2 Group

The earliest study of group probably goes back as early as the time of Lagrange4 . His treatise
Theorie des fonctions analytiques laid some of the foundations of group theory. However, this
work was somewhat isolated and publications of Cauchy5 and Galois6 are more commonly referred
to as the beginning of group theory.

2.1 Binary Operation

Abstract algebra begins with a rather simple abstract definition of a group. Groups are actually
sets whose elements may be combined by certain operation. This simple definition quickly leads
to difficult questions involving properties and structures of such objects. We will discuss different
specific examples of groups and the abstract point of view becomes apparent when results for all
of the examples are obtained by providing a single result for the abstract group.

Definition 2.1.1 — Binary Operation.

Let G be a set. A binary operation ∗ on G is a function ∗ : G × G → G that assigns each ordered
pair of elements of G an element of G. For any a, b ∈ G, we shall write a ∗ b for ∗(a, b).

A binary operation on a set G, then, is simply a way to combine two elements of G to yield a
new element of G. The requirement that the resulting element be again an element of G is called
closure. The most familiar binary operations on a set are ordinary addition and multiplication on
the set N of natural numbers (or on Z, Q, R). Subtraction is not a binary operation on the set
of natural numbers because a natural number subtracted by another natural number need not be
a natural number (may be a negative integer). Although, subtraction is a binary operation on the
set of integers. Likewise, division is not a binary operation on the set of integers since an integer
4
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) was an Italian mathematician and astronomer. Lagrange was one of the
creators of the calculus of variations, deriving the Euler–Lagrange equations for extrema of functionals. He also ex-
tended the method to take into account possible constraints, arriving at the method of Lagrange multipliers. Lagrange
invented the method of solving differential equations known as variation of parameters, applied differential calculus
to the theory of probabilities and attained notable work on the solution of equations. He proved that every natural
number is a sum of four squares. In calculus, Lagrange developed a novel approach to interpolation and Taylor series.
He studied the three-body problem for the Earth, Sun and Moon in 1764 and the movement of Jupiter’s satellites
in 1766, and in 1772 found the special-case solutions to this problem that yield what are now known as Lagrangian
points. Above all, he is best known for his work on mechanics, where he transformed Newtonian mechanics into a
branch of analysis, Lagrangian mechanics as it is now called, and presented the so-called mechanical “principles” as
simple results of the variational calculus.
5
Augustine-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) was a French mathematician, engineer, and physicist who made pioneer-
ing contributions to several branches of mathematics, including mathematical analysis and continuum mechanics. He
was one of the first to state and rigorously prove theorems of calculus. Cauchy was a prolific writer; he wrote approx-
imately eight hundred research articles and five complete textbooks on a variety of topics in the fields of mathematics
and mathematical physics.
6
Évariste Galois (1811-1832) was a French mathematician and political activist. While still in his teens, he was
able to determine a necessary and sufficient condition for a polynomial to be solvable by radicals, thereby solving a
problem standing for 350 years. His work laid the foundations for Galois theory and group theory, two major branches
of abstract algebra, and the subfield of Galois connections.

11
 2 GROUP

divided by an integer need not be an integer (non-integral fraction). It is however a binary operation
on the set Q∗ of nonzero rational numbers, as well as on the set R∗ of nonzero real numbers.
Other examples of binary operations are addition modulo n and multiplication modulo n on
the modular set Zn ; complex addition and complex multiplication on the set of complex numbers
C; addition and multiplication on the set of 2×2 matrices; and vector addition and vector multi-
plication on vector spaces Rn . It is to be noted however that taking the determinant of a matrix is
not a binary operation since (i) it involves only one matrix and (ii) the result is a real number, not
a matrix. Likewise, dot product of vector is also not a binary operation since it does not satisfy
the closure requirement. Although it is an operation between two vectors, the result is again a real
number which is not a vector.

2.2 Definition and Examples of Groups

Definition 2.2.1 — Group.

Let G be a set and ∗ a binary operation on G. We say that G is a group under ∗ if the following
properties are satisfied;
1. Associativity. The operation is associative, that is, foe all a, b, c ∈ G
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
2. Identity. There is an element e in G, called the identity7 , such that for all a ∈ G,
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a.
3. Inverses. For each element a ∈ G, there is an element b in G, called the inverse of a such
that
a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.

In words, a group is a set closed under an associative operation such that there is an identity
and every element has an inverse. Now, if furthermore, G has the property that a ∗ b = b ∗ a for
every pair a, b ∈ G, we say that the group is Abelian8 (or commutative).

Example 2.2.2

1. The set Z of integers, the set Q of rational numbers, the set R of real numbers are all groups
under the ordinary addition (+). In each set, the identy is 0, and the inverse of a number a
is −a. The set N of natural numbers is not a group under + since both identity and inverse
fails to hold.
2. Both set Q∗ of nonzero rational numbers and R∗ of nonzero real numbers are groups under
7
The identity of a group is denoted by e for einheit, the German word for identity.
8
Abel, Niels Henrik (1802-1829) was a Norwegian mathematician who made pioneering contributions in a variety
of fields. His most famous single result is the first complete proof demonstrating the impossibility of solving the
general quintic equation in radicals. This question was one of the outstanding open problems of his day, and had
been unresolved for over 250 years. He was also an innovator in the field of elliptic functions, discoverer of Abelian
functions. The Abel Prize in mathematics, originally proposed in 1899 to complement the Nobel Prizes, is named in
his honour.

12
2 GROUP

the ordinary multiplication (×). The identity element is 1 and the inverse of a nonzero
number a is 1/a (the reciprocal of a). Neither Q nor R are groups under × since 0 fails to
have an inverse; so is Z since the reciprocal of any integer, except 1, is not in Z.
Since the usual addition and multiplication are commutative in R, all the groups (Z, +), (Q, +),
(R, +), (Q∗ , ·) and (R∗ , ·) are Abelian.

3. C, +C is a group.
(i) Associative. Let z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ), z3 − (x3 , y3 ) be complex numbers. We
need to show that z1 +C (z2 +C z3 ) = (z1 +C z2 ) +C z3 .
z1 +C (z2 +C z3 ) = (x1 , y1 ) +C [(x2 , y2 ) +C (x3 , y3 )]
= (x1 , y1 ) +C (x2 + x3 , y2 + y3 )
= (x1 + (x2 + x3 ), y1 + (y2 + y3 ))
= ((x1 + x2 ) + x3 , (y1 + y2 ) + y3 )
= (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) +C (x3 , y3 )
= [(x1 , y1 ) +C (x2 , y2 )] +C (x3 , y3 )
(ii) Identity. The identity element is 0 = (0, 0). For z = (x, y) ∈ C, we need to show that
z +C 0 = 0 +C z = z.
z +C 0 = (x, y) +C (0, 0) = (x + 0, y + 0) = (x, y) = z.
Similarly, one can show that 0 +C z = z, as required.
(iii) Inverse. For a complex number z = (x, y), its additive inveerse is −z = (−x, −y).
We need to show that z +C (−z) = (−z) +C z = 0.
z +C (−z) = (x, y) +C (−x, −y) +C (x + (−x), y + (−y)) = (0, 0) = 0.
Similarly, one can show that (−z) + z = 0, as requried.
Since the three properties are satisfied, (C, +C ) is a group. It is left as an exercise to show
that complex addition is commutative, and thus, (C, +C ) is Abelian. 
4. (C∗ , ·C ) is an Abelian group.
(i) Associative. Let z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ), z3 − (x3 , y3 ) be complex numbers. We
need to show that z1 ·C (z2 ·C z3 ) = (z1 × z2 ) ·C z3 . Starting from the left-hand side of
the equation, we have
z1 ·C (z2 ·C z3 ) = (x1 , y1 ) ·C [(x2 , y2 ) ·C (x3 , y3 )]
= (x1 , y1 ) ·C (x2 x3 − y2 y3 , x2 y3 + x3 y2 )
= (x1 (x2 x3 − y2 y3 ) − y1 (x2 y3 + x3 y2 ),
x1 (x2 y3 + x3 y2 ) + y1 (x2 x3 − y2 y3 ))
= (x1 x2 x3 − x1 y2 y3 − x2 y1 y3 − x3 y1 y2 ,
x1 x2 y3 + x1 x3 y2 + x2 x3 y1 − y1 y2 y3 ).
Meanwhile, the right-hand side is
(z1 ·C z2 ) ·C z3 = [(x1 , y1 ) ·C (x2 , y2 )] ·C (x3 , y3 )
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) ·C (x3 , y3 )

13
2 GROUP

= ((x1 x2 − y1 y2 )x3 − (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )y3 ,

(x1 x2 − y1 y2 )y3 + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )x3 )
= (x1 x2 x3 − x3 y1 y2 − x1 y2 y3 + x2 y1 y3 ,
x1 x2 y3 − y1 y2 y3 + x1 x3 y2 + x2 x3 y1 ).
It can easily be verified that the left-hand side is equal to the right-hand side, as re-
quired.
(ii) Identity. The identity element is 1 = (1, 0). Let z = (x, y) ∈ C∗ , we need to show
that z ·C 1 = 1 ·C z = z.
z ·C 1 = (x, y) ·C (1, 0) = (x · 1 − y · 0, x · 0 + y · 1) = (x − 0, 0 + y) = (x, y) = z.
Similarly, one can show that 1 ·C z = z.
(iii) Inverse. Let z = (x, y) 6= (0, 0). Let u = (a, b) be the inverse of z, that is, z ·C u = 1.
We have
z ·C u = 1 ⇐⇒ (x, y) ·C (a, b) = (1, 0)
⇐⇒ (xa − yb, xb + ya) = (1, 0)
( ( (
xa − yb = 1 (xa − yb = 1)x x2 a − xyb = x
⇐⇒ ⇐⇒ ⇐⇒
xb + ya = 0 (ya + xb = 0)y y 2 a + xyb = 0
Adding the two equations yields (x2 + y 2 )a = x, and since (x, y) 6= (0, 0), we have
x
a = 2 . Substituting this value to the equation xb + ya = 0 and solving for b
x + y2
−y
gives b = 2 . Therefore, the inverse of z = (x, y 6= (0, 0)) is given by
x + y2
 
−1 x −y
z = , .
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
One can easily verify that z ·C z −1 = z −1 ·C z = 1.
It is left as an exercise to show further that complex multiplication is commutative, and so,
(C∗ , ·C ) is an Abelian group. 
5. The set (Zn , +n ) is an Abelian group. It can easily be shown that addition modulo n is
both associative and commutative since it is defined by the usual addition in Z. The identity
element is 0 and for each a ∈ Zn , the inverse is given by −a = n − a.
6. Let a and n be positive integers. One can show that the equation ax (mod n) = 1 has a
solution if, and only if, gcd(a, n) = 1. Then U (n) is a group under multiplication modulo
n, with 1 as the identy element. For an element a ∈ U (n), the inverse is that element x such
that ax (mod n) = 1.
7. The set of all 2×2 matrices with real entries form a group under
 addition. The identity
0 0 a b
is the 2×2 matrix O2 = , and for a matrix A = , the inverse is given
  0 0 c d
−a −b
by −A = . Furthermore, since matrix addition is commutative, this group is
−c −d
Abelian.

14
 2 GROUP

8. (GL(2, R), ·), where · is matrix

 multiplication, is anon-Abelian
 group. The identity element
1 0 a b
is the matrix I2 = , and for a matrix A = such that |A| = ad − bc 6= 0, the
0 1 c d
inverse is given by
 
d −b
 − bc ad − bc 
A−1 =  ad−c a .
ad − bc ad − bc
9. The set (Rn , +), so are (R2 , ·) and (R3 , ·) are Abelian groups.

The proof for item # 5-9 are left as meaningful exercises.

2.3 Elementary Properties of Groups

After presenting different examples of groups, we now look at certain elementary properties shared
by these groups.

Theorem 2.3.1 — Uniqueness of the Identity Element.

If (G, ∗) is a group, then the identity element of G is unique.
Proof. Suppose the elements e and e0 are both identities of G. It follows that for all a ∈ G,
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a, and (2.1)
0 0
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a. (2.2)
In particular, if a = e in Eq. (2.1), and a = e in Eq. (2.2), we have
0

e0 ∗ e = e0 and e0 ∗ e = e.
It follows that e0 = e0 ∗ e = e, which proves the uniqueness of the identity element. 

Theorem 2.3.2 — Left and Right Cancellation.

If (G, ∗) is a group, then the left and right cancellation law holds, that is, for all a, b, c ∈ G,
(i) If a ∗ b = a ∗ c, then b = c (left cancellation);
(ii) If b ∗ a = c ∗ a, then b = c (right cancellation).
Proof. We will only prove (i) and will leave (ii) as an exercise.
a ∗ b = a ∗ c =⇒ a−1 ∗ (a ∗ b) = a−1 ∗ (a ∗ c) multiplicative property of equality,
−1 −1
=⇒ (a ∗ a) ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ c G is associativite,
=⇒ e ∗ b = e ∗ c inverse property in G,
=⇒ b = c identity property in G. 

Theorem 2.3.3 — Uniqueness of Inverse.

If (G, ∗) is a group, then for each a ∈ G, there is a unique element b ∈ G such a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.
Proof. Suppose b and c are both inverses of a, that is a ∗ b = e and a ∗ c = e. It follows from
transitivity of equation that ab = ac. By left cancellation, b = c. 

15
2 GROUP

Example 2.3.4
Consider the group U (10) = {1, 3, 7, 9} under multiplication modulo 10. The multiplication table
for U (10) is given by
×10 1 3 7 9
1 1 3 7 9
3 3 9 1 7
7 7 1 9 3
9 9 7 3 1

Clearly, U (10) has only one identity e = 1. The inverse of 1 is itself, and no other. The same is
true for 9. On the other hand, the inverse of 3 is 7. No other member of U (10) when multiplied
to 3 gives 1 modulo 10. The same goes for 7, so 3 is the unique inverse of 7, and 7 is the uniqe
inverse of 3.

For simplicity, whenever the operation in G is clear, we will omit the use of ∗ and will use ·
(or juxtaposition) if the operation is multiplicative, and + if the operation is additive. We adhere
to the following notation, whenever no ambiguity arises:
Multiplicative group Additive group
a∗b ab or a · b multiplication a+b addition
Identity 1 multiplicative identity 0 additive identity
Inverse of a a −1
reciprocal −a negative
a ∗ a ∗ ··· ∗ a an powers of a na multiple of a
Derive operation a/b = ab 1 quotient
−
a − b = a + (−b) difference

Theorem 2.3.5
If G is a group (using the multiplicative notation), then for all a, b ∈ G,
(i) (a−1 )−1 = a,
(ii) (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
Proof.
(i) (a−1 )−1 = (a−1 )−1 · 1 = (a−1 )−1 · [(a−1 ) · a] = [(a−1 )−1 · (a−1 )] · a = 1 · a = a.
(ii) Let c = (ab)−1 , that is, c(ab) = 1. We have
c = c1 = c(aa−1 ) = ca1a=1 = ca(bb−1 )a−1 = [c(ab)](b−1 a−1 )
= 1(b−1 a−1 ) = b−1 a−1 

Example 2.3.6
Going back to the multiplicative group U (10), we can see that (3−1 )−1 = (7)−1 = 3, as expected.
Now, if we get two elements of U (10), say 3 and 9,
(3 ×10 9)−1 = (27 mod 10)−1 = (7)−1 = 3
9−1 ×10 3−1 = 9 ×10 7 = 63 mod 10 = 3.

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 2 GROUP

2.4 Finite Groups

Definition 2.4.1 — Order of a Group, Order of an Element.

Let G be a group. The number of elements of G is called the order of group G, denoted by |G|.
The order of an element a ∈ G, denoted as |a|, is the smallest integer n such that an = e (or
na = 0 for additive notation). If such n exist, we say that the order is finite. If no such integer
exist, we say that a has infinite order and we write |a| = ∞

To find the order of a group element a, you just have to compute the powers a, a2 , a3 , . . .
until you arrive at the identity 1 the first time (for additive notation you compute for the multiples
a, 2a, 3a, . . . until the first 0).

Example 2.4.2

1. By definition, the groups Z, Q and R under addition has infinite order. The identity element
0 has order 1, while the rest has infinite order. Likewise, the multiplicative groups Q∗ , R∗
and C∗ all have infinite order. The identity element 1 has order 1, the element −1 is of order
2, while in C∗, each of the elements i and −i is of order 4. The rest of the elements has
infinite order.
2. Let G = U (15) = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} under multiplication modulo 15. The order of
the group is 8. To get the order of each element a ∈ U (15), we get the power an (mod 15)
n = 1, 2, . . . until we get 1 for the first time.
11 = 1
21 = 2 22 = 4 23 = 8 24 = 1
41 = 4 42 = 1
1
7 =7 72 = 4 73 = 13 74 = 1
81 = 8 82 = 4 83 = 2 84 = 1
111 = 11 112 = 1
131 = 13 132 = 14 133 = 7 134 = 1
141 = 14 142 = 1
Therefore |1| = 1, |4| = |11| = |14| = 1 and |2| = |7| = |8| = |13| = 4.
3. Let G = Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under addition modulo 6. The order of the group is 6. To get
the order of each element a ∈ Z6 , we get the multiple na (mod 6), n = 1, 2, . . . until we
get 0 for the first time.
1(0) = 0
1(1) = 1 2(1) = 2 3(1) = 3 4(1) = 4 5(1) = 5 6(1) = 0
1(2) = 2 2(2) = 4 3(2) = 0
1(3) = 3 2(3) = 0
1(4) = 4 2(4) = 2 3(4) = 0
1(5) = 5 2(5) = 4 3(5) = 3 4(5) = 2 5(5) = 1 6(5) = 0
Therefore, the element 0 has order 1, the element 3 has order 2, the elements 2 and 4 have
order 3 and the elements 1 and 5 have order 6.

17
 2 GROUP

2.5 Subgroups

Definition 2.5.1 — Subgroup.

Let G be a group and H ⊆ G. H is said to be a subroup of G, denoted as H ≤ G if H is itself a
group under the operation on G.

If we want to indicate that H is a subgroup of G but is not G, we write H < G. Such a

subgroup is called a proper subgroup of G. Meanwhile, the set {e} containing just the identity
element is a subgroup of G called the trivial subgroup of G. A subgroup H 6= {e} is called a
nontrivial subgroup of G.

Example 2.5.2

1. Under addition, Z, Q and R are groups. Since Z ⊆ Q ⊆ R, it follows that Z ≤ Q ≤ R.

Likewise, under multiplication, Q ≤ R.
2. For a nonzero integer n, let nZ = {nx : x ∈ Z} = {. . . , −3n, −2n, −n, 0, n, 2n, 3n, . . .}.
Then nZ ≤ Z under the usual addition.
Solution. Associativity is inherent from Z. The identity element in nZ is 0, and for each
na ∈ nZ, the inverse is given by −na = n(−a) ∈ nZ. For closure, let na, nb ∈ nZ. We
have na + nb = n(a + b) ∈ nZ. 

3. Consider G = U (15) = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} under multiplication modulo 15. The mul-
tiplication table for G is given by
×15 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14
1 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14
2 2 4 8 14 1 7 11 13
4 4 8 1 13 2 14 7 11
7 7 14 13 4 11 2 1 8
8 8 1 2 11 4 13 14 7
11 11 7 14 2 13 ‘1 8 4
13 13 11 7 1 14 8 4 14
14 14 13 11 8 7 4 14 1
Show that H = {1, 2, 4, 8} is a subgroup of U (15).
Solution.
Observe that under ×15
×15 1 2 4 8
1 1 2 4 8
2 2 4 8 1
4 4 8 1 2
8 8 1 2 4
From this we can conclude that H is closed under multiplication modulo 15; the identity
element 1 is in H and every element in H has inverse (1−1 = 1, 2−1 = 8, 4−1 = 4 8−1 = 2).
Together with the fact that multiplication is associative, we conclude that H ≤ U (10). 

18
2 GROUP

We now give tests to determine if a subset H is a subgroup of a group G.

Theorem 2.5.3 — One-Step Subgroup Test.

Let G be a group and H a nonempty subset of G. If ab−1 is in H whenever a and b are in H, then
H is a subgroup of G.
Proof. To prove that H is a subgroup of G, we need to show 4 things – associativity, identity,
inverse and closure of H under the binary operation of G.
1. Associative. Since the operation in H is the same as that of G, it is clear that the operation
is associative.
2. Identity. We need to show that H ahs an identity element. Since H is non-empty, we can
find an arbitrary element, say h of H. By the deinition of H, with a = h and b = h,
ab−1 = hh−1 = e is in H.
3. Inverse. We need to show that every element in H has an inverse in H. If h ∈ H, with
a = e and b = h, it follows that eh−1 = h−1 ∈ H.
4. Closure. Finally, we need to show that the operation is closed in H, that is, for any elements
x and y in H, xy must also be in H. We have already shown that if y ∈ H, then y −1 ∈ H.
With a = x and b = y −1 , it follows that ab−1 = x(y −1 )−1 = xy is also in H, as required. 

Example 2.5.4
Let G be an Abelian group with identity e. Show that H = {g ∈ G : g 2 = e} is a subgroup of G.
Solution. We first note that since e2 = e, e ∈ H, and therefore H is nonempty. Now, let a, b ∈ H.
We need to show that ab−1 is also in H, that is, (ab−1 )2 = e. Since a, b ∈ H, we have
a2 = e and b2 = e.
It follows that (ab−1 )2 = ab−1 (ab−1 ) = a2 (b−1 )2 = a2 (b2 )−1 = ee−1 = e. 

Theorem 2.5.5 — Two-Step Subgroup Test.

Let G be a group and let H be a nonempty subset of G such that
(i) a, b ∈ H =⇒ ab ∈ H (H is cloed under the operation in G); and
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H (inverse of elements of H is in H).
Then H is a subgroup of G.
Proof. H is nonempty. Let a, b ∈ H. From (ii), b−1 ∈ H. It follows from (i) that ab−1 ∈ H. By
the One-Step Test, H is a subgoup of G. 

Example 2.5.6
Let G be an Abelian group and H and K be subgroups of G. Show that the set
HK = {hk : h ∈ H and k ∈ K}
is a subgroup of G.
Solution. First we note that since H and K are subgroups of G, e ∈ H and e ∈ K. Therefore,
ee = e ∈ HK and that HK is nonempty. Now suppose a, b ∈ HK. By the definition of HK,

19
2 GROUP

there are elements h1 , h2 ∈ H and k1 , k2 ∈ K such that

a = h1 k1 and b = h2 k2 .
We must show 2 things, ab ∈ HK and a ∈ HK. Since G is Abelian, we have
−1

ab = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) = (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 ) ∈ HK;

a = (h1 k1 )−1 = k1−1 h−1
−1 −1 −1
1 = h1 k1 ∈ HK. 

Theorem 2.5.7 — Finite Subgroup Test.

Let G be a group and H a nonempty finite subset of G. If H is closed under the operation of G,
then H is a subgroup of H.
Proof. Let ∅ 6= H ⊆ such that |H| is finite. If H is closed under the operation of G, by the two-
step subgroup test, we only need to show that H is also closed under inverse operation, that is, for
any a ∈ H, a−1 must also be in H.
If a = e, we are done. Suppose a 6= e. Consider the powers a, a2 , a3 , . . .. By closure of H, all
of these elements must be in H, and by the finiteness of H, not all of these elements are distinct
(at some point, the value must repeat). Let’s say aj = ak for some integers j, k with j > k. Then
aj a−k = aj−k = e. SInce a 6= e = a, j − k > 0. We have
a · aj−k−1 = aj−k = e.
It follows that a−1 = aj−k−1 . Since j − k − 1 ≥ 1, it follows that a−1 , being a positive power of
a, is in H, as required. 

Example 2.5.8
Find all nontrvial proper subgroups of U (15).
Solution. Using Example 2.5.4, the set H1 = {x : x2 = 1} = {1, 4, 11, 14} is a subgroup of
U (15). By Example 2.5.2, H2 = {1, 2, 4, 8} is also a subgroup of U (15).
We can also form subgroups iteratively. We start with the fact that a subgroup always contain
the identity element 1. We then get an element g1 of G and form H = {1, g1 }. To check if H is
a subgroup of G, we get all possible combination of a and b in H and compute ab. By the finite
subgroup test, if ab ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H, then H ≤ G. If there exist a and b in H such that
/ H, then redefine H to include this element. If, say g2 = ab ∈
ab ∈ / H, let the new H = {1, g2 , g2 }.
Repeat again the process until H is closed or H = G.
Let H = {1, 2}. We check that
1 · 1 = 1, 1 · 2 = 2, 2 · 2 = 4
Hence the set is not closed since 4 is not in H. We redefine H to include 4, and repeat the
verification of closure: new H = {1, 2, 4}
4 · 1 = 4, 4 · 2 = 8
We stop at 4 · 2 = 8, since this means that the current set is not closed. So we redefine H3 to
include 8. New H = {1, 2, 4, 8}. We already established that this is a subgroup of U (15).
Let’s try {1, 8}. 82 = 4, so we need to include 4. If we include 4, 8 · 4 = 2, so we also need to
include 2. We see that this is the same set as H2 .
Now, let’s try H3 = {1, 4}. We chack that 1 · 1 = 1, 1 · 4 = 4, 4 · 4 = 1. The set is closed,

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hence H3 = {1, 4} is a subgroup of U (15). Checking the multiplication table for U (15), 132 = 1
and 142 = 1. So H4 = {1, 13} and H5 = {1, 14} are subgroups of U (15).
This time, lLet’s try {1, 7}. 7 · 7 = 4 so we include 4. 7 · 4 = 13 so we include 13. 7 · 13 = 1,
13 · 13 = 4 and 13 · 4 = 7. So the set H6 = {1, 7, 4, 13} is closed, and hence, a subgroup of U (15).
If we start with {1, 13}, we’ll end up with the same set.
The subgroups of U (15) are
{1} {1, 4} {1, 11} {1, 14} {1, 2, 4, 8} {1, 7, 4, 13} {1, 4, 11, 14} U (15) 

Theorem 2.5.9 — The subgroup hai.

Let G be a group. For a ∈ G, let hai = {an : n ∈ Z} (for additive group, hai = {na : n ∈ Z}).
Then hai is a subgroup of G.

Theorem 2.5.10
Let a ∈ G, we will use the one-step subgroup test to prove that hai ≤ G. Since a ∈ hai, hai 6= ∅.
Let aj , ak ∈ hai. Then
(aj )(ak )−1 = aj a−k = aj−k ∈ hai .
Therefore, hai is a subgroup of G.

Example 2.5.11

1. Let G = (Z, +). For each n ∈ Z, hni = nZ is a subgroup of Z.

2. Let G = C∗ . Then hii = {i, −1, −i, 1} is a subgroup of C∗ .
3. Let G = U (15) = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}. The following are the subgroups generated by
each element in G:
h1i = {1}
h2i = {1, 2, 4, 8}
h4i = {1, 4}
h7i = {1, 7, 4, 13}
h8i = {1, 8, 4, 2} = h2i
h11i = {1, 11}
h13i = {1, 13, 4, 7} = h7i
h14i = {1, 14}
4. Let G = (Z6 , +6 ). The foolowing are the subgroups generated by each element in Z6 .
h0i = {0}
h1i = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
h2i = {0, 2, 4}
h3i = {0, 3}
h4i = {0, 4, 2} = h2i
h5i = {0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1} = h1i

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