Powder Technology, 8 (1973) 1 3 7 - - 1 4 7

© Elsevier S e q u o i a S.A., L a u s a n n e - - Printed in T h e N e t h e r l a n d s

Cause and p r e v e n t i o n o f dust e x p l o s i o n s in gr~in elevators*

and f l o u r m i l l g * *
O.F. THEIMER

Becker-Gundhal-Str. 16, 8 Munich 711 (Germany)

(Received O c t o b e r I 0 , 1972; a c c e p t e d A p r i l I 0 , 1973)

Summary INTRODUCTION

Grain a n d f l o u r d u s t s can f o r m e x p l o s i v e Experience and laboratory tests have

c l o u d s and, b e c a u s e e x p l o s i o n s f r o m s u c h showx~ t h a t f i n e l y d i v i d e d p a r t i c l e s o f v i r t u a l l y
c l o u d s h a v e c a u s e d s o m e o f t h e w o r s t indus- all combustible materinl~ can produce violent
trial a c c i d e n t s , it is n e c e s s a r y to d r a w p u b l i c explosions if the particles are suspended in
a t t e n t i o n t o this p r o b l e m . S t a t i s t i c s o f d u s t the air and ignited. At the turn of the century
e x p l o s i o n s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s h o w t h a t the major dust explosion hazards were fairly
m o r e t h a n 5 0 % o f all e x p l o s i o n s o f c o m b u s - c o n f i n e d t o c o a l m i n e s , milling p r o p e r t i e s ,
tible d u s t s h a v e o c c u r r e d in grain e l e v a t o r s and a few chemical operations. Since that
a n d f l o u r mills. D u s t s f r o m w h e a t a n d o t h e r time many other dusts have been introduced
grains, as w e l l as f r o m f l o u r , i g n i t e a n d p r o p - and have become more prevalent. These in-
agate f l a m e s r e a d i l y b e c a u s e t h e s o u r c e o f clude chemicals, metals, plastics, soaps and
h e a t r e q u i r e d is r e l a t w e l y small. T h e a u t h o r additional products in agricultural milling.
analyzes conditions a n d causes o f d u s t explo- An examination of the Report of Impor-
s i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e critical c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f tant Dust Explosions I published by the Na-
d u s t a n d air a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s n e c e s s a r y tional Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
to ignite a n e x p l o s i o n . H e d e s c r i b e s t h e e f f e c t shows that dust ignitions have occurred pri-
a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f d u s t e x p l o s i o n s in e x a m - marily in plants handling grain, feed, starch,
p l e s o f r e c e n t disasters in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s sugar, powdered milk, fertilizer, wood and
and Europe and recommends preventive mea- paper dusts. The nature of the combustible
sures, as w e l l as s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f b u i l d i n g material influences the explosions. In the re-
a n d p l a n t , t o a v o i d t h e m a n y injuries a n d port 1120 explosions are mentioned in the
deaths, as w e l l as m a t e r i a l losses w o r t h mil- United States during the period from 1900 to
lions o f dollars, r e s u l t i n g f r o m s u c h e x p l o - 1956, of which 536 (48% of the total number
sions. of explosions) have occurred in industries
handling grain, feed and flour. In these 536
explosions, 392 persons were killed, 1015
* I n t h e United S t a t e s a n d Canada, t h e bins f o r b u l k were injured and the material losses amounted
storage o f grain are called " g r a i n elevators", whereas
in E n g l a n d a n d c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e t h e y are called to $75,888,500. This indicates that dust from
"'grain silos". I n t h e U n i t e d States, t h e w o r d "'silo" grain products is most dangerous because it
pertains p r i m a r i l y t o f a r m storage t a n k s used largely ignites and propagates flames easily, the
for silage. source of heat required being small. Included
** C o n t r i b u t e d b y t h e Materials Handling Engineering in this category are flour, dust from wheat
D i v i s i o n o f T h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f Mechanical
Engineers f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e 2 n d S y m p o s i u m and other grains and seeds, which are the ma-
o n S t o r a g e a n d F l o w o f S o l i d s , C h i c a g o , Ill., S e p t e m - teriAl~ of flour milling and ingredients of the
ber 1 7 - - 2 0 , 1 9 7 2 . food industries.
 138

W h e n a m a s s o f s o l i d f l a m m a b l e m a t e r i a l is this may seem to be a very low concentration,

heated, it burns away slowly, owing to the the appearance of a dust cloud of such con-
limited surface exposed to the oxygen of the centration resembles a very dense fog. The
air. T h e e n e r g y p r o d u c e d is r e l e a s e d s l o w l y reason why still lower dust concentrations do
and harmlessly to the surrounding atmo- n o t e x p l o d e is t h e g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n
s p h e r e . B u t w h e n t h e s a m e m a s s o f m a t e r i a l is t h e d u s t p a r t i c l e s . H e a t is c o n s u m e d b y t h e a i r
ground to a fine powder and mixed with air in before it reaches the next particle. Only if the
the form of a dust cloud, and if ignition now p a r t i c l e s a r e c l o s e e n o u g h t o e a c h o t h e r is t h e
occurs, the whole material will burn at once combustion released in a chain reaction result-
v i o l e n t l y . T h e e n e r g y is n o w r e l e a s e d s u d d e n - ing in a dust explosion.
ly with the evolution of large quantities of The upper explosive limits are not well de-
c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s . T h i s s u d d e n re- fmed, but for flour dust 1.0 oz/ft 3
l e a s e o f p r e s s u r e a n d h e a t is t e r m e d a s d u s t (1000 g/m 3 ) of air, and for the other grain
explosion. dusts 2.0 oz/ft 3 (2000 g/m 3 ) of air have been
D u s t e x p l o s i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o gas e x p l o - suggested. For still higher dust concentra-
s i o n s , a n d t h e s i m i l a r i t y is m o r e p r o n o u n c e d tions, the incomplete combustion of the dust
as t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e d e c r e a s e s . T h e f i n e r o r particles retards the ignition and prevents the
smaller the size of the particles, the more explosion. Heaps of dust and flour do not ex-
v i o l e n t is t h e e x p l o s i o n , t h e less e n e r g y ( h e a t ) plode when ignited, they merely smoulder.
is r e q u i r e d t o i g n i t e i t , a n d t h e m o r e l i k e l y i t As already mentioned, the particle size ex-
is t h a t t h e d u s t w i l l r e m a i n i n s u s p e n s i o n i n erts a considerable influence on the explosive-
the air for a longer period of time. The dust ness of a dust cloud. A reduction in size of
can travel from room to room, floor to floor, the particles means an increase in the surface
and building to building, if stirred up by a a r e a p e r u n i t weigh*_ a n d t h e r e f o r e a m o r e i n t i -
small primary explosion. The damages from mate contact of the particles with the oxygen
the ensuing secondary explosion can be disas- of the air, which means an increase in the
t r o u s , as w i l l b e s h o w n i n p i c t u r e s i n a f o l l o w - chance of ignition.
ing paragraph. The moisture content of dust also has an
influence on the explosive limit. Dry dust
tends to increase the flammability of dust par-
CAUSES O F DUST EXPLOSIONS ticles and increases the likelihood of forma-
tion of dust clouds. Dust accumulates on
There are three principal factors respon- f l o o r s , ws11% o v e r h e a d s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s ,
sible for releasing dust explosions: ledges of doors and windows, overhead ducts,
(1) a mixture of dust and air in the from of pipings and electrical conduits, beams and
a dust cloud, girders. Such dust, resting there for a length
( 2 ) a s o u r c e o f i g n i t i o n , s u c h as hot sur- of time, gets "'seasoned" with oxygen and be-
faces, sparks a n d f l a m e s , a n d comes most dangerous. The accumulations
(3) chemical reaction in a confined volume. overhead present an even more severe hazard
t h a n t h o s e o n t h e f l o o r , as t h e y c a n b e easily
disturbed to create a dust cloud.
EXPLOSIVE LIMITS

Although a mixture of dust and air may IGNITION TEMPERATURES

b u r n w i t h e x p l o s i v e v i o l e n c e , n o t all m i x t u r e s
will d o s o . T h e r e is a c e r t a i n r a n g e o f c o n c e n - Mixtures of dust and air which are capable
tration of dust and air within which the mix- of explosion will not explode of their own
ture can explode, but mixtures above and be- a c c o r d , as, f o r i n s t a n c e , p y r o p h o r i c m a t e r i a l s .
low this range cannot. Some part of the cloud must be heated to a
The lowest concentration -- or lower explo- minimum temperature to ignite the dust. This
sive l i m i t - - o f g r a i n a n d f l o u r d u s t s m a y b e t e m p e r a t u r e is r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e i g n i t i o n t e m -
assumed at 0.02 oz/ft 3 (20 g/m 3)2. Although perature, and it varies according to the materi-
 139

al involved. According t o S a u e r t e i g 3, t h e i g n i - (f) friction sparks and heat from excessive

tion temperatures are: friction in bearings, sparks resulting from
chmaged transformers;
rye dust 430--500 °C (g) static electricity due to induction from
wheat dust 420--485 °C dri~ing belts and to the grinding effect, when
rye flour 435--470 °C accumulation of an electrostatic charge is re-
wheat flour 410--430° C leased in a dangerous spark capable of igniting
corn starch 410--450° C a dust cloud;
(h) welding, cutting and soldering within
The ignition temperatures given above refer to the plant;
relative humidities of the air of 30--90%. (i) spontaneous ignition in the storage of
T h e i g n i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e is t h e l o w e s t t e m - g r a i n a n d i t s p r o d u c t s . I f t h e h e a t is n o t d i s -
perature of a heated surface necessary to ig- persed, the ignition temperature of the mate-
nite dust blown against this surface. The par- rial may be reached and cause a dust explo-
t i c l e s i z e is a l s o o f i n f l u e n c e o n t h e i g n i t i o n sion as will be explained in a rare case of a
temperature. Most grain and flour dusts can dust explosion later on.
be ignited by hot surfaces at temperatures of
the order of 400--500°C, as shown above.
Evenat temperatures of 200°C, dust can be EFFECTS OF A DUST EXPLOSION
ignited in favorable conditions and cause the
danger of smouldering. Smouldering dust can A dust explosion is accompanied by an ex-
so cause an explosion. tremely rapid rise in pressure. This is due parb
Although some materials are pyrophoric or ly to the sudden evolution of large volumes of
capable of igniting spontaneously when ex- gases produced by the chemical reaction, part-
posed to air, the following conditions must ly also to the local pressure rise caused by the
exist in order that ordinary finely dispersed large amount of heat liberated. Figure 1
materials will explode: s h o w s t h e _rise o f p r e s s u r e i n a l a b o r a t o r y t e s t
(1) the concentration of dust in air must in a closed vessel with wheat dust at a concen-
fall within the the explosive limits, and t r a t i o n o f 0 . 5 o z / f t 3 ( 5 0 0 g / m 3 ) o f a i r 5.
(2) a source of heat at or above the ignition As can be seen from the diagram, the high-
temperature of the dust cloud must be pre- est pressure rise of 3.2 tons/ft 2 (32 Mp/m 2 )
occurs after 0.14 sec from the moment of ig-
sent.
nition, shown by the ordinate D--H. The high-
est pressure rise occurred within the first
SOURCES O F I G N I T I O N tenth of a second indiea~ed by the ordinate
G--F with a rise of 50 tons/ft 2 sec (500
Each source of heat at the minimum igni- Mp/m 2 sec). The average pressure rise, £e. the
t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e c a n , w h e r e d u s t is d i s p e r s e d final pressure divided by the time from the
in the air in critical concentrations, cause a moment of ignition, in our case 3.2/0.14 = 23
dust explosion. According to a British Code t o n s / f t 2 / s e c ( 3 2 0 M p / m 2 / s e c ) , is a n i m p o r t a n t
o f P r a c t i c e s 4, s u c h s o u r c e s o f i g n i t i o n s a r e : factor. An explosion with a slow pressure rise
(a) open flames from lights and matches, can escape through ventilation, doors and
also from burning cigarettes;
(b) heat generated on pulleys of bucket ele- t

vators due to belt slip;

(c) hot surfaces of radiators, steam heating
piping, hot bearings, hot light bulbs or other
131 i
electrical appliances;
(d) small sparks originated by metal parts
i n r o t a t i n g m a c h i n e r y b e t w e e n r o l l e r mil]_~ C_~
grinding machines, or caused by a nail in a
shoe; 0 ~1 ~ ~ 0,~.
TIME. ~¢
(e) electric sparks generated during opera-
tion of switch gear, or when fuses blow, or Fig. 1. Pressure curve o f c o m b u s t i o n t e s t w i t h w h e a t
cables or equipment are d~maged; d u s t a t zh o z / f t 3 air c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
 140

windows, into the open air. However, by a

rapid pressure rise, a pressure wave of high
i n t e n s i t y is o r i g i n a t e d s o t h a t n o r m a l v e n t s f o r
the release of explosion pressures are insuffi-
c i e n t a n d t h e b u i l d i n g is b l o w n u p .
Usually, if all ignition of flammable dust
t a k e s p l a c e in a r o o m o f t h e e l e v a t o r o r f l o u r
mill, at first a relatively mild primary explo-
s i o n is o r i g i n a t e d c o n n e c t e d w i t h a h o t b l a z e ,
but mostly of a non-dangerous character. But
t h i s f l a m e sel-Jes as a m e a n s o f i g n i t i o n o f d u s t
dispersed by the first mild explosion. The sec-
ondary explosion, usually far more severe and
powerful than the primary explosion, dis-
perses more dust and ignites these clouds until
t h e w h o l e b u i l d i n g is s w e p t b y e x p l o s i o n s .
The combustion of the great accumulations of
dust produces the high pressure rise which
causes disastrous damage to plant and ma-
chinery, especially in the basement of the ele-
v a t o r , in t h e t u n n e l s u n d e r t h e b i n s , o r u p i n
t h e h e a d h o u s e . T h e p r e s s u r e b u i l d s u p in f r a c -
tions of a second and may be sufficiently Fig. 2. D u s t e x p l o s i o n o f P e a v e y t e r m i n a l e l e v a t o r a t
great to shatter the strongest barriers. The Duluth, Minnesota. 1916.
ejection of burning dust from the plant, and
the heat radiated from the flash of the explo- late in the building. The damaged headhouse
s i o n , a r e l i a b l e t o s t a r t f i r e s . T h a t is t h e r e a s o n is s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . T h e r o o f g a l l e r y a b o v e t h e
why dust explosions are usually followed by bins was also destroyed.
fires with damage to persons, plant and build- Feed mills are frequently swept by dust ex-
ings. plosions. A corn dust explosion occurred in
the feed mill "Wayne Feeds" at Waynesboro,
G a . , M a y 2 5 , 1 9 5 5 , a s s h o w n i n F i g . 5. T h r e e
RECENT DUST EXPLOSIONS IN THE UNITED men were killed, 13 were injured, and exten-
STATES, C A N A D A A N D E U R O P E sive property damage was caused by the vio-
lent explosion.
One of the earliest and most serious acci- Figure 6 shows the result of a grain dust
dents was the grain dust explosion of the explosion in the workhouse of the South
Peavey terminal elevator at Duluth, Minn., in Chicago elevator in 1956. Because of the light
1916 (Fig. 2). After the explosion, the steel frame construction of the roof gallery on
cribbed grain bins caught fire, completely des-
troying the elevator. This was one of the
worst roaring infernos in dust explosions.
I n F i g . 3, t h e d a m a g e o f t h e P o r t C o l b o u r -
n e e l e v a t o r in O n t a r i o , C a n a d a , is s h o w n . T h i s
explosion occurred in steel bins, the roof
being blown off entirely. The ensuing fire also
damaged the headhouse seriously.
A grain dust explosion also seriously dam-
aged the ~rain elevator No. 4A of the Saskat-
c h e w a n g r a i n p o o l s , Sept. 24, 1 9 5 2 , w h e r e s i x
men were killed and 14 injured. The primary
explosion in a shipping bin was followed by a
secondary explosion involving large quantities Fig. 3. Dust explosion of grain elevator at Port Col-
of dust which had been allowed to accumu- bourne in Canada, 1949.
 141

Fig. 4. Grain dust explosion, grain elevator of Sas- Fig. 6. Dust explosion of South Chicago elevator,
katchewan grain pools at Port Arthur, Canada, Sept. 1956.
24, 1952.
vator pit, when a spark ignited the dust in the
top of bins, the explosion pressure was re- running bucket elevator. The pressure wave of
lieved so that the concrete bins below were the explosion went up through the elevator
not seriously damaged. s h a f t , r i p p i n g t h e c a s i n g o f t h e e l e v a t o r leg,
Figure 7 shows another severe explosio,1 Fig. 8, a n d c o n t i n u i n g u p t o t h e roof~ c a u s i n g
which occurred in Kansas City, Mo., in 1958, severe damage to the building and machinery.
when the Murray elevator was badly damaged. A more recent flour dust explosion caused
The headhouse of steel construction was com- serious damage to the Sun flour mills in
pletely shattered and its installations destroy- L o n d o n o n A u g . 7, 1 9 6 5 , as s h o w n i n F i g . 9.
ed by fire.
A dust explosion which was caused by
welding of a spout, excessively worn by the
flow of grain, occurred in the Kampffmeyer
grain silo at A l b e r n n e a r V i e n n a , J u l y 4,
1 9 6 0 6 . T h e w e l d i n g w a s p e r f o r m e d in t h e ele-

Fig. 5. Corn dust e x p l o s i o n in feed mill of Allied Mills Fig. 7. Dust explosion o f Murray elevator. Kansas
at Waynesboro, Georgia, May 25, 1955. City, l~lissouri, 1958.
142

Fig. 10. Dust explosion of grain silos at Kiel, North-

ern Germany, Dec. 14, 1970.

In Germany, the grain silos at Kiel-Nord-

hafen on the Kaiser Wilhelm shipping canal,
connecting the North and Baltic seas, were
seriously damaged by a most violent dust ex-
plosion on Dec. 14, 1970. Figure 10 shows the
damaged buildings. It was the worst accident of
this kind in Germany. Six men died and 17
were injured. The damage to plant, building
a n d m a c h i n e r y is e s t i m a t e d a t 1 0 m i l l i o n d o l -
lars.
Fig. 8. Shattered bucket elevator by dust explosion of And finally the latest important dust explo-
Kampffmeyer grain silo at Albern, near Vienna, Aus- sion occurred again in the United States at
tria.
D e s t r a h a n n e a r N e w O r l e a n s , w h e r e a B~mge
Corp. terminal elevator with an 8,0C0,000-
F o u r m e n d i e d a n d 37 w e r e injured when a b u s h e l c a p a c i t y w a s b a d l y d a m a g e d . 7'.;~tre 11
giant blast shattered and set ablaze the mill shows the result of the terrific bias'. So force-
building and a wheat storage silo of cribbed furl w a s t h e e x p l o s i o n t h a t t h e ro.~f g a l l e r y
c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e e x p l o s i o n is believed to have a b o v e t h e s t o r a g e t a n k s w a s entire.~y b l o w n
been initiated by welding a bin containing off. It was reportedly caused by a ch¢-ked belt
f l o u r 7.
conveyor. The heat from the explosion and

- . - - - .

_ . . - . .

Fig. 1 1 . D u s t e x p l o s i o n o f 8 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 - b u s h e l B u n g e
Fig. 9. D u s t e x p l o s i o n , S u n flour mills, L o n d o n , A u g . Corp. t e r m i n a l e l e v a t o r at D e s t r a h a n near N e w Or-
7, 1965. leans, A p r i l , 1 9 7 1 .
 143

the resultant fire badly damaged the concrete t i o n is t h e p r i n c i p a l m e t h o d b y w h i c h d u s t

storage bins and the adjacent workhouse. clouds are controlled by means of induced air
These pictures show only a few of the most currents supplied through specially designed
important dust explosion accidents of recent dust~collecting systems. Venting may also be
years. The many minor explosion hazards in u s e d f o r t h e r e l i e f in b i n s , h e a d s o f b u c k e t
subterminals and country elevators have been elevators, garners and scale hoppers. When
so frequent that insurance companies have practicable, the exhaust system should be
been reluctant to cover the great risks con- operated under slight negative pressure to re-
nected with dust explosions. In spite of the duce the escape of dust.
guidelines issued by the National Fire Protec- T o f a c i l i t a t e c l e a n i n g , c a r e f u l d e s i g n mud
tion Association (NFPA) in Boston s, the sim- c o n s t r u c t i o n o f w o r k r o o m s is r e c o m m e n d e d .
plest precautions are often disregarded, caus- According to the German Code for the pre-
ing such serious accidents. v e n t i o n o f d u s t e x p l o s i o n s 9, all f l o o r s a n d
walls should be made smooth and corners
should be rounded. Horizontal surfaces
PREVENTIVE MEASURES should be kept to a minimum to reduce the
accumulation of dust. In the case of horizon-
W i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e o f h o w e x p l o s i o n s axe tal surfaces inaccessible for adequate cleaning,
caused, the means for preventing them be- t h e y s h o u l d b e i n c l i n e d as s t e e p l y as p o s s i b l e .
come obvious. Prevention of dust explosions Cornices and ledges should be bevelled to an
can be achieved by avoiding explosive concen- angle of 60 ° to minimize settlement of dust.
trations of dust and ignition temperatures. As Door frames and fittings should be made flush
i t is p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d t h e s e t w o with the walls. Girders and beams should be
principal factors completely in grain elevators enclosed. Equipment should not be placed
and flour mills, there will be always a risk of too close to the walls to permit cleaning.
an explosion. Dust will always develop and Painting of walls should be made in such a
i g n i t i o n s o u r c e s are a l w a y s p r e s e n t . B u t all ef- color that dust can be easily recognized. In
forts should be made to minimize the effects t h e s e t t l e d s t a t e , d u s t is n o t e x p l o s i v e , b u t
o f a n e x p l o s i o n i f o n e o c c u r s as a r e s u l t o f any unusual shock may displace some of it
disregarding the development of explosive and disperse it in the form of a dust cloud.
dust concentrations and ignition tempera-
tures. Codes and recommendations in this re- Prevention of means of ignition
spect have been issued by insurance compa- A f t e r all p r a c t i c a l p r e c a u t i o n s h a v e b e e n
nies and public agencies. Only the main rules taken to avoid the formation of dust clouds,
w i l l b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e i n o r d e r t o give a g e n - the second precautionary measure has to be
eral picture of the problem of dust explo- considered -- the avoidance of ignition tem-
sions. p e r a t u r e s . T h i s is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t
part of the whole problem. Every precaution
Prevention of dust clouds must be taken to foresee ignition and to avoid
It was recognized that concentrations of it. S o m e o f t h e m o r e o b v i o u s o n e s a r e :
dust in air cannot be avoided altogether in the
processing and conveying of materials. How- Flames and hot surfaces
ever, this condition can be confined to the Naked flames, hot surfaces or any glowing
processing equipment, transfer systems, and elements must not be exposed in premises
storage facilities. The emission of dust into with flammable dust clouds. Open lights,
building areas, and the subsequent accumula- striking of matches, the use of cigarette light-
tion of static dust, can and should be avoided. ers a n d , a b o v e all, s m o k i n g s h o u l d b e abso-
Care must be taken to keep dust to a mini- lutely forbidden, the only exception being in
m u m . G o o d h o u s e k e e p i n g is t h e m o s t i m p o r - s p e c i a l l y a u t h o r i z e d places., s u c h as c a n t e e n s ,
tant rule in grain elevators and flour mills. offices, wash and recreation rooms, where
The dust must be prevented from escaping notices to this effect have to be posted.
from the equipment. The best method of con-
t r o l l i n g d u s t a c c u m u l a t i o n is t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n Smell of burning
of a permanent exhaust system for dust. Suc- If anything suggesting the possibility of fire
 144

is n o t i c e d in t h e e l e v a t o r o r f l o u r mill, s u c h as of glowing material began to discharge and

t h e smell o f s m o u l d e r i n g d u s t o r w h e a t , t h e d r o p o n t o t h e b e l t c o n v e y o r i n t h e t u n n e l be-
c a u s e o f w h i c h c a n n o t b e t r a c e d i n s t a n t l y , im- l o w bins. A f t e r s o m e t i m e a ball ~f fire c a m e
mediate steps s h o u l d be t a k e n t o i n f o r m the down out of the hopper. Sone corn had
f o r e m a n u n t i l t h e c a u s e is d i s c o v e r e d a n d t h e h u n g - u p o n t h e b i n w~ll.% a n d wl~en it b r o k e
necessary action taken. l o o s e e n o u g h t u r b u l e n c e w a s c r e a t e d in t h e
bin t o stir u p a d u s t c l o u d a n d t o i g n i t e it b y
H o t bearings the burning corn. A serious secondary explo-
A n y h o t b e a r i n g o f m o t o r s , b u c k e t eleva- sion followed, d a m a g i n g t h e elevator structure
tors, cleaners, e t c . , w h i c h are d e t e c t e d s h o u l d seriously. Therefore, if appreciable tempera-
be r e p o r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y t o t h e p e r s o n in t u r e rise is d e t e c t e d in g r a i n bins, t h e m a t e r i a l
charge o f t h e s h i f t a n d b y h i m t o t h e s u p e r i n - should be r e ~ i r c u l a t e d t o dissipate the heat.
t e n d e n t , so t h a t t h e p l a n t c a n b e s t o p p e d a n d
the h o t spots eliminated. Electrical appliances
Electric cables or the wiring o f electrical
Welding a p p l i a n c e s s h o u l d n o t b e i n t e r f e r e d w i t h ex-
Many dust explosions have been caused by cept by competent electricians. Dust explo-
t h e use o f e l e c t r i c o r gas c u t t i n g a n d w e l d i n g sions m a y be ignited b y sparks generated b y
e q u i p m e n t . T h e r e f o r e , all e m p l o y e e s s h o u l d loose electrical contacts, or during o p e r a t i o n
be a w a r e t h a t w e l d i n g , s o l d e r i n g o r c u t t i n g o f s w i t c h gear, w h e n f u s e s b l o w , o r c a b l e s o r
e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d never b e u s e d in a n y p a r t e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t is d a m a g e d .
of the building without the explicit approval
of the superintendent. Work involving cutting, F r i c t i o n sparks a n d h e a t
s o l d e r i n g o r w e l d i n g is o f t e n u n d e r t a k e n b y M a n y e x p l o s i o n s h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y fric-
o u t s i d e c o n t r a c t o r s . I n e v e r y o n e ' s i n t e r e s t , all tional sparks resulting from foreign bodies
e m p l o y e e s s h o u l d see t o it t h a t t h e a b o v e r u l e entering the elevator machinery. The entry of
is o b s e r v e d b y o u t s i d e w o r k e r s as t h e y m a y t r a m p i r o n c a n b e p r e v e n t e d b y t h e installa-
n o t b e a w a r e o f t h e s e r i o u s risks a n d d a n g e r s tion of magnetic separators. Nonmagnetic
involved. f o r e i g n b o d i e s , s u c h as s a n d , s t o n e s a n d t h e
like, m a y b e r e m o v e d b y t h e u s e o f p n e u m a t i c
S p o n t a n e o u s heating separators. Men should be required to wear
T h e s t o r a g e o f g r a i n a n d its p r o d u c t s c a n , s h o e s w i t h o u t nails.
under certain conditions, p r o m o t e self-heat- A n o t h e r i g n i t i o n h a z a r d , w h i c h is n o t c o m -
ing. High w a t e r c o n t e n t o f t h e g r a i n , o r l e a k - m o n l y k n o w n , is t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f alu-
ing ,-vails and_ r o o f s , c a n l e a d t o " ' h o t s p o t s " in minum and rust. If aluminum paint, or other
bins a n d b u l k f l o u r c o n t a i n e r s . D a m p n e s s c a n paint c o n t a i n i n g high percentages o f light
c a u s e swelling a n d s e l f - h e a t i n g o f f l o u r a n d m e t a l p o w d e r s , is a p p l i e d t o r u s t y s u r f a c e s ,
grain, a n d is d a n g e r o u s w h e n it c o m e s h~£o a n d t h i s p a i n t is s t r u c k s h a r p l y b y a h a r d o b -
c o n t a c t w i t h electrical e q u i p m e n t . ject, an intense flash can result. S u c h paints
M o s t modern, b u l k s t o r a g e facilities a r e s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d in e l e v a t o r a n d mill b u i l d -
equipped with temperature detection systems, ings.
i n d i c a t i n g s u c h " ' h o t s p o t s . ' " I f t h e h e a t is n o t
dissipated, t h e i g n i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e S t a t i c electricity
m a t e r i a l m a y be r e a c h e d . E x p l o s i o n s m a y fol- S t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y is g e n e r a t e d b y e i t h e r
love if d u s t is s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s p e r s e d i n t o a separating t w o dissimilar surfaces, w h i c h have
c l o u d . A n e x a m p l e o f s u c h a n e x p l o s i o n is a n b e e n in i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t , o r b y f r i c t i o n o f
a c c i d e n t w h i c h o c c u r r e d in a g r a i n s t o r a g e ele- n o n c o n d u c t i v e materials, w h i c h m a y cause
v a t o r a t t h e H a r r i s b u r g , Pa., p l a n t o f t h e Ral- i g n i t i o n b y s p a r k s i f t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f elec-
s t o n P u r i n a C o m p a n y o n D e c . 7, 1 9 6 8 1 o_ T h e trical charges exceeds the spark discharge
personnel became aware of the problem with p o t e n t i a l . P o o r l y c o n d u c t i n g p o w d e r s like
corn stored w h e n t h e y d e t e c t e d a smell o f flour become electrostatically charged when
b u r n i n g . This w a s t r a c e d t o a b i n b y r e a d i n g s conveyed pneumatically through ducts of
on a remote temperature indicator. By trans- nonconducting m a t e r i a l , o r also t h r o u g h
ferVmg t h e c o r n t o a n o t h e r b i n , large c h u n k s m e t a l d u c t s . T h e r e f o r e , all e l e c t r i c m o t o r s ,
 145

cyclones, dust collectors, dusts of pneumati- have resulted from a combination of lightning
cal c o n v e y i n g s y s t e m s , a i r - p i p e s a n d p i p e s and grain dust. Focus of the explosion was
c o n v e y i n g s t o c k s , all m e t a l bins o r bins w i t h t h e head_house o f t h e e l e v a t o r , w h i c h h a d n o
metal hoppers, etc., should be adequately lightning conductor. Damage was extensive, as
grounded. All ground wires should be con- the workhouse was in the center of the eleva-
nected to bare metal and not to paint or any tor complex, housing machinery for handling
other covering. Preferably, a common ground- and storage operations. It was estimated that
ing system should be used and should be test- the complete repairs will cost more than 1
ed regularly to ensure its adequacy. million dollars.

Magnets Bucket elevators

All electric magnets should be inspected Dust explosions have frequently been caus-
a n d c l e a n e d a t l e a s t o n c e a w e e k . I t is n o t ed by the heating of elevator pulleys, when
sufficient merely to clean the magnets; the elevator belts were slipping and heat was gen-
collected metal should also be examined. e r a t e d . T h i s is o f t e n d u e t o o v e r - l o a d i n g o f
When any particles recur persistently, the ori- bucket elevators. Proper maintenance and
gin s h o u l d b e t r a c e d a n d t h e cause e l i m i n a t e d . lubrication of internal pulleys and attention
Care should also be taken to see that no re- t o t h e e l e v a t o r t e n s i o n is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e .
l e a s e d m e t a l fall~ i n t o t h e s p o u t i n g o r t h e Belt-tightening gear and anti-run-back devices
machine which follows the magnet to avoid ahould be installed.
friction s p a r k s .
Watchman
Bins An important contribution to the preven-
It should be kept in mind constantly that t i o n o f d u s t e x p l o s i o n s is a l s o t h e r e g ~ d a r i n -
the introduction of bulk storage of grain and s p e c t i o n o f t h e p l a n t b y a w a t c h m a n . I t is
mill products has created a potential hazard. recommended that a senior employee should
In addition to the dust hazard, a mass of pow- patrol the whole plant for at least two hours
der can retain considerable static electrical a f t e r c e s s a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n . T h e p u r p o s e is
c h a r g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f i t is d r y a n d p n e u m a t i - to detect possible smouldering fires or extre-
cally conveyed. In these circumstances, the mely hot hearings or radiators, to make cer-
l o w e r i n g o f m e t a l o b j e c t s i n t o b i n s is a d a n g e - tain that no actual cause for a possible dust
rous practice. Therefore, steps should be explosion exists.
taken to ensure that:
(a) L a m p s o n e l e c t r i c a l l e a d s s h o u l d n o t i n
any circnmstances be lowered into bins for DESIGN OF BUILDING AND PLANT
inspecting the interior. Battery operated beam
t y p e h a n d l a m p s axe r e c o m m e n d e d f o r b i n i n - Another means of preventing or at least
spection. m i n i m i z i n g t h e d a n g e r o f d u s t e x p l o s i o n s is
(b) Metal objects, including reinforced steel the proper design of buildings and plant.
metal tapes, should not be lowered into bins. Plants handling flammable materials should -
(c) All m e t a l bins, o r bins w i t h m e t a l h o p - ideally be installed in the open air, or beneath
p e t s , s h o u l d b e g r o u n d e d , as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n - l i g h t s t r u c t u r e s . A l t h o u g h t h i s is q u i t e i m p r a c -
ed. t i c a l f o r g r a i n e l e v a t o r s a n d f l o u r m i l l s , i t is
(d) External metal bins should be fitted possible and advisable to give special attention
with lightning conductors. to the location of the building so that an ex-
In connection with the aforementioned, it p l o s i o n c a n b e l o c a l i z e d . A s l a r g e a s p a c e as
is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h a t a s e r i o u s d u s t e x p l o - possible should be provided between the vari-
sion was caused in the public elevator at Cor- ous buildings, or sections of the elevator, to
pus Christi, Texas, when a bolt of lightning obtain adequate protection from spreading of
struck the headhouse in the midst of a heavy fire and secondary dust explosions.
t h u n d e r s t o r m * . T h e e x p l o s i o n is b e l i e v e d t o Adequate explosion venting of the building
is e s s e n t i a l a t p o i n t s w h e r e t h e r e a r e d u s t
hazards. An explosion relief vent should open
* S e e G r a i n , F e b . 1 9 6 9 , p- 1 8 . to relieve pressure which might otherwise
 ].46

burst the structure. Such explosion reliefs devices to prevent the possibility of fire by
may be: friction due to belt slip.
(a) r e l i e f p a n e ls o f light b r i c k wall, o r light Bins and tanks should be constructed of
roof construction, non,combustible or fire-resistant : material.
(b) large windows and armored bursting re- They should be provided with dust-tight and
lief panels, water-tight manhole covers. All bin tops
(c) m o v a b l e e x p l o s i o n r e l i e f s s u c h em v e n t s , should be provided with explosion relief
seals, louvres a n d t o p h i n g e d t y p e w i n d o w s panels. The space above a block of bins
opening to the outside of the room. should be provided with explosion relief
Explosion relief pane!s and venting ducts to p a n e l s a n d a m p l e w i n d o w a r e a o p e n i n g out~
a t m o s p h e r e s h o u l d b e so c o n s t r u c t e d , in- wards, or have light roof structures. Small
s t a l l e d a n d p o s i t i o n e d as t o p r e s e n t m i n i m u m product bins included within the plant should
hazard to external areas in the event of an b e c o n s t r u c t e d o f f i r e - r e s i s t a n t .n~aterial a n d
explosion. Reliefs should open at a predeter- be adequately vented.
mined pressure to ensure safe operation. Electric motors should be the totally en-
When the predetermined pressure has been ex- closed fan-cooled type and adequately
ceeded, the reliefs should open rapidly. grounded. For lighting of the premises, fluo-
Workrooms where explosive dust concen- r e s c e n t l i g h t i n g is r e c o m m e n d e d . T o c o m p l y
trations are present should be provided with with the dust, prevention codes, all lighting fit-
1 m 2 of light relief panels (windows, vents, tings should be of the dust~protected type.
l o u v r e s ) f o r e a c h 2 5 m 3 o f t h e r o o m (1 f t 2 o f P e n d e n t lights, a n d all p o r t a b l e o r e x t e n s i o n
relief panel to each 80 ft 3 of volume). For lights should be equipped with heavy-duty
p l a n t t h e v e n t r a t i o r e q u i r e d is 1 m 2 f o r e a c h rubber jacketed cord. All portable lights used
6 m s (1 f t 2 f o r e a c h 2 0 f t ~ ) . R e l i e f p a n e l s in locations where combustible dust may be
must be dust-tight and have sufficient present are not safe unless equipped with ap-
strength to resist deterioration or corrosion, proved dust-tight outer globes and wire
so that the predetermined operation pressure guards. For more detailed recommendation
is n o t i n c r e a s e d . with respect to design of building, plant and
Proper general design and layout of plant m a c h i n e r y see N F P A S t a n d a r d N o . 61 B o f
and mechanical equipment and machinery 1970.
also contributes to the prevention of dust ex-
plosions. All plants should be strongly con-
s t r u c t e d , e n c l o s e d as f a r as p o s s i b l e a n d m a d e CONCLUSION
dust-tight to prevent the escape of dust. Dust-
collector units should be located near the As may have been noted from the above
machine being exhausted. All large dust-col- s t a t e m e n t s , t h e r e is l i t t l e c h a n c e o f a v o i d i n g
l e c t i n g u n i t s s h o u l d b e s i t u a t e d as c l o s e t o t h e explosive concentrations of dust and air at
o u t s i d e o f t h e b u i l d i n g as p o s s i b l e a n d p r o - some points. It will also have been noted that
vided with adequate explosion reliefs. Cyclo- i t is n e v e r s a f e t o a s s u m e t h a t a l l s o u r c e s o f
nes should be adequately vented. All dust col- ignition have been avoided.
lectors and cyclones should be grounded. All I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e r e is a r i s k o f a n e x p l o -
exhaust ducting should be designed and oper- sion in any grain elevator or flour mill, but the
a t e d s o as t o b e s e l f c l e a n i n g . risk will be negligible if proper precautions are
Roller mills should be immediately pre- taken.
ceded by magnetic separators. Roller-rain The only certain method of preventing in-
f r a m e s s h o u l d b e g r o u n d e d t o a l l o w t h e es- j u r y a n d d a m a g e f r o m e x p l o s i o n s is t o p r e v e n t
cape of any static electricity. e x p l o s i o n s f r o m o c c u r r i n g a t a l l . A s t h i s is
Bucket elevators by their nature produce a practically impossible, and as hllm~n negli-
dusty atmosphere within the casing. They gence and inattention cannot be avoided, con-
should be fitted with strong dust-tight metal stant attention to e|imlrtating dust leakage,
casings, a n d f o r h a n d l i n g w h e a t a n d f l o u r have good housekeeping, frequent cle~irlg, and
specially constructed metal heads and boots. above all, eternal vigilance are essential for the
High-capacity elevators should be fitted with safety of people and structure.
speed-responsive switches and anti-run-back If all people concerned, workers and man-