Communication system

TC-307
Lecture 5, week 2
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Week 2 Topics
Introduction to Communication System
1. Electromagnetic spectrum
2. Licensed and unlicensed freq spectrum
3. Hartley Shannon law and Nyquist criteria
4. Channel capacity for noisy and noiseless channel
5. Channel capacity or bit rate for binary and M-ary levels
6. MODEM
7. Multiplexing and multiple access
8. Terrestrial microwave and satellite communication
9. Introduction to phasor and line spectra

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 Frequency, cycle, wavelength
• Frequency. Frequency is the number of times a particular
phenomenon occurs in a given period of time. Frequency is measured
in cycles per second (cps). In electronics, the unit of frequency is the
hertz, named for the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.

• Cycle: One positive alternation and one negative alternation form a

cycle. A cycle consists of two voltage polarity reversals, current
reversals, or electromagnetic field oscillations. The cycles repeat,
forming a continuous but repetitive wave.

• We use wavelength while dealing with radio waves rather than

frequency.

• Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an EM wave occupies in

space. It is inversely proportional to frequency of wave.

• wavelength = velocity of light

Frequency

λ = c/ f λ= wavelength in meter, f= frequency in Hz

c= speed of light = 3x108 m/s or 11.8 x 109 inch/s

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Electromagnetic frequency spectrum
• Electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillate; i.e., the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic
fields vary at a specific rate. The field intensities fluctuate up and down, and the polarity reverses a
given number of times per second.
• The electromagnetic waves vary sinusoidally. Their frequency is measured in cycles per second
(cps) or hertz (Hz). These oscillations may occur at a very low frequency or at an extremely high
frequency.
• The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• An EM wave can propagate as V or I; along a metallic wire, as emitted radio waves through free
space, light wave in optical fiber.
• All electrical and electronic signals that radiate into free space fall into the electromagnetic
spectrum but signals carried by cables are not included . Signals carried by cable may share the
same frequencies of similar signals in the spectrum, but they are not termed as radio signals.
• EM Freq spectrum is divided into bands with names and boundary which is allocated by ITU
(International telecommunication Union). ITU is an international agency in control of allocating freq
and services within overall spectrum. 4
Extremely Low Frequencies. Extremely low frequencies (ELFs) are in the 30- to 300-Hz range. These include ac power line
frequencies (50 and 60 Hz are common), as well as those frequencies in the low end of the human audio range, low frequency
telemetry signals.
Voice Frequencies. Voice frequencies (VFs) are in the range of 300 to 3000 Hz. This is the normal range of human speech.
Standard telephone channels have 300-3000Hz bandwidth and are called voice band channels.
Very Low Frequencies. Very low frequencies (VLFs) extend from 3 kHz to 30 kHz and include the higher end of the human
hearing range up to about 15 or 20 kHz. Many musical instruments make sounds in this range as well as in the ELF and VF
ranges. The VLF range is also used in some government and military communication. For example, VLF radio transmission is
used by the navy to communicate with submarines.
Low Frequencies. Low frequencies (LFs) are in the 30- to 300-kHz range. The primary communication services using this range
are in aeronautical and marine navigation. Frequencies in this range are also used as subcarriers, signals that are modulated by
the baseband information.
Medium Frequencies. Medium frequencies (MFs) are in the 300- to 3000-kHz (0.3- to 3.0-MHz) range. The major application of
frequencies in this range is AM radio broadcasting (535 to 1605 kHz). Other applications in this range are various marine and
amateur radio communication.
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High Frequencies. High frequencies (HFs) are in the 3- to 30-MHz range. These are the frequencies generally known as short
waves. All kinds of simplex broadcasting and half duplex two-way radio communication take place in this range. Government
and military services use these frequencies for two-way communication. Amateur radio and CB communication also occur in
this part of the spectrum.
Very High Frequencies. Very high frequencies (VHFs) encompass the 30- to 300-MHz range. This popular frequency range is
used by many services, including mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communication, FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108
MHz), and television channels 2 through 13. Radio amateurs also have numerous bands in this frequency range.
Ultrahigh Frequencies. Ultrahigh frequencies (UHFs) encompass the 300- to 3000-MHz range. It includes the UHF TV channels
14 through 51, and it is used for land mobile communication and services such as cellular telephones, microwave and satellite
radio system as well as for military communication. Some radar and navigation services occupy this portion of the frequency
spectrum, and radio amateurs also have bands in this range.
Microwaves and SHFs. Frequencies between the 1000-MHz (1-GHz) and 30-GHz range are called microwaves. Microwave ovens
usually operate at 2.45 GHz. Superhigh frequencies (SHFs) are in the 3- to 30-GHz range. These microwave frequencies are
widely used for satellite communication and radar. Wireless local-area networks (LANs) and many cellular telephone systems
also occupy this region.
Extremely High Frequencies. Extremely high frequencies (EHFs) extend from 30 to 300 GHz. Electromagnetic signals with
frequencies higher than 30 GHz are referred to as millimeter waves. Equipment used to generate and receive signals in this
range is extremely complex and expensive, but there is growing use of this range for satellite communication telephony,
computer data, short-haul cellular networks, and some specialized radar.

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• Frequencies Between 300 GHz and the Optical Spectrum. It is a cross between RF
and optical. Lack of hardware and components limits its use. The region occupied by
3 different light waves: infrared, visible, and ultraviolet.
• Infrared frequencies are signals in 0.3 THz to 300-THz and are not generally referred
to as radio waves. Infrared refers to electromagnetic radiation generally associated
with heat. Infrared signals are used in electronic photography and astronomy,
missiles, airplane.
• Visible lights includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within visible range of
humans (0.3 PHz to 3 PHz). Light wave communication is used with optical fiber
systems which is used for transmission mediums.
• Ultraviolet range is 3PHz to 30 PHz
• X rays 30PHz to 300PHz
• Gamma rays 0.3 EHz to 3 EHz
• Cosmic rays 3 EHz to 30 EHz
• Beyond the visible region are the ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays.
These are all forms of electromagnetic radiation, but they are not used in
communication systems 7
ITU band designation are listed in table 1-6

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9
Licensed and unlicensed frequency bands

MNO= mobile network operator, QoS= Quality of service

LTE= long term evolution (4G) , GSM= Global System for Mobile Communications(2G)
LAA= License Assisted Access (3GPP standard for cellular transmission in the 5 GHz unlicensed frequency
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band
• Primary difference between licensed and
unlicensed bands is that the licensed bands are
allowed to be used only by the company who
have license, whereas the unlicensed bands are
used by anyone who wants to use them.
• licensed bands are paid while unlicensed are
free.
• ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) band is a
license free frequency band for operation of
industrial, scientific, and medical equipment.
• In Pakistan, PTA(Pakistan Telecommunication
Authority) give licenses for services.

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Laws/theorems used in CS

1. Nyquist Shannon sampling theorem

• This is used to calculate signal bandwidth.
• Sampling theorem states that ; “ A signal can be reconstructed from its samples if its original signal has no frequency above
half of its sampling frequency”.
• Minimum Nyquist bitrate for a binary (two level) system, Channel capacity/ bit rate should be twice of bandwidth.
r or C=2B
• With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity will then become r or C = 2B log2 N

2. Hartley shannon capacity theorem

• This is used to find channel bandwidth
• Channel capacity theorem states that; “ Rate of information transmission cannot exceed channel capacity”
• Hartley’s law is I or C = 2B (without noise)
• Hartley’s Shanon law is I or C = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) (with noise)

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Sampling
• Sampling is defined as, “The process of
measuring the instantaneous values of
continuous-time signal in a discrete form.”
• Sample is a piece of data taken from the whole
data which is continuous in the time domain.
• When a source generates an analog signal and if
that has to be digitized, having 1s and 0s i.e.,
High or Low, the signal has to be discretized in
time. This discretization of analog signal is called
as Sampling.
• A sampled signal is known as DT(discrete time)
signal
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Nyquist sampling rate
• For an analog signal to be reconstructed from the digitized signal, the sampling rate should
be highly considered. The rate of sampling should be such that the data in the message
signal should neither be lost nor it should get over-lapped. Hence, a rate was fixed for this,
called as Nyquist rate and is given by Nyquist sampling theorem which states:
“Minimum sampling rate is equal to twice the highest audio input frequency. fs ≥ 2fm
fs= minimum Nyquist sampling rate (Hz)
fm = maximum analog input frequency(Hz)
• If fs is less than 2fm; an impairment called aliasing occurs which leads to loss of information.

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 Channel/Information capacity
• Information is defined as knowledge or intelligence that is communicated ( transmitted or received) between two or more points.
• Information theory is study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communications systems. Information theory can be
used to determine the information capacity of a data communications system.
• Information capacity is a measure of how much info can be propagated through a CS and is function of bandwidth and transmission time and is defined as
maximum rate at which info can be transmitted across channel without error.
• The digital symbol used to represent information is the binary digit, or bit. Therefore, it is often convenient to express the information capacity of a system as a
bit rate. Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits per second (bps).
• Hartley in 1928 develop relationship btw Bandwidth(B in Hz), transmission time(t in sec), info capacity(I in bps). According to Hartley law is
I∝Bxt
From above equation, Information capacity is a linear function of bandwidth and transmission time and is directly proportional to both. If either the bandwidth or
the transmission time changes, a direct proportional change occurs in the information capacity.
• In 1948, Shannon publish paper relating to info capacity of comm channel to bandwidth and SNR. Highest the SNR, better the performance and higher the info
capacity. Mathematically Shannon limit for info capacity is :
I or C = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) or I or C = 3.32B log10 ( 1+ SNR)
Where I = information capacity in bits per second(bps) ;B= bandwidth in Hz; SNR = signal to noise power ratio( unitless)
• I = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) this relationship is also known as Hartley Shannon law, which sets an upper limit on performance of CS with given B and SNR.

Example: For standard telephone circuit with SNR of 1000(30dB) and bandwidth of 2.7kHz, determine Shannon limit for info capacity?
I or C = 3.32B log10 ( 1+ SNR) = 3.32x2700 log10 ( 1+ 1000) = 26.9 kbps
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 Transmission efficiency, Bit rate(bits per second), baud(symbols per second)
• Transmission efficiency is the accuracy and speed with which information, whether it is voice or video, analog or digital, is sent and received over
communication media.
• A bandwidth of only about 3 kHz is required to transmit voice so that it is intelligible and recognizable. However, a bandwidth of 15 to 20 kHz is
required to transmit music with full fidelity. Music inherently contains more information than voice, and so requires greater bandwidth. A picture
signal contains more information than a voice or music signal. Therefore, greater bandwidth is required to transmit it. A typical TV signal contains
both voice and picture; therefore, it is allocated 6 MHz of spectrum space.
• Stated mathematically, capacity becomes I or C = 2B (without noise in channel)
• When noise becomes an issue, expression will be I or C = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) (with noise)
Here C is the channel capacity expressed in bits per second and B is the channel bandwidth(Hz).
• the higher the bit rate, the wider the bandwidth needed to pass the signal with minimum distortion.
• Baud is a term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused with bit rate (bps).
• Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which is usually binary.
• Baud, like bit rate, refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred. Baud is a unit
of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate and, therefore, the terms symbols per second and baud are often used interchangeably. A
baud is also transmitted one at a time; however, a baud may represent more than one information bit.
• Mathematically, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element”ts” (called a symbol) may represent several information bits.
baud = 1/ ts
where baud = symbol rate (baud per second), ts = time of one signaling element (seconds)

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Nyquist bandwidth (Hz)
• Binary signals are generally encoded and transmitted one bit at a time in the form of discrete voltage
levels representing logic 1s (highs) and logic 0s (lows).
• According to Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an ideal noiseless transmission
medium at a rate equal to twice the bandwidth of the medium.
• The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist
bandwidth or sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, for binary signals with a given
bandwidth (B), the highest theoretical bit rate or channel capacity is 2B.
r = 2B, where r is the bit rate in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth.
Example: Find maximum theoretical bit capacity for a 10-kHz bandwidth? Also find bit period.
C= 2B= 2(10,000) = 20,000bps.
A 20,000-bps (20-kbps) binary signal has a bit period of t = 1/20,000 = 50x10-6 = 50 μs.
It takes 2 bit intervals to represent a full sine wave with alternating binary 0s and 1s, means one for the
positive alternation and one for the negative alternation. The 2 bit intervals make a period of 50 + 50 = 100
μs. This sine wave period translates to a sine wave frequency of f = 1/t = 1/100 μs = 1/100 x 10-6 =10,000 Hz
(10 kHz), which is exactly the cutoff frequency or bandwidth of the channel.
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Multiple Coding/Encoding, M-ary Levels
• M-ary Encoding; M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or
combinations possible for a given number of binary variables. Consider computer/digital source with more than two symbols.
• Channel capacity can be modified by using multiple-level encoding schemes that permit more bits per symbol to be transmitted and therefore
multiple voltage levels can be used. Use the equation C = 2B log2 N
N = 2m where N = no. of discrete signal or voltage levels/ encoding levels, m = no. of bits.
For example, with one bit, only 21 = 2 conditions are possible.
With two bits, 22 = 4 conditions are possible,
with three bits, 23 = 8 conditions are possible, and so on.

• If more than two levels are used for signaling (higher-than-binary encoding), more than one bit may be transmitted at a time, and it is possible to
propagate a bit rate that exceeds 2B. Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity is
r or C = 2B log2 N
where r or C = channel capacity (bps) , B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz), N = number of discrete signal or voltage levels

Example: For a binary signal with bit or symbol time of 1 μs. Find bit rate and Bw
• Bitrate or baud = 1/ ts = 1/ 1 μs= 1Mbps.
• The bandwidth needed to transmit this 1,000,000-bps or 1Mbps signal can be computed from C = 2B, or B = C/2. Thus a minimum bandwidth of
1,000,000 bps/2 = 500,000 Hz (500 kHz) is needed.
• same result is obtained with the new expression C = 2B log2 N ; B = C / 2 log2 N = 1000000/ 2 log2 2 = 1000000/ 2x1 = 500,000 Hz (500kHz)

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Example: Find the maximum channel capacity of a voice-grade telephone line with a bandwidth of 3100 Hz and an
S/N of 30 dB?
• First, 30 dB is converted to a power ratio. If dB=10 log P, where P is the power and becomes P= log-1 30/10 =
Antilog 3 = 1000
• I or C = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) = 3100 log2 ( 1+ 1000)= 3100 log2 1001 =3100x10 = 31000bps or 31kbps
Where log2 1001= 3.32 log10 1001 = 3.23x3 = 9.97 =10.
• A bit rate of 31,000 bps is surprisingly high for such a narrow bandwidth. In fact, it appears to conflict with that
maximum channel capacity is twice the channel bandwidth.
• If the bandwidth of the voice-grade line is 3100 Hz, then the channel capacity is C =2B = 2(3100)= 6200 bps.
That rate is for a binary (two level) system only, and it assumes no noise. How, then, can the Shannon-Hartley
theorem predict a channel capacity of 31,000 bps when noise is present?
• The Shannon-Hartley expression says that it is theoretically possible to achieve a 31,000-bps channel capacity on
a 3100-Hz bandwidth line. What it doesn’t say is that multilevel encoding is needed to do so.
• Using C = 2B log2 N , we have a C of 31,000 bps and a B of 3100 Hz. The number of coding or symbol levels has
not been specified. Rearranging the formula, we have log2 N = C/2B = 31000/6200 = 5; N=Antilog 5 = 25 = 32
• from above we conclude that to have ch. Capacity of 31kbps we need 32 different levels or symbols(multilevel
coding) instead of using 2 level(binary).
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Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 5, week 2
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
MODEM
• Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that allows a computer or another device, such as a router
or switch, to connect to the Internet. It converts or "modulates" an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and
0s) that a computer can recognize. Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device into an analog signal that can be
sent over standard telephone lines.
• The function of a modem is to modulate an analog carrier signal to carry digital information; and to demodulate a similar signal so as
to decode the digital information from the analog carrier signal.
• A modem is used for transmitting and receiving data over a communication channel, such as twisted-pair telephone lines, coaxial
cables, and optical fibres.
• The purpose of a modem is to convert a computer's data stream to analog format so that it can be transmitted over the analog
telephone line.
• The first modems were "dial-up," meaning they had to dial a phone number to connect to an ISP(Internet Service Provider). These
modems operated over standard analog phone lines and used the same frequencies as telephone calls, which limited their maximum
data transfer rate to 56 Kbps. Dial-up modems also required full use of the local telephone line, meaning voice calls would interrupt
the Internet connection.
• Modern modems are typically DSL(Digital Subscriber Line) or cable modem, which are considered “broadband” devices. DSL modems
operate over standard telephone lines, but use a wider frequency range. This allows for higher data transfer rates than dial-up
modems and enables them to not interfere with phone calls. Cable modems send and receive data over standard cable television
lines, which are typically coaxial cables. Most modern cable modems support DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification),
which provides an efficient way of transmitting TV, cable Internet, and digital phone signals over the same cable line.

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NOTE:
• Since a modem converts analog signals to digital and vice versa, it
may be considered an ADC or DAC.
• Modems are not needed for fiber optic connections because the
signals are transmitted digitally from beginning to end.
 Multiplexing and multiple access
• Both terms refer to sharing of communication
resource(CR).
• In Multiplexing, the resource allocation is assigned
and sharing of a channel such as telephone users
usually takes place confined to a local site ( circuit
board ). With multiplexing user requirement for
sharing CR are fixed.
• Multiple access usually involves remote sharing of a
resource such as in satellite communication or mobile
communication radio channel by large number of
users in dispersed locations. In MA, user requirements
dynamically change with time, so controller is aware
of each user needs.
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• Transmitting two or more signals simultaneously can be accomplished by running multiple cables or setting up one
transmitter/receiver pair for each channel, but this is an expensive approach.
• Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the same medium or channel , either wired or
wireless . It permits hundreds or even thousands of signals to be combined and transmitted over a single medium and
helped conserve spectrum space. So, number of signal sources (voice or data) share same comm ch.
• A multiplexer converts the individual baseband signals to a composite signal that is used to modulate a carrier in the
transmitter.
• At the receiver, the composite signal is recovered at the demodulator, then sent to a demultiplexer where the individual
baseband signals are regenerated.
• Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send through a single cable. The
process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into several number of logical channels, allotting each one for a
different message signal or a data stream to be transferred. The device is called Multiplexer or MUX. The reverse process,
i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done at the receiver is called as de-MUX
• Four applications that would be expensive or impossible without multiplexing are telephone systems, telemetry, satellites,
and modern radio and TV broadcasting. The greatest use of multiplexing is in the telephone system, where millions of
calls are multiplexed on cables, long-distance fiber-optic lines, satellites, and wireless paths. Hence Multiplexing increases
the telephone carrier’s ability to handle more calls while minimizing system costs.

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Multiplexing and its types

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Multiplexing are divided into analog and digital multiplexing. In analog, it is divided into frequency division multiplexing and wavelength
division multiplexing. The time-division multiplexing comes under digital multiplexing which is further divided into synchronous time
division multiplexing and asynchronous time-division multiplexing

Analog Multiplexing

• Frequency division multiplexing is a most used technique, where it uses various frequencies to merge stream of data for transmitting
them on a shared medium as a single signal. In FDM, multiple signals are transmitted over a single channel, each signal being allocated a
portion of the spectrum within that bandwidth. The spectrum is divided into small bands and each user is assigned a specific band. In
this, bandwidth is wasted bcz if user is idle, his/her band cannot be used by anyone else.

• In frequency-division multiplexing(FDM), the intelligence signals modulate subcarriers on different frequencies that are then added
together, and the composite signal is used to modulate the carrier.

• Wavelength division multiplexing, uses multiple data streams of different wavelength are transmitted in the light spectrum. The increase
in wavelength results in a decrease in the frequency of the signal. Prism has the property of MUX and DEMUX to turn a single line to
many and many to one.

• In optical networking, wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is equivalent to frequency-division multiplexing for optical signal

• Example − A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels through a single cable uses FDM. Optical fiber

communications use WDM technique, to merge different wavelengths into a single light for communication.
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Digital Multiplexing
• The digital represents the discrete bits of data that are available in the form of packets and frames.
• In time-division multiplexing (TDM), each signal occupies the entire bandwidth of the channel. However, each signal is transmitted for only a brief
time. In other words, multiple signals take turns transmitting over the single channel, as shown in 10-11.
• Time-division multiplexing divides the time frame into slots. It is used to transport a signal over an individual communication channel by allocating
one slot for every message. Suppose there are 30 users in a frame , slot1 is for user1, slot2 for user 2, slot3 for user3 and so on. When the 30th user
completes its comm. In slot 30 then cycle repeats again from user1.
• One binary word from each source creates a frame. The frames are then repeated over and over again. TDM can be used with both digital and
analog signals.
• In time-division multiplexing(TDM), the multiple intelligence signals are sequentially sampled, and a small piece of each is used to modulate the
carrier. If the information signals are sampled fast enough, sufficient details are transmitted that at the receiving end the signal can be
reconstructed with great accuracy.
• It is further classified into synchronous and asynchronous time-division multiplexing.
• The input is linked to a frame in synchronous time-division multiplexing. If the number of connections is ‘n’, then the frame is segregated into time
slots with ‘n’. One input line is allocated to one single slot. The sampling rate is the same for all the signals, and common clock input is fed.
• The sampling rate gets varied for each signal and there is no need for a common clock input in asynchronous time-division multiplexing. If the
allocated device for a time slot transports nothing and retains idle, then that left slot can be utilized for other devices.

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The difference between FDM, TDM and WDM is
that FDM divides the bandwidth into smaller
frequency ranges and each user transmit data
simultaneously through a common channel within
their frequency range, TDM allocates a fixed time
slot for each user to send signals through a
common channel and WDM combines multiple
light beams from several channels and combine
them to a single light beam and sends through a
fiber optic strand similar to FDM.
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FDM Transmitter-Multiplexers:
• In general block diagram of an FDM system, Each signal
to be transmitted feeds a modulator circuit. The carrier
for each modulator (fc) is on a different frequency.

• The carrier frequencies are usually equally spaced from

one another over a specific frequency range. These
carriers are referred to as subcarriers. Each input signal
is given a portion of the bandwidth. The resulting
spectrum is illustrated in waveform.

• The FDM process divides up the bandwidth of the single

channel into smaller, equally spaced channels, each
capable of carrying information.

• The resulting output signal is a composite of all the

modulated subcarriers. This signal can be used to
modulate a radio transmitter or can itself be transmitted
over the single communication channel.

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FDM Receiver-Demultiplexers
• In the receiving portion of an FDM
system, receiver picks up the signal and
demodulates it, recovering the
composite signal.
• This is sent to a group of bandpass
filters, each centered on one of the
carrier frequencies. Each filter passes
only its channel and rejects all others. A
channel demodulator then recovers
each original input signal.

Q. A cable TV service uses a single coaxial cable with a bandwidth of 860

MHz to transmit multiple TV signals to subscribers. Each TV signal is 6
MHz wide. How many channels can be carried?

sol. Total channels = 860/6 = 143.33 or 143

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Multiple access technique and types
• Access. Access refers to using the same channel to
accommodate more than one user.
• Multiple Access Multiple access refers to how the subscribers
are allocated to the assigned frequency spectrum. Access
methods are the ways in which many users share a limited
amount of spectrum. These are similar to multiplexing, the
techniques include frequency-division multiple access (FDMA),
time-division multiple access (TDMA), code-division multiple
access (CDMA).
• The term should not be confused multiplexing, which is the
process of grouping multiple base band signals into a single
signal so that it could be transmitted over a single
communication channel.
• Multiple access is used in wireless comm especially in satellite
and mobile comm system.

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• Frequency-Division Multiple Access. FDMA systems are
like frequency- division multiplexing in that they allow
many users to share a block of spectrum by simply
dividing it up into many smaller channels. Each channel of
a band is given an assigned number or is designated by
the center frequency of the channel. One subscriber is
assigned to each channel. Typical channel widths are 30
kHz, 200 kHz,1.25 MHz, and 5 MHz. There are usually two
similar bands, one for uplink and the other for downlink in
satellite comm.
• Time-Division Multiple Access. TDMA relies on digital
signals and operates on a single channel. Multiple users
use different time slots. Because the audio signal is
sampled at a rapid rate, the data words can be interleaved
into different time slots. In TDMA systems, slot one allows
three users per frequency channel and the other allows
eight users per channel.
• Code-Division Multiple Access Direct-sequence SS is also
called code-division multiple access (CDMA), or SS multiple
access. CDMA is used in satellite systems so that many
signals can use the same transponder. It is also widely
used in cellular telephone systems, for it permits more
users to occupy a given band than other methods. This
system uses special codes assigned to each user that can
be identified.
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Terrestrial microwave and satellite comm
• Microwaves are generally described as electromagnetic waves with frequencies
that range from approximately 1 GHz to 300 GHz. Therefore, microwave signals,
have short wavelengths because of their high frequencies,
• Microwave frequencies are used for wireless communication as they penetrate
ionosphere. They get attenuated when used as ground waves as well as surface
waves. Due to this reason microwave communication is mainly LOS (Line of
Sight) based communication.
• Microwave communication systems are mainly classified into satellite systems
and terrestrial systems.
• Microwave frequency gets attenuated due to buildings, trees, geographical
locations, hence the ground distance(i.e. range) is limited from one part of
earth to the other. In order to extend the range of terrestrial communication
system, multiple repeaters are used.
• A terrestrial communication system (earth/land-based) uses two stations and
repeater module. Multiple repeaters are used between source and destination
stations.
• Repeater receives the signal from one end and amplifies and retransmits the
signal to the other end. Hence repeaters will make up for the losses. Typically
repeaters are placed at the distance of about 32 to 80 Km.
• Intrastate or feeder service microwave systems are generally categorized as
short haul because they are used to carry information for relatively short
distances, such as between cities within the same state.
• Long-haul microwave systems are those used to carry information for relatively
long distances, such as interstate and backbone route applications.

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• Satellite radio systems are similar to terrestrial microwave radio systems; in
fact, the two systems share many of the same frequencies. The primary
difference between satellite and terrestrial radio systems is that satellite
systems propagate signals outside Earth’s atmosphere and, thus, are capable
of carrying signals much farther while utilizing fewer transmitter.
• In terrestrial comm, transmissions are in btw 2 earth stations while in satellite
communication signal transmission is btw Tx ES to satellite and then from sat
to RX ES.
• In satellite comm, the frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space
from TX ES is called as Uplink frequency while the frequency with which, the
signal is sent by the transponder to RX ES is called as Downlink frequency.
• Coverage area of a satellite based system is greater than that of a terrestrial
based wireless communication system. A GEO satellite with one single
antenna can cover about 1/4th of the earth.
• Communications satellites are man-made satellites that orbit Earth, providing
a multitude of communication functions to a wide variety of consumers,
including military, governmental, private, and commercial subscribers.
• A communications satellite is a microwave repeater in the sky that consists of
a diverse combination of one or more of the following: receiver, transmitter,
amplifier, regenerator, filter, onboard computer, multiplexer, demultiplexer,
antenna, etc
• A satellite radio repeater is called a transponder, which receives the signal (at
uplink freq), amplifies or repeats the signal and retransmits it on different freq
(downlink freq).

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Radio waves and microwaves
• Radio waves: Freq ( 3 KHz – 1GHz)
1. tv, fm broadcasting uses radio waves.
2. They are used in broadcasting, so no alignment required
3. they uses isotropic(omnidirectional) antennas
4. They are good at bending around building and hills and can penetrate through walls because of large
wavelengths(in meter)
5. Low to medium frequency radio waves get reflected off the ionosphere, so it is possible to receive radio
signals from far away that have bounced their way to us.

• Microwaves : Microwave freq ( 1 – 300Gz)

1.satellites and mobile communication uses microwaves
2. They are used in LOS comm, so TX and RX antennas must be aligned
3. They use directional (parabolic)antennas
4. microwaves cannot penetrate through walls because of small wavelength(in centimeters) tend to go straight
5. microwaves can pass through the ionosphere so they are good for communicating with satellites.
Wave Propagation Through (Radio/ Microwave)
There are 3 ways of propagating electromagnetic waves within earths atmosphere.
1. ground wave(surface wave),
2. sky wave, and
3. space wave(ground reflected wave and line of sight/direct wave).
• The normal propagation paths between two radio antennas in a microwave radio system
are shown in Figure 14.
• The free-space path is the line-of-sight path directly between the transmit and receive
antennas (this is also called the direct wave).
• The ground-reflected wave is the portion of the transmit signal that is reflected off Earth’s
surface and captured by the receive antenna.
Above two are collectively known as Space waves.
• The surface wave consists of the electric and magnetic fields associated with the currents
induced in Earth’s surface. The magnitude of the surface wave depends on the
characteristics of Earth’s surface and the electromagnetic polarization of the wave. Also
known as ground wave.
• The sky wave is the portion of the transmit signal that is returned (reflected) back to
Earth’s surface by the ionized layers of Earth’s atmosphere.
• All paths shown in Figure 14 exist in any microwave radio system, but some are negligible
in certain frequency ranges.
• At frequencies below 1.5 MHz, the surface wave provides the primary coverage, and the
sky wave helps extend this coverage at night when the absorption of the ionosphere is at
a minimum.
• For frequencies above about 30 MHz to 50 MHz, the LOS and ground-reflected paths are
the only paths of importance. The surface wave can also be neglected at these
frequencies, provided that the antenna heights are not too low.
Ground Waves/surface waves:
• A surface wave is an earth guided Electromagnetic wave that travels over the surface of earth. They are
attenuated as they propagate because energy is absorbed from the surface wave. Ground or surface waves
remain close to the earth as they follow the curvature of the earth and can travel at distances beyond the
horizon.
• Ground waves must have vertical polarization to be propagated from an antenna. Horizontally polarized
waves are absorbed or shorted by the earth.
• Ground wave propagation is strongest at the low- and medium-frequency ranges. They are the main signal
path for radio signals in the 30-kHz to 3-MHz range. The signals can propagate for hundreds and sometimes
thousands of miles at these low frequencies. It requires large antennas and high transmission power
• The conductivity of the earth determines how well ground waves are propagated. The better the
conductivity, the less the attenuation and the greater the distance the waves can travel. Attenuation
increases with frequency and depends on type of terrain
• The best propagation of ground waves occurs over sea water because the water is an excellent conductor
while highest degree of attenuation is over jungle areas. Conductivity is usually lowest in low- moisture areas
such as deserts.
• At frequencies beyond 3 MHz, the earth begins to attenuate radio signals. For this reason, the ground wave
propagation of signals above 3 MHz is insignificant except within several miles of the transmitting antenna.
• Surface wave propagation is used for ship to ship and ship to shore communication, for radio navigation
and maritime mobile communication.
• These waves are unaffected by atmospheric conditions
Sky Waves
• Sky wave signals are radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere, where they
are bent back to earth. This bending of the signal is caused by refraction in a region of
the upper atmosphere known as the ionosphere.
• Ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes the upper atmosphere to ionize, i.e., to
become electrically charged. The atoms take on or lose electrons, becoming positive or
negative ions. Free electrons are also present.
• the ionosphere is approximately 30 mi (50 km) above the earth and extends as far as
250 mi (400 km) from the earth.
• The ionosphere is generally considered to be divided into three layers, the D layer, the
E layer, and the F layer; the F layer is subdivided into the F1 and F2 layers.
• The D and E layers, the farthest from the sun, are weakly ionized. They exist only
during daylight hours, during which they tend to absorb radio signals in the medium-
frequency range from 300 kHz to 3 MHz.
• The F1 and F2 layers, the closest to the sun, are the most highly ionized and have the
greatest effect on radio signals. The F layers exist during both day and night. The
primary effect of the F layer is to cause refraction of radio signals when they cross the
boundaries between layers of the ionosphere with different levels of ionization.
• At very high frequencies, essentially those above about 50 MHz, refraction seldom
occurs regardless of the angle. VHF, UHF, and microwave signals usually pass through
the ionosphere without bending.
• Reflected radio waves are sent back to earth with minimum signal loss. The result is
that the signal is propagated over an extremely long distance. This effect occurs in the
3- to 30-MHz or shortwave range, which permits extremely long distance
communication.
• AM broadcast signals are propagated primarily by ground waves during the day and
by sky waves at night.
• EM waves directed above horizon level are sky waves they are radiated towards the
sky where they are either reflected or refracted back to earth by the ionosphere.
Also known as ionospheric region
IONOSPHERE
• Ionosphere is a region of space located 50km to 400km (30 miles to 250 miles above
earth surface)
• Ionosphere is upper portion of earth’s atmosphere and absorbs large amount of
energy
• As the wave moves farther from earth, ionization increased. The upper atmosphere
has ion density and more refraction
• There are three layers of ionosphere D, E, F
• D layer is the lowest layer of ionosphere and is between 50-100 Km (30 – 60 miles
above earth surface) this layer is farthest from sun and has little ionization. This layer
disappears at night. The D layers reflects VLF, LF waves and aborbs MF, HF Waves
• E layer is between 100- 140 Km (60-85 miles above earth surface). This layer has
maximum density at noon as sun is at highest point. This layer almost disappears at
night. The E layer supports MF surface wave propagation and reflects HF Waves during
day time
• F layer is made up of two layers F1 and F2 during day time F1 layer is located between
140-250km (85-155 miles above earth surface). F2 layer is located between 140-
300km (85-185 miles above earth surface) during winter and 250-350 km (155-220
miles in summer)
• During night F1 layer combines with F2 layer to form a single layer
• F1 absorbs and attenuate HF Waves, although most of the waves pass through F2
where they are reflected back to earth
Space Waves.
This method of radio signal propagation is by direct waves, or ground reflected wave.
• A direct wave travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. Direct wave radio signaling is often referred
to as line-of-sight communication. Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they follow the curvature of the earth.
• Because of their straight-line nature, direct wave signals travel horizontally from the transmitting antenna until they reach the horizon, at which
point they are blocked.
• Line-of-sight communication is characteristic of most radio signals with a frequency above approximately 30 MHz, particularly VHF, UHF, and
microwave signals. Transmission distances at those frequencies are extremely limited, and it is obvious why very high transmitting antennas must
be used for FM and TV broadcasts.
• The antennas for transmitters and receivers operating at the very high frequencies are typically located on top of tall buildings or on mountains,
which greatly increases the range of transmission and reception. To extend the communication distance at VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies,
special techniques have been adopted. The most important of these is the use of repeater stations.
• A repeater is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter operating on separate frequencies. The receiver picks up a signal from a remote
transmitter, amplifies it, and retransmits it (on another frequency) to a remote reciever
• Usually the repeater is located between the transmitting and receiving stations, and therefore it extends the communication distance. Repeaters
have extremely sensitive receivers and high-power transmitters, and their antennas are located at high points.
• Repeaters are widely used to increase the communication range for mobile and handheld radio units, the antennas for which are naturally not very
high off the ground. The limited transmitting and receiving range of such units can be extended considerably by operating them through a repeater
located at some high point.
Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 6, week 2
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Signals and Spectrum
• We get line spectra based on fourier series expansion of periodic
signals
• We get continuous spectra based on fourier transform of non periodic
signals.
• Oscilloscope is used to get time domain display of waveforms.
• Spectrum analyzer is used to get frequency domain display.
• The freq domain description of a signal is known as spectrum.
• Periodic signals are those who repeats after some time.
• Non periodic or Aperiodic signals does not repeat.
• Periodic signals with even symmetry v(t) = v(-t)
• Periodic signals with odd symmetry v(t) = - v(-t)
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 Classification of signals
• Signal is a function of time that conveys information
• Signals are classified according to the following
conditions.

1. Periodic vs non periodic signals

• A periodic signal is a signal which repeats again and
satisfies the condition
g(t)=g(t±𝑇°)
• A non periodic signal or A periodic signals does not
satisfy above condition

2. Deterministic Vs Random Signals

a deterministic signal has no uncertainty w.r.t its value
while random signals have uncertainty 44
3. Energy and Power signals
• Signal g(t) is an energy signal if total energy satisfies the condition 0< 𝐸 < ∞
• Signal g(t) is a Power signal if total power satisfies the condition 0< 𝑃 < ∞
• Energy signal has zero average power whereas power signal has infinite energy
• Usually periodic and random signal are power signals
• Non periodic and deterministic signals are energy signals

4. Odd and even signals

A signal has odd symmetry if is satisfies
v(t)= - v(-t)
A signal has even symmetry if it satisfies
v(t)= v(-t) 45
 Phasors and line spectra
• Sinusoid or Alternating current waveform is expressed in terms of cosine
function v(t)= A sin (Ѡ t)
• v(t)= A cos (Ѡt +φ)
• A is peak amplitude, Ѡ = radian frequency, φ=phase angle
• The phase angle represents peak angle shifted away from the time origin
that is t=0
• The time period is given by T=2π/ Ѡ
• The cyclic frequency f=1/T= Ѡ / 2π
• No real signal goes forever so a sinusoidal waveform is represented by a
complex exponential or phasor. Phasor plays major role in spectral analysis
(frequency spectrum)

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Phasor Representation

• Phasor representation of sinusoidal signal comes from Euler’s

theorem
• 𝑒 ±𝑗ϴ = cosϴ + j sinϴ
• ϴ=Ѡt + φ (ϴ=arbitrary angle)
• Any sinusoid can be written as real part of complex exponential
• A cos (Ѡ t + φ ) = A Re [𝑒 𝑗 Ѡ𝑡+φ ]=Re [A𝑒 𝑗Ѡ𝑡 𝑒 φ ]
• This is called phasor representation the term inside can be viewed ase as rotating vector in a complex plain
• The phasor has length A rotates counter clockwise at a rate of f rev/sec at t=0
• Observe three parameters specify a phasor completely. They are amplitude, phase angle and frequency
• To describe phasor in frequency domain the corresponding amplitude and phase with respect to frequency
• The frequency domain description would be the line spectrum which consists of 2 plots : amplitude Vs frequency
and phase vs frequency
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Line spectrum has Four conventions/rules

1. We use f cyclic frequency rather than radian frequency w

2. Phase angles are measured w.r.t cosine waves. Hence sine waves need to be
converted into cosine using the identity
sin Ѡt = cos (Ѡt – 90⁰)
3. Amplitude should always be a positive quantity. When negative sine
appears it must be edit in the phase using
-A cos Ѡt= A cos ( Ѡt + 180⁰ )
It does not matter whether you take plus or minus 180 since phasor ends in
same place either way
4. Phase angles are expressed in degrees even though Ѡt are inherently in
radians

48
• Draw the line spectrum of the given signal
w (t) = 7 – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ ) + 4 sin 120πt
• Rewriting the above signal
first term = 7 cos 2π0t
Second term = – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ ) = 10 cos ( 2π 20t + 180⁰ - 60⁰)
= 10 cos (2π 20t + 120⁰)
Third term = 4 sin 120πt = 4 cos ( 2π 60 t -90⁰ )
Now draw the line spectrum of amplitude vs frequency and phase vs
frequency, we get one sided or positive frequency line spectra

49
 Two Sided Line Spectrum
• If we add negative frequencies then we get two sided spectra
• Re[z]= ½(z + z*),
where z is any complex quantity with complex conjugate z*.
Hence if z= Aejφ ejѠ⁰t
then z*= z= Aejφ e-jѠ⁰t
• A cos (Ѡ t + φ )= A/2 ejφ ejѠ⁰t + A/2 ejφ e-jѠ⁰t
Above equation shows pair of conjugate phasors
• Phasor diagram consists of two phasors with equal length but opposite angles and direction of rotations
this type of line spectrum is two sided since it includes negative frequencies
• The amplitude spectrum has even symmetry while the phase spectrum has odd symmetry
• One sided or two sided are pictorial waves of representing sinusoidal of phasor functions
• A single line in one sided represents real cosine waves while a single line in two sided spectrum
represents the complex exponential
• The amplitude spectrum in one sided or two side conveys more information than phase spectrum 50
• Draw the two sided line spectrum of the given signal
w (t) = 7 – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ ) + 4 sin 120πt
• Rewriting the above signal
first term = 7 cos 2π0t
Second term = – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ ) = 10 cos ( 2π 20t + 180⁰ - 60⁰)
= 10 cos (2π 20t + 120⁰)
Third term = 4 sin 120πt = 4 cos ( 2π 60 t -90⁰ )

51
Fourier Series for Periodic signals
1. Trigonometric Fourier series formulas
• 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + σ∞ 𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
• The coefficient of trignometric fourier series is given by following equation
𝑡
• 𝑎0 = 1/T ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
• 𝑎𝑛 = 1/T ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡 n = 1,2,3,4……
𝑡
• 𝑏𝑛 = 1/T ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡 n = 1,2,3,4……
• At, n=0 gives average / dc value
• At, n=1 gives first/fundamental harmonic
• At, n=2 gives second harmonic
• Trignometric fourier series gives one sided line spectrum

52
2. Exponential Fourier series
• 𝑣 𝑡 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ n 𝑐 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓° 𝑡
n = 0, 1, 2, ……
• The coefficient of exponential fourier series is given by following
equation
𝑡 − 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑜t
𝑐𝑛 = 1/T ‫𝑒 𝑡 𝑓 ׬‬ dt
• Exponential fourier series gives two sided line spectrum
• At, n=0 gives average / dc value
• At, n=1 gives first/fundamental harmonic
• At, n=2 gives second harmonic

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Conversion of trigonometric to exponential F.S

58
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Sinc function

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