Discrete mathematics

ITCS1313
Lecture 01: Set Theory
 Set Theory

A Set is any well defined Set Theory deals with

(unordered) collection of properties and the operations
objects (elements). of sets.
 

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GEORG CANTOR (1845–1918) Russian Empire

Cantor is considered the

founder of set theory.
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 Set Theory topics
Set properties Set operations  
• Element and set • The intersection 
• set representation • The union 
• Belong to ,  • The complement AC
• Empty set { }  , Singleton set • The difference A-B
• cardinality  A  • Symmetric Difference
• Finite set and infinite set • Disjoint sets
• Equal sets = , Equivalent sets
• Universal sets
• subset 
• Power set P(A)
• Cartesian products
• Venn diagrams
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 What is a set?
• A set is a group of unordered well-defined “objects”.
• For example
– Students in a class: { Ali, Khalid, Ahmed }
– Colors of a rainbow: { red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple }
– States of matter { solid, liquid, gas, plasma }
– All positive integers less than or equal to 5: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
– English vowels : {o, i , u, e, a}

• When a group of objects is NOT set and why ?

– Favorite sport: {swimming, tennis, chess, football}
– Favorite fruit: {banana, strawberry, apple}

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 Set properties
• Order does not matter
– We often write them in order because it is easier for
humans to understand it that way. For example,
– {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is the same as {3, 5, 2, 4, 1}
– { a, o, i, e, u } = { u, e, o, a, i } = { o, e, a, i, u }
• Sets are notated with curly brackets { }
• Sets do not have duplicate elements
– Consider the set of vowels in the alphabet.
• It makes no sense to list them as {a, a, a, e, i, o, o, o, o, o, u}
• What we really want is just {a, e, i, o, u}
So {a, e, i, o, u} is the same as {a, a, a, e, i, o, o, o, o, o, u}

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 Set Representation
• Sets are usually represented by a capital letter (A, B, S,
etc.)
• Elements are usually represented by an italic lower-case
letter (a, x, y, etc.)
• Easiest way to specify a set is to list all the elements
Roster method.: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , E= {o, i , u, e, a}
– Not always feasible for large or infinite sets for
example : the set of all positive even integers B={ 2,
4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, …}
– The set of positive integers less than 100 can be
denoted by {1, 2, 3, . . . , 99}.
– use an ellipsis (…) but can cause confusion
sometimes
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 Set Representation
– Can cause confusion.
– Consider the set C = {3, 5, 7, …}. What comes next?
– If the set is all odd integers greater than 2, it is 9
– If the set is all prime numbers greater than 2, it is 11
What's the solution ???
• Use set-builder notation
– D = {x | x is prime and x > 2}
– E = {x | x is odd and x > 2}
– The vertical bar means “such that”
– Thus, set D is read (in English) as: “all elements x
such that x is prime and x is greater than 2”

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 Roster method vs set builder
notation
A is the set of the natural numbers less than 7.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6}  Roster method
A = {x  xN , 1  x  6}  set builder

B is the set of natural numbers less than 100

B = {1,2,3,4,5,…, 99}  Roster method
B = {x  xN , x  99}  set builder

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 Common used sets
• N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of natural numbers
• Z = {. . . ,−2,−1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}, the set of integers
• Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of positive integers
• Q = {p/q | p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, and q = 0}, the set of
rational numbers
• R, the set of real numbers
• R+, the set of positive real numbers

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‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ ‫‪11‬‬
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 Belong to , 
• A set is said to “contain” the various “members” or
“elements” that make up the set
– If an element a is a member of (or an element of) a
set S, we use then notation a  S
• 4  {1, 2, 3, 4}
– If an element is not a member of (or an element of) a
set S, we use the notation a  S
• 7  {1, 2, 3, 4}
• Gaza  {1, 2, 3, 4}

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 Empty set { }, 
• If a set has zero elements, it is called the
empty (or null) set
– Written using the symbol 
– Thus,  = { }  VERY IMPORTANT
– If you get confused about the empty set in a
problem, try replacing  by { }
• As the empty set is a set, it can be a element of
other sets
– { , 1, 2, 3, x } is a valid set

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 Empty set { }, 
• Note that  ≠ {  }
– The first is a set of zero elements
– The second is a set of 1 element (that one
element being the empty set)
• Replace  by { }, and you get: { } ≠ { { } }
• It’s easier to see that they are not equal
that way
A = {xR : x2 = -2 } = 
B= {xN : 5 < x < 6 } = 

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 Cardinality  A 
• The cardinality of a set is the number of elements in
a set
– Written as |A|
• Examples
– Let R = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then |R| = 5
– || = 0
– Let S = {, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}. Then |S| = 4
– Let M = {xN : x even numbers } Then |M| = 

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 Singleton set
• If a set has exactly one element, it is
called the Singleton set.
• For example, the set {0} is a singleton
• A = {2} , B = {0}
• The cardinality of the singleton set is 1

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 Finite set and infinite set
• Finite set is a set that has a finite number of elements
• 1. Let P = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30} Then, P is a finite set and |P| = 6.
• 2. Let Q = {natural numbers less than 25} Then, Q is a finite set and
|Q| = 24.
• The set of all persons in America is a finite set.

• Infinite set is a set that has a infinite number of elements

• Set of all positive integers which is multiple of 3 is an infinite set.
• N = {1, 2, 3, ……….} i.e. set of all natural numbers is an infinite set.
• The cardinality of infinite set is 

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 Equal sets =
• Two sets are equal if they have precisely
the same elements
– {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}
• Remember that order does not matter!
– {1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2, 1} = {4, 3, 2, 1}
• Remember that duplicate elements do not matter!
• Two sets are not equal if they do not have
the same elements
– {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ≠ {1, 2, 3, 4}
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 Equivalent sets
• Two sets are equivalent if they have the same
number of elements (cardinality is equal)
– {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is equivalent to {8, 4, 3, 6, 7}
– {1, 2, 3,4} is equivalent to { ,,,}
– {a, b, c, d} is equivalent to {March , April, May. June}
• Two sets are not equivalent if their cardinality is
NOT equal.
– {1, 2, 3,4} is not equivalent to { ,,,,  }

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 Universal sets
• U is the universal set – the set of all of elements (or the
“universe”) from which given any set is drawn
– For the set {0, 1, 2}, U could be the natural numbers
(zero and up)
– For the set of the students in this class, U would be all
the students in the University (or perhaps all the
people in the world)
– For the set of the vowels of the alphabet, U would be
all the letters of the alphabet

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 Sets of sets
• Sets can contain other sets
– S = { {1}, {2}, {3} }
– T = { {1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} }
– V = { {{1}, {{2}}}, {{{3}}}, {{1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} }
• V has only 3 elements!
• Note that 1 ≠ {1} ≠ {{1}} ≠ {{{1}}}
– They are all different

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 subset 
• If all the elements of a set S are also elements of a set T,
then S is a subset of T
– For example, if S = {2, 4, 6} and T = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, then S is
a subset of T
– This is specified by S  T
• Or by {2, 4, 6}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
• If S is not a subset of T, it is written as such:
ST
– For example, {1, 2, 8}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
• The empty set is a subset of all sets (including itself!)
• Recall that all sets are subsets of themselves
• All sets are subsets of the universal set

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 Power set P(A)
• The power set of S (written as P(S)) is the set
of all the subsets of S
• Given the set S = {0, 1}. What are all the possible
subsets of S?
– They are:  (as it is a subset of all sets), {0},
{1}, and {0, 1}
– P(S) = { , {0}, {1}, {0,1} }
• Note that |S| = 2 and |P(S)| = 4

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 Power set P(A)
• Let T = {0, 1, 2}. The P(T) = { , {0}, {1},
{2}, {0,1}, {0,2}, {1,2}, {0,1,2} }
• Note that |T| = 3 and |P(T)| = 8
• P() = {  }
• Note that || = 0 and |P()| = 1
• If a set has n elements, then the power set
will have 2n elements

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 Cartesian products
• A Cartesian product is a set of all ordered 2-
tuples where each “part” is from a given set
– Denoted by A x B, and uses parenthesis (not curly
brackets { })
• Formal definition of a Cartesian product:
– A x B = { (a,b) | a  A and b  B }

– Example: Given A = { a, b, c } and B = { 0, 1 }, what is

their Cartesian product?
• C = A x B = { (a,0), (a,1), (b,0), (b,1), (c,0), (c,1) }

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 Cartesian products
• For example: A x B = { (a,0), (a,1), (b,0), (b,1), (c,0), (c,1) }
• B x A = { (0,a), (0,b), (0,c), (1,a), (1,b), (1,c) }
• Notice the |AB| = |BA| but AB  BA

• What is the Cartesian product A × B × C, where

A = {0, 1}, B = {1, 2}, and C = {0, 1, 2} ?
• The Cartesian product A × B × C consists of all ordered
triples (a, b, c), where a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and c ∈ C. So,
• A × B × C = {(0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0),
(0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0),
(1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}
• | A × B × C | = |A | × | B| × |C |
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 Cartesian products
• What is the Cartesian product A × B × C, where
A = {0, 1}, B = {1, 2}, and C = {0, 1, 2} ?
• The Cartesian product A × B × C consists of all ordered
triples (a, b, c), where a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and c ∈ C. So,
• A × B × C = {(0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0),
(0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0),
(1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}
• | A × B × C | = |A | × | B| × |C |

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 Set Operations
• The union 
• The intersection 
• The complement AC
• The difference A-B
• Symmetric Difference
• Disjoint sets
 The union 
• Formal definition for the union of two sets:
A U B = { x | x  A or x  B }
• Further examples
– {1, 2, 3} U {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
– {New York, Washington} U {3, 4} = {New York,
Washington, 3, 4}
– {1, 2} U  = {1, 2}

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 The union 
• Properties of the union operation
–AU=A Identity law
–AUU=U Domination law
–AUA=A Idempotent law
–AUB=BUA Commutative law
– A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C Associative law

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Monitor gamut • Pick any 3 “primary” colors
(M) • Triangle shows mixable
color range (gamut) – the
Printer set of colors
gamut
(P)

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 The union 
Monitor gamut • A union of the sets contains
(M) all the elements in EITHER
set
Printer
gamut
(P)
• Union symbol is
usually a U
• Example:
C=MUP

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 32

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 Venn diagrams
• Represents sets graphically
– The box represents the universal set
– Circles represent the set(s)
• Consider set S, which is
b c d f
the set of all vowels in the U
g h j
alphabet S
k l m
• The individual elements n p q e i
a
are usually not written r s t
o u
in a Venn diagram v w x
y z

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 33

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 John Venn (1834–1923) England

John Venn is the founder of

Venn Diagram.
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‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 ‫‪The union ‬‬
‫‪U‬‬

‫‪15‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬
‫}‪A U B = {10, 3, 7, 5, 4, 9, 6, 12, 8‬‬

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‫‪ -‬جامعة االقصى‬
 The intersection 
• Formal definition for the intersection of two
sets: A ∩ B = { x | x  A and x  B }
• Further examples
– {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3}
– {New York, Washington} ∩ {3, 4} = 
• No elements in common
– {1, 2} ∩  = 
• Any set intersection with the empty set yields the
empty set

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 The intersection 
• Properties of the intersection operation
–A∩U=A Identity law
–A∩= Domination law
–A∩A=A Idempotent law
–A∩B=B∩A Commutative law
– A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ CAssociative law

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 37

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 The intersection 
Monitor gamut • An intersection of the sets
(M) contains all the elements in
BOTH sets
Printer
gamut
(P)
• Intersection symbol
is a ∩
• Example:
C=M∩P

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 38

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 ‫‪The intersection ‬‬
‫‪U‬‬

‫‪15‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬
‫} ‪A ∩ B = { 4, 9‬‬

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ ‫‪39‬‬

‫‪ -‬جامعة االقصى‬
 _
The complement A C (A)
• Formal definition for the complement of a
set: A = { x | x  A }
– Or U – A, where U is the universal set
• Further examples (assuming U = Z)
– {1, 2, 3} = { …, -2, -1, 0, 4, 5, 6, … }

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 40

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 _
The complement A C (A)
• Properties of complement sets

¯
–A¯ =A Complementation law
– A U A¯ = U Complement law
–A∩A ¯ =  Complement law

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 41

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 _
The complement A C (A)
Monitor gamut • A complement of a set is all
(M) the elements that are NOT
in the set
Printer
gamut
(P)
• Difference symbol is
_ _the set
a bar above
name: P or M

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 42

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 ‫_‬
‫‪The complement A‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫)‪(A‬‬
‫‪U‬‬

‫‪15‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬
‫_‬
‫} ‪A= { 6, 12, 8, 15, 1, 11‬‬
‫_‬
‫} ‪B = { 5, 3, 7, 10, 15, 1, 11‬‬
‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ ‫‪43‬‬
‫‪ -‬جامعة االقصى‬
 The difference A-B
• Formal definition for the difference of two
sets:
A - B = { x | x_  A and x  B }
A - B = A ∩ B  Important!
• Further examples
– {1, 2, 3} - {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2}
– {New York, Washington} - {3, 4} = {New York,
Washington}
– {1, 2} -  = {1, 2}
• The difference of any set S with the empty set will
be the set S‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 44
‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 The difference A-B
Monitor gamut • A difference of two sets is
(M) the elements in one set
that are NOT in the other
Printer
gamut
(P)
• Difference symbol is
a minus sign
• Example:
C=M-P
• Also visa-versa:

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ C=P-M 45

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 ‫‪The difference A-B‬‬
‫‪U‬‬

‫‪15‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬
‫} ‪A – B = { 10, 3, 7, 5‬‬

‫}‪B – A = { 6, 12, 8‬‬

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ ‫‪46‬‬
‫‪ -‬جامعة االقصى‬
 Symmetric Difference
• Formal definition for the symmetric difference of
two sets:
A  B = { x | (x  A or x  B) and x  A ∩ B}
A  B = (A U B) – (A ∩ B)  Important!
• Further examples
– {1, 2, 3}  {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 4, 5}
– {New York, Washington}  {3, 4} = {New York,
Washington, 3, 4}
– {1, 2}   = {1, 2}
• The symmetric difference of any set S with the empty set will
be the set S
‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 47
‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 ‫‪Symmetric Difference‬‬
‫‪U‬‬

‫‪15‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬

‫} ‪A  B = {10, 3, 7, 5, 6, 12, 8‬‬

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ ‫‪48‬‬
‫‪ -‬جامعة االقصى‬
 Symmetric Difference
Monitor gamut • A symmetric difference of
(M) the sets contains all the
elements in either set but
Printer NOT both
gamut
(P)

• Symetric diff.
symbol is a 
• Example:
C=MP

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 49

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 Disjoint sets
• Formal definition for disjoint sets: two sets
are disjoint if their intersection is the empty
set
• Further examples
– {1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5} are not disjoint
– {New York, Washington} and {3, 4} are disjoint
– {1, 2} and  are disjoint
• Their intersection is the empty set
–  and  are disjoint!
• Their intersection is the empty set
‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 50
‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
Disjoint sets
• Two sets are disjoint if the
have NO elements in
common
• Formally, two sets are
disjoint if their intersection
is the empty set
• Another example:
the set of the even
numbers and the
set of the odd
numbers

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 51

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 Disjoint sets

A and B are disjoint

A and C are not disjoint
‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 52
‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
‫‪Set identities‬‬

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ ‫‪53‬‬

‫‪ -‬جامعة االقصى‬
 Questions
Let A = {2,8,9,12} , B = {6, 8, 9, 10}
C={1,11} , U ={x| xN, x 12} . Answer the following:-
Represent the sets using Venn diagram
Which sets are empty, equal ,equivalent , singleton, disjoint
and not disjoint sets? .
Find |A|, |B|, and |C|.
Find A U B U C and | A U B U C |
Find A ∩B and | A ∩B |
Find A-B, B-A, A-C, C-B
Find P(A) and |P(A)|
Find CXB
_ _ and AXC
_ _ _ _ _
Find A, B, ,C
A ∩B , A U B, (A U B) , (A ∩B)
Find A  B , B  C
‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 54
‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 Questions
Using diagram verify the following :-
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| - |A ∩ B|

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 55

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 Questions
Using diagram verify the following :-
|A ∪ B ∪ C | = |A| + |B| +|C|- |A ∩ B|-|B ∩ C|- |
C ∩ A| + |A ∩ B ∩ C |

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 56

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 Questions
Use the following clues to answer the questions
bellow:
150 college freshmen were interviewed
85 were registered for a Math class
70 were registered for an English class
50 were registered for both Math and English 
a) How many signed up only for a Math Class?
b) How many signed up only for an English Class?
c) How many signed up for Math or English? 
d) How many signed up neither for Math nor English? 

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 57

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 Questions
Use the following clues to answer the questions
bellow:
100 students were interviewed
28 took PE, 31 took BIO, 42 took ENG, 9 took PE and BIO,
10 took PE and ENG, 6 took BIO and ENG, 4 took all three
subjects.
a) How many students took none of the three subjects?
b) How many students took PE but not BIO or ENG?
c) How many students took BIO and PE but not ENG?

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 58

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-
 Questions
In a group of 40 students, 22 are taking algebra, 18 are
taking biology, 14 are taking chemistry , 9 are taking
algebra and biology, 7 are taking algebra and chemistry, 5
are taking biology and chemistry , and 2 are taking all three
courses. How many students are not taking any of these
courses ??

‫كلية الحاسبات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات‬ 59

‫ جامعة االقصى‬-