform the calculation of the structural steel, STAAD
pro® software was used. This software helped identifying proper loads in the steel structure
and allowed the production of calculation data (STAAD. Pro V8i). Based on the loads derived
by hand calculations, load tables for the member loads were developed in STAAD Pro.

Dead loads
Dead load is a permanent load that consists of the self-weight of the member and
partitions, the weight of all materials of construction that is supported by the member, and
the vertical load due to earth, plants and trees (National Building Code of Canada, 2005). Dead
load can be calculated exactly, since it stays constant through time, and should be calculated
separately for every individual foundation, from design configuration, dimensions and density
of the building material. Calculation steps include conversion of weight in kg to weight in kN,
and then dividing it by the frame perimeter. Assuming weight was uniformly distributed along
the structure, it was then divided by the obtained perimeter. Calculations are included below:
Dead load safety factor = 1.25
Weight 13 350 lb to kN = 59.4 kN (per one cooler, provided by the manufacturer)
Perimeter of the square is (2*3.66 + 2*4.27) m = 15.86 m
Thus, force due to dead load for each separate cooler = 3.74 kN/m
In structural design, dead loads are usually assigned a safety factor of 1.2. In this
project, the safety factor was assumed to be equal to 1.25. Those values were entered and
calculated in STAAD Pro software, assuming gravity force was uniformly distributed. Self-
weight of the steel beams was automatically added to the dead load force in STAAD Pro
model.
Live loads
A live load is a variable load, due to the intended use and occupancy (National Building
Code of Canada, 2005). A live load can be fully or partially in place or not present at all, and
may change its location in most structures. So, in structural design live loads are provided a
larger safety factor than the others (Civil Engineering Basics, n.d.). Live load thrust for this
foundation comes from the vibration created by the rotating cooler fans, and can be
calculated from air flow values provided by the manufacturer. Air flow thrust was then
converted to KN and divided by the perimeter of the frame. Calculation of the live load was
performed using the formula provided in the Figure 2:

Figure 2: Live Load, (NBC of Canada, 2010)

Then FA = (98*(1.0)*((3884.9)^2)/ ((3352.8 mm)^2) = 132 N
Live load for each square is 132N/15.86m = 0.00832 kN/m
Since live loads vary with time, the safety factor is greater than for dead loads, and
usually equals around 1.6 For the sake of this project, the safety factor of the live load was
considered to be 1.6. The live load values were entered to the STAAD Pro model, and assigned
to the top of the frame, where the coolers contact the frame.

Snow loads
Variable load due to snow, including ice and rain, is called snow load and is denoted
as S. In order to assign specified snow loads, an importance category table has to be consulted
and the structure has to be assigned an appropriate category. The importance category table
developed for buildings and structures designed in Canada can be found in Appendix B. For
this project, the importance category was chosen to be high, since it falls under manufacturing
and storage facilities containing toxic, explosive or other hazardous substances category.
After the importance category was selected, Figure 3 was referred to for corresponding
importance factor, Iw.
Figure 3: Wind and Snow Load Importance Factors (National building code of Canada, 2010)
A formula for calculating snow load is provided in the National Building Code of Canada.
It is as follows:

The basic roof snow load factor Cb and wind exposure factor Cw factors were provided
in the National Building Code, were equal to Cb = 0.8, Cw = 1.0. Cs for surfaces with slope of
less than 30o is assumed to be 1.0. The shape factor, Ca, equals 1.0 in general cases, where
additional snow loads are not expected from adjacent building roofs, chimneys and
equipment. Ss and Sr values specific for Newfoundland, Canada were obtained from Table C-
2, C-36 Division B in National Building Code of Canada, 2005, and were calculated to be 2.4
and 0.7 kPa, respectively (National Building Code of Canada, 2010).
Thus, ultimate snow load was found to be 2.86 KN/m, and serviceability snow load
was 2.37 KN/m.
Wind loads
A variable load from wind is the intensity of the pressure that the wind exerts on the
structure. Properly designing and accounting for wind loads help creating safer buildings, safe
from tipping or deformations from wind in various weather conditions. Wind load calculations
have to be performed according to the National Building Code of Canada. The wind load
formula and description of its components is included below:

Iw = importance factor 1.15

k = 0.6
Cf = force coefficient = 1.15 for walls above ground
Cn = force coefficient for an indefinitely long member = 1.6 for angle α = 0 o, structure rising
above grade
(Figure I-29, Commentary I, Part 4 of Divison B, NBC of Canada, 2005).
q = reference velocity pressure = 0. 58 kPa for 10 and 0.75 kPa for 50 year return periods, in
Newfoundland (Table C-2, C-36 Division B, NBC of Canada, 2005)
Cg = gust effect factor = 2.0 for the building as a whole and main structural members was
assumed
(Section 4.1.7.1, division B, NBC of Canada, 2005)
Ce = exposure factor = 1.0 (standard)
h = 1.0 m (height of the columns)
l = 0.2 m (thickness of the columns)
Thus, the wind force on the structure columns turned out to be:
Fn = 1.15*1.15*0.6*1.0*0.75kPa*2.0*1.0*1.0m*0.2m = 0.38 kN/m
 The three wind load combinations included above were used in the analysis of the
whole structure.

Earthquake loads
Every building should be designed to meet the requirements in Section 4.1.8 in
National Building Code of Canada on earthquake load and effects. All structures should be
designed with a clearly defined load path to transfer the inertial forces cause by earthquake
activity to the supporting ground. For the purpose of this project, the minimum lateral
earthquake force, V, was calculated according to the formula for braced frames:
V = S(Ta)*Mv*IE*W/(Rd*Ro) (Equation 2)
Site Class B – Rock.
Importance factor Ie = 1.3 for high importance category.
W = dead load = 5.33 kN
Mv = higher mode factor = 1.0 (from Table 4.1.8.11, NBC of Canada, 2005)
For Newfoundland Argentia Table C-2, c-36 division B, Sa(0.2) = 0.17, Sa(0.5) = 0.12, Sa (1.0) =
0.074, Sa (2.0) = 0.024, PGA = 0.060. Sa (0.2)/Sa (2.0) = 0.17/0.024 = 7.08
Ta for braced frames where hn (in meters) = 0.025*hn = 0.025*2.44 = 0.061
Found Rd and Ro from table 4.1.8.9 in NBC of Canada, 2005.
Rd =ductility-related force modification factor reflecting the capability of a structure to
dissipate energy through reversed cyclic inelastic behaviour (for tension-compression braces)
= 2.0
Ro = over strength-related force modification factor accounting for the dependable portion of
reserve strength in a structure designed according to these provisions (for tension
compression braces) = 1.3.
S (T) = design spectral response acceleration, expressed as a ratio to gravitational
acceleration, to a period of T.
S (T) = Fa*Sa(0.2) for T<= 0.2s = 0.136
Fa = 0.8 for site class B
Fv = 0.6
V = S (Ta)*Mv*IE*W/ (Rd*Ro) = 0.362 KN
However, for the purpose of this project, the earthquake load was ignored, since it
came out to be a very small value compared to the wind load.

Concrete Footing Design Loads Identification and Calculations

Completing the steel frame design gave the design team load values necessary for
concrete footing calculations. Steel frame column height, width and specified column loads
in both horizontal and vertical directions were used in concrete footing design calculations.
Other factors were taken into account in designing the concrete footing, including soil type
and design concrete strength.

Soil Bearing Capacity

Soil under the footing plays a key role in calculating design requirements of the
footing. The footing exerts pressure on the soil beneath it. Thus, it is important to identify the
given soil types and corresponding bearing capacities.

It can be seen from the Table that generally, finer soils (clay, silts) have lower
capacities than coarse granular soils (sands and gravels). However, some clays or silts have
higher bearing capacity than the values in the code tables. Therefore, the bearing value
capacity of the soil is obtained from the geotechnical investigation of the site. After a detailed
investigation of the soil at the client oil refinery location, the soil below the ground surface
was identified to be bedrock. The geotechnical investigation performed analysis of the
bedrock samples, and found the average compressive strength to be 118 MPa (Stantec Staff
Interview, 2014). Since the foundation is to be located on bedrock with a great compressive
strength, the size of the footing will depend more on the structure overturning, not the
settlement. Other important soil parameters were also obtained from the geotechnical report
prepared for Stantec.

Concrete Footing Sizes and Elements

Footings are structures designed to transmit column or wall loads to the soil below
the structure, to minimize excessive and differential settlement, sliding and overturning of
the structure. Shallow footings for columns can be differentiated as combined, isolated, strip
and mat footings. For the purpose of this project, only isolated and combined footings are
considered. Isolated footings are chosen when individual columns are to be supported, where
columns are far apart and loads are small. Depending on the shape of the column cross
section, footing can be square, rectangular or circular. Isolated footings are essentially slabs
with steel mesh on the bottom, attached to resist bending moment and shear force. A sketch
of a typical isolated footing can be viewed below:

On the other hand, combined footing is necessary when the distance between
columns is short, so that isolated footings would overlap, or footings are heavily loaded. The
combined footing is usually shaped depending on the loads, to ensure that the resulting soil
bearing pressure is uniform. Combined footing shapes can vary from trapezoidal to
rectangular. A typical combined footing illustration is provided:
Engineering presentation of the design feasibility
The final objective of the project was to review the design solution and help identify
issues to be addressed. As part of this objective, a Results chapter was developed. It included
design parameters of the final foundation, as well as the pictures of the model. This objective
allowed creation of a Recommendations section of the final report, where we discussed how
the new foundation design satisfies the economic, infrastructural, environmental,
constructability and ethical constraints.
Recommendations were developed, where the design failed to meet those
constraints. Additionally, a design in STAAD Pro software was created, analyzed, and tested
for feasibility using STAAD Pro analysis. A STAAD Pro report was created, which included
model pictures, loads, stability and moment checks, and beam by beam information on steel
type, thickness, and other data.

Methodology Conclusion
Developing a new fin fan cooler foundation design required completion of 4
objectives, discussed in the beginning of the Methodology chapter. To fulfil the first objective
of characterizing the scope of the project, different sources were consulted. To complete the
background research and define the scope of the project, Stantec staff, along with various
online and printed resources, was referred to. To develop the preliminary design, part of
objective 2, various calculations were performed, including load design calculations, and
appropriate design materials and elements. Iterative design decisions were made throughout
the entire project in order to make the design more feasible.
Consulting the project scope package report developed by Stantec staff for the client
refinery helped identify key design parameters of the cooler foundation. It was stated in the
report that the fin fan should set on a structural steel frame approximately 2.44 meters high.
Additionally, the frame legs were to be supported by piers, 0.03 meters above grade.
Concrete footing was to be located 1.2-1.8 m below grade or on bedrock for frost protection.
The cooler system was chosen to be located to the south of the extended compressor shelter.
This information was chosen as a basis for the cooler foundation design.
Lastly, a geotechnical investigation was conducted on site by an independent
geotechnical engineer. The geotechnical investigation found the bedrock geology at the site
to be sedimentary rocks, consisting of green, grey, and black shale, siliceous siltstone and
sandstone. This information meant that no settlement is expected in the area, and it was not
considered in the foundation design. However, it was recommended in the geotechnical
report that the footings are not placed on frozen ground. A minimum soil cover of 0.6 m was
recommended to protect the foundation from frost.

Concrete Footing
To ensure that the design footing was sized properly to bear all the associated loads,
the steel support columns were inspected. It was identified, that the columns on the edges of
the steel structure are exposed to a larger load combination. Thus, the footing is designed for
the largest load case scenario, and no separate calculations were made on the middle
columns. The footing size was initially assumed to be 1500 mm by 1500 mm, and further
adjusted to satisfy the design loads. The final size measurements were identified by trial and
error method.

It was important to keep in mind that even though concrete has good compressive
properties, it needs reinforcement to resist the tensile forces. It is a common practice to insert
steel bars on the top and the bottom of the concrete footing, to strengthen it and prevent
fracture. For the size of the footing and then loads it is exposed to, it was decided that 20
steel bars will be inserted on the top and the bottom of the footing, 250 mm apart from each
other. The isolated type of footing was chosen for this particular project.
After the optimal size of the footing was determined, anchor bolts were selected for
the footing and the pedestal was designed in Hilti PROFIS Anchor software. The final anchor
bolts and pedestal design can be viewed in Figure. Also, a full report of the design can be
found in Appendix I. Cast in concrete anchor bolts were used in the project, with a rectangular
anchor pattern and a rectangular base plate.

Figure: Anchor Bolts Design

 Lastly, the concrete pedestal was sized appropriately for the footing. The final design
of the pedestal is illustrated in Table. A grid of 12 steel bars was selected for this pedestal, to
reinforce the concrete and increase pedestal’s bearing properties.

Table: Final Pedestal Design

Recommendations
The final design of the cooler foundation complies with the National Building Code of
Canada. Throughout the project, it was ensured that the load and size calculations were
correctly performed, and the design was effective.
However, there are 2 adjustments for this foundation design that our design team
wasn’t able to perform due to the lack of time. Both of those adjustments are discussed
further here, and are referred to as Recommendation 1 and Recommendation 2.
Recommendation 1 –
The final design of the steel structure includes a 0.6 m gap in the middle of the frame.
It was initially inserted for easier access for maintenance, to allow workers to walk under the
structure without health hazards (bumping their heads). However, it was later identified that
the cooler top is expected to be leveled with the top of the frame as opposed to sitting on top
of the frame. Thus, having a gap in the middle of the structure was not anymore feasible. This
would allow the design team to create a smaller footing in the middle and avoid costs
associated with materials and construction tools.
Recommendation 2 –
Check the uplift caused by the wind load. Our design team identified a fairly large uplift
load – pressures from wind flow which cause lifting effects. For this project, it was assumed
that the downward vertical loads are significantly larger than the uplift load. However, in
order to avoid the uplift, the structure could have been checked with the software published
by the National Research Council of Canada (the same publisher of the 2005 NBCC),
specifically developed for the calculations of roof specified design wind uplift pressures.
Both of these recommendations require further work on the design, to ensure a safe
and stable foundation structure.
References:
1. Vibration analysis and design of block-type machine foundations interacting with soil;
Addis Ababa University; AULUGETA ANTENEH, DR. ING. ASRAT WORKU.
2. Barkan, D.D. (1962). “Dynamics of Bases and Foundations”, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, U.S.A.