Unit 5

Pressure, Temperature and Flow

Measurements
 Pressure definition

• Pressure is
• The action of one force against another over, a surface.
• The pressure P of a force F distributed over an area
A is defined as:
P = F/A
 How is pressure generated?
• Collision of molecule with wall
• Momentum is mass x velocity
• Change of momentum is double
• Collision is isothermal = perfectly elastic
• Sum collisions over area to get force
Definition Of Pressure
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
 Pressure Measurement
A number of measurement units are used for pressure. They are
as follows:
1. Pounds per square foot (psf) or pounds per square inch (psi)
2. Atmospheres (atm)
3. Pascals (N/m2) or kilopascal (1000Pa)*
4. Torr = 1 mm mercury
5. Bar (1.013 atm) = 100 kPa
6. 14.696 lbf/in2 equals 33.9 feet of H2O
7. 14.696 lbf/in2 equals 29.921 inches of of Hg
 Static, dynamic, and impact pressures

• Static pressure is the pressure of fluids or gases that are stationary or not in
motion.

• Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it impacts on a

surface or an object due to its motion or flow. In Fig., the dynamic pressure is
(B − A).

• Impact pressure (total pressure) is the sum of the static and dynamic pressures
on a surface or object. Point B in Fig. depicts the impact pressure.
 Manometric Liquids
• Desirable Characteristics
• 1. Low Viscosity- Capacity of quick adjustment
with pressure change.
• 2. Low coefficient of thermal expansion
• 3. Non sticky nature
• 4. Negligible surface tension and capillary
effect.
• 5. Non corrosive, stable.
 Manometric Liquids
• Mercury:- Used to measured vacuum and moderate
pressure of gas.
• Or Where moderated sensitivity is required.
• It does not evaporate readily, and has a stable density.

• Water:- Small vacuums and small pressure

difference of gas flow with high sensitivity.
• Easily available, having tendency of evaporate and
dissolve some gases in it.

• Some time alcohol and kerosene are also used.

Wet Meters (Manometers)
 Manometer basics
 Characterized by its inherent
accuracy and simplicity of
operation.

 It’s the U-tube manometer, which

is a U-shaped glass tube partially
filled with liquid.

 This manometer has no moving

parts and requires no calibration.

 Manometer measurements are

functions of gravity and the
liquid’s density, both physical
properties that make the U-tube
manometer a NIST standard for
accuracy.
Manometer

• Gauge pressure is a
measurement relative to
atmospheric pressure and it
varies with the barometric
reading.

• A gauge pressure
measurement is positive
when the unknown pressure
exceeds atmospheric
pressure (A), and is
negative when the
unknown pressure is less
than atmospheric pressure
(B).
Typical pressure sensor functional blocks.
 Sensing Elements

The main types of sensing elements are

• Bourdon tubes,
• diaphragms,
• capsules, and
• bellows .

All except diaphragms provide a fairly large displacement

that is useful in mechanical gauges and for electrical
sensors that require a significant movement.
 Sensing Elements

The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped

Bourdon tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a
convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F) .
 Primary Pressure Elements
Capsule, Bellows & Spring Opposed Diaphragm
 Bellows

 Made of Bronze, S.S., BeCu, Monel etc..

 The movement is proportional to number of convolutions
 Sensitivity is proportional to size
 In general a bellows can detect a slightly lower pressure than a diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 0-2000 psi
 Accuracy in the range of 1% span
Bellows
Metallic bellows is a series of circular
elements with convolutions or olds
resembling an accordion.

They are joined in such a way that they

Expand or Contract axially by change in
pressure.

The material should be thin enough to

be flexible and ductile for ease of
fabrication.

It should have resistance to fatigue

failure..
Bellows type pressure gauge
Bourdon Tube
 Bourdon Tubes

• (a) C-type tube.

• (b) Spiral tube.
• (c) Helical tube
Bourdon Tubes
Diaphragm
 Diaphragm

(a) flat diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm

• A diaphragm usually is designed so that the deflection-versus-

pressure characteristics are as linear as possible over a
specified pressure range, and with a minimum of hysteresis
and minimum shift in the zero point.
Diaphragm
 Pressure Gauges  To amplify the motion that a
diaphragm capsule produces,
several capsules are connected
end to end.
 Diaphragm type pressure gauges
used to measure gauge, absolute,
or differential pressure.
 They are normally used to
measure low pressures of 1 inch
of Hg, but they can also be
manufactured to measure higher
pressures in the range of 0 to 330
psig.
 They can also be built for use in
vacuum service.

Diaphragm-type pressure gauge

 Capsule

A capsule is formed by
joining the peripheries
of two diaphragms
through soldering or
welding.

Used in some absolute

pressure gages.
Use of capsule element in pressure gage
Range of Elastic-Element Pressure Gages
 Construction
• The dead weight tester apparatus consists of a
chamber which is filled with oil free impurities.
• A piston cylinder combination is fitted above the
chamber.
• The top portion of the piston is attached with a
platform to carry weights.
• A plunger with a handle has been provided to
vary the pressure of oil in the chamber..
• The pressure gauge to be tested is fitted at an
appropriate plate.
• The oil is supplied from an reservoir fitted with
check valve.
 Working
• A known weight is placed on the platform.
• Now by operating the plunger, fluid pressure is applied
to the other side of the piston until enough force is
developed to lift the piston-weight combination.
• When this happens, the piston weight combination
floats freely within the cylinder between limit stops.
• In this condition of equilibrium, the pressure force of
fluid is balanced against the gravitational force of the
weights and the friction drag.
Therefore, PA = Mg + F
Hence : P = (Mg + F )/ A
• Thus the pressure P which is caused due to the
weights placed on the platform is calculated.
• After calculating P , the plunger is released.
• Now the pressure gauge to be calibrated is fitted
at an appropriate place on the dead weight tester.
• The same known weight which was used to
calculated P is placed on the platform. Due to the
weight, the piston moves downwards and exerts a
pressure P on the fluid.
• Now the valve in the apparatus is opened so that
the fluid pressure P is transmitted to the gauge,
which makes the gauge indicate a pressure value.
• This pressure value shown by the gauge should be
equal to the known input pressure P.
Advantages
• It is simple in construction and easy to use.
• It can be used to calibrated a wide range of
pressure measuring devices.
• Fluid pressure can be easily varied by adding
weights or by changing the piston cylinder
combination.
 Low Pressure Gauge
• The pressure less than 1 mm mercury are
considered to be low pressure and It is
expressed in torr and microns.

• This form of vacuum gauge was invented in 1874

By H. G. McLeod.
• It is reliable for pressures from 10-2 to 10-7 torr.
(10-1 mm to 10-4 mm of mercury)
• Its Working is Based on the Boyle's Law.
– Boyle's law states that p1V1 = p2V2.
 Working Principle
• The compression of Sample of Low air gas,
(i.e. Gas whose pressure is to be measured) to
a level which is sufficiently high, so that it can
be read simple manometer.
 Working
• The Plunger is withdrawn and mercury level is lowered to the cut off
position, so the gas admitted at unknown pressure in the system.
• As the volume of the gas is admitted in to the measuring capillary, the
bulb and in to the tube down to the cut off point.

• Plunger is pushed in and the mercury goes up. The plunger motion is
continued untill the mercury level in the reference capillary reaches
the zero mark.

• The pressure is computed from the physical dimension of the gauges.

Advantages

• It is independent of the gas composition.

• It serves as a reference standard to calibrate
other low pressure gauges.
• A linear relationship exists between the applied
pressure and h
• There is no need to apply corrections to the
McLeod Gauge readings.
 Limitations
• The gas whose pressure is to be measured
should obey the Boyle’s law
• Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any
considerable vapor into the gauge.
• It measure only on a sampling basis.
• It cannot give a continuous output.
Formula
• a = area of the measuring capillary
• Final volume Vf= ah
• Final Amplified manometer pressure
• Pf = Po + h
• By Boyles Law
• Po Vo = Pf Vf
2
ah
Po 
Vo
 Thermal Conductivity Gauges
• The temp of the given wire through which an electric
current is flowing is depends on
• 1. The magnitude of Current
• 2. The rate at which the heat is dissipated.
• The current can be kept constant and the rate at which the
heat is dissipated will depends on the conductivity of
surrounding media.
• As the density of given density is reduced, i.e. Pressure is
lower its conductivity is also reduce and wire will become
hotter for the given current flow.
• Thus the temp of wire is directly depends upon the
pressure of the surrounding medium.
Thermal Conductivity Gauge
1 Thermocouple vacuum gauge
 Thermal Conductivity Gauge
• Principle :-At low pressure there is a relationship
between pressure and thermal conductivity. i.e.
Heat conductivity decreases with decreasing
pressure.
• Construction:-
• The heater element of tungsten of 0.025 mm heated
by a current of 10 to 100 m A . To a temperature
between 75 to 400 degree C.
• And it is welded to it and enclosed in metal or glass
envelope.
Thermo couple gauge
 Working
• This envelopes communicates with the vacuum
system.
• This element is supplied by constant electric
supply and its temp is measured by thermocouple.
• Thermocouple gauge can measure up to
4 to 1 torr.
10
 Advantages and Disadvantage
• Advantages:-
• 1. Rugged and inexpensive construction.
• 2. Convenient and Continuous reading.

• Disadvantages:-
• 1. Requires electric power
• 2. Need for individual and frequent calibration
Pirani Vacuum Gauge or
Resistance Thermometer
 Construction and Working
• This device measures the pressure through change is
thermal conductivity of a gas which changes the temp
of heated element.
• The function of heating and temperature element are
combined in a single element which is not the case of
thermocouple gauge.
• The temp of wire is determined by measuring the
change in resistance.
• As the surrounding pressure changes, the filament
temp and resistance changes.
Pirani Gauge
Working
• Two identical Pirani Tubes are connected in the bridge ckt,
one of the tube is evacuated to a very low pressure and
then sealed off while the other has the a gas admitting to it.
• It acts as compensator to reduce the effect of a bridge,
excitation voltage changes and temp changes on the output
reading.
• Current flowing to the measuring elements heat it to a temp
depending upon the gas pressure.
• Electric resistance changes with temp and ckt is
unbalanced.
• So the magnitude unbalance bridge is unknown pressure.
Summary
• Advantage:-
• 1. Rugged, inexpensive and more accurate.
• [Link] reading range is wider
• 3. Fast response to change in pressure.

• Disadvantage:-
• 1. Calibration is non linear and varies from one gas to
other.
• Poor transient Response
Ionisation Gauge
Working Principle
• Ionization is the process knowing of an electrons
from an atom and thus producing a free electron and
positive charge ions.
• An electron passing through an electric field in a gas
produced by the two electrodes acquires a kinetic
energy which is proportional to difference between
two electrodes.
• It is very similar to ordinary electronic tube.
Working
• This is an envelope which is evacuated by the pressure to be
measured and heated filament with Positively bias grid and
Negatively biased plate.
• The grid draw electron from the heated filament and collision
between them, and these gas molecules causes the ionization.
• As the plate is negatively charges the positive molecules are
attracted to it and causing current I1 flow in external ckt.
• The electron are collected by the grid and I2 is generated in
Grid Ckt.
• The rate of ion production is proportional to the number of
electrons available to ionize the gas and the amount of gas
present.
Formula

• Anode current I 1 to the electrons

• Grid current I 2 is measure of the gas.
• S= Proportionality constant.

1 I1
P
S I2
 From Mechanical to Electronic

• The free end of a Bourdon tube (bellows or diaphragm) no

longer had to be connected to a local pointer, but served to
convert a process pressure into a transmitted (electrical or
pneumatic) signal.
• At first, the mechanical linkage was connected to a pneumatic
pressure transmitter, which usually generated a 3-15 psig output
signal for transmission over distances of several hundred feet,
• The force-balance and later the solid state electronic pressure
transducer were introduced.
 Potentiometric type sensor
 A mechanical device such as a diaphragm is
used to move the wiper arm of a
potentiometer as the input pressure
changes.
 A direct current voltage (DC) V is applied to
the top of the potentiometer (pot), and the
voltage that is dropped from the wiper arm
to the bottom of the pot is sent to an
electronic unit.
 It normally cover a range of 5 psi to 10,000
psi.
 Can be operated over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Subject to wear because of the mechanical
contact between the slider and the
resistance element.
 Therefore, the instrument life is fairly
short, and they tend to become noisier as
the pot wears out.
 Strain Gage
• If a wire is held under tension,
it gets slightly longer and its
cross-sectional area is reduced.
This changes its resistance (R)
in proportion to the strain
sensitivity (S) of the wire’s
resistance.

• The strain sensitivity, which is

also called the gage factor
(GF), is given by: GF = (Δ
R/R)/(Δ L/L) = (Δ R/R)/ Strain
Strain Gauge Used in a Bridge Circuit
 Bellows Resistance Transducer
• Bellows or a bourdon
tube with a variable
resistor.
• Bellow expand or
contract causes the
attached slider to move
along the slidewire.
• This increase or decrees
the resistance.
• Thus indicating an
increase or decrease in
pressure.
 Inductance-Type Transducers

• The inductance-type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a

movable magnetic core, and a pressure sensing element.

• An AC voltage is applied to the coil, and, as the core moves,

the inductance of the coil changes.
 LVDT

• Another type of inductance

transducer, utilizes two coils
wound on a single tube and
is commonly referred to as a
Differential Transformer or
sometimes as a Linear
Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT).
 Piezoelectric

• When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to a quartz

crystal, a charge is developed across the crystal that is
proportional to the force applied.
•
• Piezoelectric devices can further be classified according to
whether the crystal’s electrostatic charge, its resistivity, or its
resonant frequency electrostatic charge is measured.

• Depending on which phenomenon is used, the crystal sensor

can be called electrostatic, piezoresistive, or resonant.
Electronic Pressure Sensor Range