Differential Calculus

Function y=f(x)

If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each

value of x determines exactly one value of y then we assay that y
is a function of x and is denoted by y=f(x) y=3x+1.

A function is a mysterious machine that changes the values of x

into values of y

The physical world is restless. There is a proverb ‘Every thing

flows’. Everything is changing. One variable changes with respect
to other variable.

Examples:
The temperature T of this room changes with time t,
T=2t+1, T=f(x)

The velocity v of a falling body changes with distance h v=

2 gh , v=f(h)

The area A of a circle changes with the size of the radius r, A=

r 2 , A=f(r)

The current i changes with time t, i= sin  t,

i=f(t)

The representative of all the function is y=f(x)

Classification of functions:

Algebraic functions:
Polynomial function y=x2
 x2 1
Rational function y= x 1
Irrational function y= x2 1

Trigonometric function y=sinx, cosx

Exponential function y=ex, 2x
Logarithmic function y=lnx, logx
Even function f(-x)= f(x) Ex. f(x)=x2 , cosx
Odd function f(-x)=-f(x) Ex. f(x)=x3, sinx
Explicit function y=f(x) Ex. y=3x+1
Implicit function f(x,y)=0 Ex. x2y3+xy+x+y=0
Periodic function f(x+d)=f(x) Ex. f(x)=sinx,
f(x+  )=sin(x+  )=sinx=
f(x)

Representation of functions
1. Tables
2. Graphs
3. Equations y=3x+1
A function is defined for the whole real axis Ex. y=x2
A function is defined interval wise
Ex.
 x x  0

f ( x)   0 x  0
 x x  0


Limit of a function y=f(x)

Lt f ( x)  l
xa

This means that f(x) is very close to the fixed number l whenever
x is very close to a

Ex. xLt x 4
2
2

This means that x2 is very close to the fixed number 4 whenever x

is very close to 2

Meaning of x  a

2
When x approaches a but always remains less than a we say that x
approaches a from the left and we write x  a  or x  a-0

When x approaches a but always remains greater than a we say

that x approaches a from the right and we write x  a  or x 
a+0

x=1.5 x= 2.5
x=1.7 x= 2.7
x=1.9 x= 2.1
x=1.99 x= 2.01
x=1.999 x=2.001
x=1.9999 x= 2.0001
………. ………..
………. ……..…
x  2- x  2+

Meaning of Lt f ( x)  l
xa

Lt x 2  4
x2

x x x2 x x x2
2-  2+
1.5 2.25 2.5 6.25
1.7 2.89 2.3 5.29
1.9 3.61 2.1 4.41
1.99 3.9601 2.01 4.0401
1.999 3.996001 2.001 4.004001
1.9999 3.99960001 2.0001 4.00040001
1.99999 3.9999600001 2.00001 4.0000400001

3
 y

y=x2
4
o x
1 2
Fig1

Lt x 2  4
x 2 

Lt  x 2  4
x2

Lt x 2  4
x2

Lt f ( x)  l
xa 

Lt f ( x)  l
xa 

Lt f ( x)  l
xa

Finding limitting value/limit of a function y=f(x)

1) Polynomial function Lt x 2  3  7
x2
1
2) x2
Lt
x2

sin x 0
3) Lt
x0 x
indeterminate forms
0
4) Interval wise defined functions
Ex. A function f(x) is defined as follows:
 x x  0

f ( x)   0 x  0
 x x  0


Find Lt f ( x )
x0

4
Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt  ( x ) =0
x 0  x 0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x 0  x 0 

Lf (0) = Rf (0) =0  x
Lt f ( x ) =0
0

Ex. A function f(x) is defined as follows:

x 2 x  1

f ( x)   2.5 x  1
 x 2  2 x  1


Find Lt f ( x)
x1

Lf (1) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x 2 =1

x 1 x 1

Rf (1) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x 2  2 =3
x 1 x 1

Lf (1)  Rf (1)  x
Lt f ( x) does not exist
1

Continuity of function y=f(x)

A function is said to be continuous at x=a if Lt f (x ) exists, is finite

x a

and equal to f(a)

In other word f(x) is continuous at x=a if
Lt f (x) = Lt f (x) = f(a)
 
xa x a

or, Lf(a)=Rf(a)=f(a)

Roughly speaking a function f is continuous if its graph can be

drawn without taking your pencil from the paper. Road is
continuous or discontinuous. Road is like a curve.

y
y=f(x)

5
 o x

y
y=f(x)

o x

Fig2

1. Test the continuity of the curve y=x2 +4 at x=3.

Lf(3)= xLt3 x  4  13 Rf(3)= xLt3 x  4  13
2 2
  f(3)=13
Lf(3)=Rf(3)=f(3)
The function is continuous at x=3

1
2. Test the continuity of the curve y= x  1 at x=1.
1 1
Lf(1)= xLt
1 
x 1
= Rf(1)= Lt
x 1 x 1
= f(1)= 
Limit does not exist at x=1 The function is not continuous at x=1

3. Test the continuity of the curve y=f(x) at x=0.

 x x  0

f ( x)   0 x  0
 x x  0


Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt  ( x ) =0
x 0  x 0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = x 0
Lt x =0 f (0) =0
x 0  

Lf(0)=Rf(0)=f(0)

The function is continuous at x=0

6
 y

y=x
y=-x

o x
Fig3

4. Test the continuity of the curve y=f(x) at x=1.

x 2 x  1

f ( x)   2.5 x  1

 x
2
 2 x  1

Lf (1) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x 2 =1

x 1 x 1

Rf (1) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x 2  2 =3 f(1)=2.5

x 1 x 1

Lf (1)  Rf (1)  f (1)

The function is not continuous at x=1

o x

Fig4

7
 Differentiability of a function y=f(x)

y f ( x  h)  f ( x) f ( x  h)  f ( x)
 
x xhx h
dy y f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 Lt  Lt 
dx h0 x h0 h

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
Rf (x ) = Lt 
h 0 h

y
(x+ x ,y+ y
(x,y) )y
x
f(x) f(x+h)

o x =h x

Fig5

y f ( x )  f ( x  h) f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 
x x  ( x  h) h
dy y f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 Lt   Lt 
dx h0 x h0 h
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
Lf (x) = Lt 
h 0 h

y
(x,y)
(x- x ,y- y ) y
x
f(x-h) f(x)
8
 o x =h x
Fig6

For any point x=a

dy f ( a  h)  f ( a )
Lf (a ) =  Lt 
dx h0 h
dy f ( a  h)  f ( a )
Rf (a ) =  Lt 
dx h0 h

If Rf (a) = Lf (a) we say that function is differentiable at x=a and it

is equal to f (a)

1. Test the differentiability of the function y=f(x) at x=0 where

 x x  0

f ( x)   0 x  0
 x x  0


f (0  h)  f (0) f (  h )  f ( 0)  (  h)  0
Lf (0) = Lt  = Lt  = =-1
h 0 h h 0 h h
f (0  h)  f (0) f ( h )  f ( 0) h  0
Rf (0) = Lt  = Lt  = h =1
h 0 h h 0 h

Lf (0)  Rf (0) f (0) does not exist The function is not

differentiable at x=0

y=x
y=-x

o x

9
 Fig7

2. Test the differentiability of the function y=f(x) at x=1and 2

where

 x 0  x  1

f ( x)   2  x 1  x  2
 1
 x  x 2
x  2
 2

at x=1

f (1  h)  f (1) 1 h 1 Lt   h =1
Lf (1) = Lt  = Lt  =
h 0 h h  0 h h 0 h
f (1  h)  f (1) 2  (1  h)  1 Lt  h
Rf (1) = Lt  = Lt  = h0 h =-1
h0 h h 0 h
Lf (1)  Rf (1) f (1) does not exist The function is not
differentiable at x=1

at x=2

f (2  h)  f (2) 2  ( 2  h)  0 h
Lf ( 2) = Lt  = hLt0 = =-1
h 0 h 
h h
1 1
f ( 2  h )  f ( 2) 2  h  ( 2  h ) 2
 0 Lt  h  h2
Rf (2) = Lt  = Lt 2 = h0 2 =
h 0 h h
h0 
h

Lt 1
h 0 
-1- 2 h =-1

Lf ( 2) = Rf (2) The function is differentiable at x=2 f (2) =

-1

10
 y=x

o x
1 2

Fig8

3. Test the differentiability of the function y=f(x) at x=1 where

x 2 x  1

f ( x)   2.5 x  1

 x
2
 2 x  1

f (1  h)  f (1) (1  h) 2  2.5
Lf (1) = Lt  = hLt0
h 0 h 
h
Lt 1.5  2h  h 2 Lt (  1 .5
= h0 
h
= h0 
h
 2  h )=


f (1  h)  f (1) (1  h) 2  2  2.5
Rf (1) = Lt  = hLt0
h0 h h
Lt  0.5  2h  h 0.5
2

= h0 Lt (
= h0 
 2  h )= 
h h
Rf (1) and Lf (1)
do not exist therefore f (1) does not exist. The
function is not differentiable at x=1

o 1 x

11
 Fig9

1. Find the limit and test the continuity and differentiability of the
function at x=0.
Give a rough sketch of the curve
 x x  0

f ( x)   0 x  0
 x x  0


Find Lt f ( x)
x 0

Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt  ( x ) =0
x 0  x 0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x 0  x 0 

Lf (0) = Rf (0) =0  x
Lt f ( x ) =0
0

Test the continuity at x=0

Lf (0) = Lt f ( x ) = Lt (  x ) =0
 
x 0 x 0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x 0  x 0 

f (0) =0

Lf (0) = Rf (0) = f (0)

f (x ) is continuous at x=0

Test the differentiability at x=0

f (0  h)  f (0) f (  h )  f ( 0)  (  h)  0
Lf (0) = Lt  = Lt  = =-1
h 0 h h 0 h h
f (0  h)  f (0) f ( h )  f ( 0) h  0
Rf (0) = Lt  = Lt  = h =1
h 0 h h 0 h

Lf (0)  Rf (0) f (0) does not exist The function is not

differentiable at x=0

12
 y

y=x
y=-x

o x

Fig10

2. Find the limit and test the continuity and differentiability of the
function at the given point. Give a rough sketch of the curve.

(i) , at x=1 (ii)

x 2 x  1

f ( x)   2.5 x  1

 x
2
 2 x  1

, at x=0 and 1
 x x  0

f ( x)   x 0  x  1
 2
  1
 x 2 x

(iii) , at x=1, 2 (iv)


 x 0  x  1

f ( x)   2  x 1  x  2
 1
 x  x 2
x  2
 2


1 x  0

at x=0,1


f ( x)   1  sin x 0  x 
 2

2  (x 
 ) 2
x 


 2 2

(v) at x= 1,2 (vi)

5 x  4 0  x  1

f ( x)   4 x
2
 3x 1  x  2
 3x  4 x  2

 3
3  2 x
3
 0  x  0
2

at 0,

 3
f ( x)   3  2x 0  x 
 2

  3  2x

x 
3
2
2
(vii) at x=-1,0 (viii)
1  x  4  x  1

f ( x)   4  1  x  0

 4   
2
x 0 x 4

at x=-1,2
x 0  x  1

f ( x)   x
2
1  x  2

 x
3
2  x  3

Prove that every differentiable function is continuous. Show by

an example that the converse is not true but the converse is not
true.
Proof:
Let f(x) be differentiable at x=a that is
f ( a  h)  f ( a )
f (a)  Lt exists
h 0 h

13
or, hLt [ f (a  h)  f (a)]  Lt hf (a)
0 h 0

Lt [ f ( a  h)  f (a )]  0
h 0

Lt f (a  h)  f (a )
h 0

Lt f ( x)  f (a)
xa

Lt f (x) = Lt  f ( x)  f (a)
xa  xa

Hence f(x) is continuous at x=a

The converse is not true which is shown by an example

 x x  0

f ( x)   0 x  0
 x x  0


Continuity at x=0
Lf (0) = Lt f ( x ) = Lt (  x ) =0
 
x 0 x 0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x 0  x 0 

f (0) =0

Lf (0) = Rf (0) = f (0)

f (x ) is continuous at x=0

Differentiability at x=0
f (0  h)  f (0) f (  h )  f ( 0)  (  h)  0
Lf (0) = Lt  = Lt  = =-1
h 0 h h 0 h h
f (0  h)  f (0) f ( h )  f ( 0) h  0
Rf (0) = Lt  = Lt  = h =1
h 0 h h 0 h

Lf (0)  Rf (0) . f (0) does not exist. f (x ) is not differentiable at

x=0.

dy
Meaning of dx
1. Geometrical meaning

14
dy
dx
=tan  =slope of the tangent to the curve y=f(x) at any point
(x,y) where  is the angle made by the tangent with the positive x-
axis

2. Mathematical meaning
y  f (x ) y  y  f ( x  x) y  f ( x  x)  f ( x)
dy y f ( x  x)  f ( x)
 Lt  Lt
dx x 0 x x 0 x
dy f ( x  h)  f ( x )
dx
 Lt
h  0 h
, h  x

dy
If y=x2 find dx
dy ( x  h) 2  x 2 Lt
 Lt
dx h0 h
= h 0 2x+h=2x

dy dy dy
If y=x2 find dx
at x=3, dx
=2x, at x=3, dx
=6

dy
dx
=instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x
y
x
=average rate of change of y with respect to x
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.5, y=12.25
y  3.25 x  0.5
y 3.25
x
= 0 .5
=6.5

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.1, y=9.61
y  0.61 x  0.1
y 0.61
x
= 0.1 =6.1
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.01, y=9.0601
y  0.0601 x  0.01
y 0.0601
x
= 0.01
=6.01

15
 at x=3, y=9
at x=3.001, y=9.006001
y  0.006001 x  0.001
y 0.006001
x
= 0.001
=6.001

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.0001, y=9.00060001
y  0.00060001 x  0.0001
y 0.00060001
x
= 0.0001
=6.0001

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.00001, y=9.0000600001
y  0.0000600001 x  0.00001
y 0.0000600001
x
= 0.00001
=6.00001

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.000001, y=9.000006000001
y  0.000006000001 x  0.000001
y 0.000006000001
x
= 0.000001
=6.000001

y dy
Lt
x  0 x
=6 dx
=6

3. Physical meaning
1
s=ut+ 2 ft2 s=16t2
ds ds dy
If s=16t2 find dt
at t=3, dt
=32t, at t=3, dx
=96

ds
dt
=instantaneous rate of change of s with respect to t=
instantaneous velocity
s
t
=average rate of change of s with respect to t = average velocity

16
 s=16t2

t=1 s=16

t=2 s=64

t=3 s=144
t=3.01 s=144.9616
t=3.1 s=153.76

fig11

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.5, s=196
s  52 t  0.5
s 52
t
= 0.5 =104

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.1, s=153.76
s  9.6 t  0.1
s 9.76
t
= 0.1
=97.6

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.01, s=144.9616
s  0.9616 t  0.01
s 0.9616
t
= 0.01
=96.16

17
at t=3, s=144
at t=3.001, s=144.096016
s  0.096016 t  0.001
s 0.096016
t
= 0.001
=96.016

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.0001, s=144.00960016
s  0.00960016 t  0.0001
s 0.00960016
t
= 0.0001
=96.0016

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.00001, s=144.0009600016
s  0.0009600016 t  0.00001
s 0.0009600016
t
= 0.00001
=96.00016

s ds
Lt
t 0 t
=96 dt
=96
s 144 s s
Average vel.= t
= 3
=48 t
 104
t
 97.6 ................
ds
Instantaneous vel. at t=3 is dt
=96

If functions are the flesh and blood of calculus then limit is its
life

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