Module 1: Preliminaries

Abstract Algebra is the study of structures of sets and their properties. Many

concepts in abstract algebra make use of properties of integers, equivalence relations and

functions. This first module, which supplements Chapter 0 of the text on pages 3-21, will

discuss these properties and relations which will be useful in our study of the succeeding

chapters. Some of these concepts are already familiar to you. For some of you, this will

just be a breeze!

Objectives: At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. state and apply the Division Algorithm;

2. define the greatest common divisor gcd and least common multiple 1cm of two

nonzero integers;

3. use the Euclidean Algorithm to compute the gcd of two nonzero integers and

express the gcd as a linear combination of the given integers;

define congruence modulo n and state some of its properties;

use mathematical induction for proving;

4. define equivalence relations;

5. determine whether a given relation is an equivalence relation or not;

determine the equivalence classes of an equivalence relation;

define functions, 1-1 and onto functions; and

6. determine whether a given function is 1-1 or onto.

1. Some Properties of Integers (READ page 3 of the text).

We postpone the discussion of the Well-Ordering Principle and first recall the

terms defined. These terms are familiar to you since the elementary grades, so you should

find them easy to understand.

1. A nonzero integer t is a divisor of an integer s if there is an integer u such that s = tu.

If t is a divisor of s, we denote this by Otherwise, we write t|s.

Examples:

1. 5∨20 since 20=4 ∙ 5

2. 3¿20 since 3 is not a divisor of 20. That is, there is no integer which when

multiplied to 3 will yield the number 20.

2. A prime is a positive integer greater than 1 whose only positive divisors are 1 and

itself.

Examples: The numbers 2,3, 5 and 7 are prime numbers. The number 6 is not prime

since it has other factors, namely, 2 and 3, which are different from 1 and 6.

3. An integer s is a multiple of an integer t if there is an integer u such that s=tu. In

otherwords, if t∨s, then s is a multiple of t.

 Examples: Since 6|24, 24 is a multiple of 6. Some other multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18,

30,36 and so on.

Next, we recall the Well-Ordering Principle.

Well-Ordering Principle

Every nonempty set of positive integers contains a smallest member.

Examples:

1. The set {1,2,3} has 1 as smallest element.

2. The set of all positive even integers has 2 as smallest element

The Well-Ordering Principle is used in the proofs of the Division Algorithm and

the Euclidean Algorithm.

READ page 4 of the text and study the proof of the Division Algorithm. Reread

if necessary, until a good grasp of the proof is achieved.

We state here again the Division Algorithm.

Division Algorithm

Let a and b be integers with b >0. Then there exist unique integers q and r with

the property that a=bq+ r where 0 ≤ r <b.

 The Division Algorithm states that given 2 integers a and b with b > 0, you can

always divide a by b to get a quotient q and a remainder r, where 0 ≤ r <b.

We make some notes here for a better understanding of the proof of the

Division Algorithm on page 4 of the text.

1. First, given two integers a and b, with b> 0, the set

S= { a−bk|k is aninteger ∧a−bk ≥ 0 }is defined. Thus, S is a set of nonnegative integers.

a
2. We then consider the case when 0 ∈ S . In this case, we set q=
b

3. If 0 ∉ S then S is a set of positive integers. By the Well-Ordering Principle, it has

smallest element, say r. Since r ∈ S , r=a−bq for some integer q.

4. By definition of set S, r ≥ 0. The next part shows that r <b .

5. Lastly, the uniqueness of q and r is proved. Assume that there are 2 sets of values q,

r and q', r'. Then it is proved that q=q ' ∧r=r ' .

We now illustrate the Division Algorithm by the following examples.

1. If a=22 and b=6, then since 22=6(3)+4 , we have q=3 and r =4 . Note that 0< 4< 6

2. If a=−38 and b=5, we get −38=5(−8)+2 and so q=−8 and r =2. You may notice

that −38=5(−7)+(−3) but we cannot consider −3 as r because we require that

0 ≤ r <5.

3. If a=7 and b=9, then 7=9(0)+7 . Thus, q=0 and r =7.

4. If a=−12 and b=18, we get −12=18 (−1)+6 . Hence, q=−1 and r =6.
 Try to compute for q and r for the following values of a and b.

SAQ 1. (Self Assessment Question 1)

Find the values of q and r which will satisfy the conditions of the Division Algorithm

for the following values of a and b:

1. a=37∧b=14

2. a=−15∧b=4

3. a=8∧b=16

4. a=−2 2∧b=25

ASAQ 1. (Answer to Self-Assessment Question 1)

The corresponding values of q and r are as follows:

1. q=2∧r=9

2. q=−4∧r=1

3. q=0∧r=8

4. q=−1∧r=3 .

Did you get all four correct? Then congratulations! You have done very well

indeed!

READ pages 5-7 of the text for the definition of gcd and relatively prime numbers.
 We note here that the gcd is the largest among the common divisors or the

common factors of two nonzero integers. For example, the factors of 8 are ± 1, ± 2 ,± 4 and

± 8 while the factors of 12 are ± 1, ± 2 ,± 3 , ± 4 , ±6 , and ± 12 We observe that the

largest among the common factors is 4. Thus gcd ( 8,12 ) =4 . On the other hand, the factors

of 9 are ± 1, ± 3and ± 9. Thus, gcd ( 8,9 )=1and gcd ( 9,12 )=3. We say that 8 and 9 are

relatively prime.

The theorem in page 6 of the text tells us that the gcd (a , b)can be expressed as a

linear combination of the numbers a and b. We note that this expression of the gcd (a , b)

as a linear combination of the numbers a and b is not unique. For example, the

gcd ( 4,6 )=2 . Then note that 2=4 ( 2 ) +6(−1) is one linear combination of 4 and 6 which

yield their gcd 2. Observe that 2=4 (−4 ) +6 (3) is another linear combination of 4 and 6.

There are other ways of expressing 2 as a linear combination of 4 and 6.

The Euclidean Algorithm not only gives us another way by which we can

compute

the gcd but also gives us a way by which we can express the gcd ⁡(a , b) as a linear

combination of the numbers a and b. An illustration of this application of the Euclidean

Algorithm is given on page 7 of the text. We give another example here.

Example: Let us compute gcd (124¿ ,236)¿. By the Division Algorithm,

 236−124 ( 1 ) +112
( 1)

In the next step, the divisor 124 becomes the new dividend and the remainder 112

becomes the new divisor. Thus

124=112 ( 1 ) +12.
(2)

Next, 112 becomes the new dividend and 12 the new divisor.

112=12 ( 9 )+ 4
(3 )

Then, 12 becomes the new dividend and 4 the new divisor. So, we get

12=4 ( 3 ) +0.
( 4)

Since the last remainder is 0, we stop the Euclidean Algorithm here. The last nonzero

remainder is 4 and so

gcd (124,236¿)=4.¿

To express 4 as a linear combination of 124 and 236, we will work our way

backwards.

From equation (3) above,

4=112 +12 (−9 ) .

(5)

Then from equation (2),

12=124 +112 (−1 ) .

(6)

We substitute equation (6) in equation (5) to get,

 4=112 +[124+112 (−1)](−9).

We then distribute (−9 ) to get,

4=112 +124(−9)+112 (9).

Combining the terms involving 112 we obtain,

4=112 ( 10 )+124 (−9 )

(7 )

From equation (1),

112=236+124 ( 4 ) .
(8 )

Substituting equation (8) in equation (7),

4= [236 +124 (−1 ) ] (10 )+124 (−9 )¿ 236 ( 10 ) +124 (−10 ) +124 (−9 )¿ 236(10)+124 (49)

SAQ 2. Use the Euclidean Algorithm to find the gcd (516,324). Then express the ged as a

linear combination of 516 and 324 .

ASAQ 2. Applying the Euclidean Algorithm,

516=324 ( 1 ) +192324=1 92 ( 1 ) +132192=132(1)+6 0132=60 (2)+1260=12(5)+ 0.

The last nonzero remainder is 12, therefore gcd (516,324)=1 2.

Then we work our way backwards to express 12 as a linear combination of 516 and 324.

12=132+60 (−2)¿ 132+[192+132(−1)](−2)¿ 132+192(−2)+ 132( 2)¿ 132(3)+192(−2)

¿ [324+ 192(−1)](3)+192(−2)¿ 324 (3)+192(−3)+192(−2)¿ 324 (3)+192(−5)

¿ 324 (3)+[516+324(−1)](−5)¿ 324 (3)+516 (−5)+ 324(5)¿ 324 ( 8 )+516 (−5).

SAQ 3. Show that if c∨ab and gcd (a , c)=1, then c∨b.

ASAQ 3. Since gcd ( a , c ) =1, there exist integers s and t such that 1=as+ct . Multiplying

both sides by 6, we get b=|+ bct|. Since c∨ab, we have ab=ck for some integer k. Thus,

b=cks +bct=c ( ks+bt ). Observe that c is a factor of b. Thus, c∨b. ■

READ pages 7-8 of the text for Euclid's lemma, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

and the definition of the least common multiple.

Recall that the least common multiple is the smallest positive integer among

common multiples of two given nonzero integers. For example, the positive multiples of

2 are 2,4,6,8,10,12 and so on. The positive multiples of 3 are 3,6,9,12 and so on. Thus,

some of the common multiples of 2 and 3 are 6, 12, 18 and so on. But the smallest of

these is 6. Hence, lcm(2,3)=6. Observe that 6 divides all other common multiples of 2

and 3. In general, if s is a multiple of a and b, then lcm ( a , b )∨s. This last statement is in

Exercise no. 12 on page 22.

SAQ 4. Show that if a and b are positive integers, then ab=gcd (a , b)lcm (a , b). (This is

Exercise no. 7 on page 22. This question is a little difficult as it is conceptual in nature,
but still, give it your best shot! First show that the gcd (a , b) is a factor of the product,

then show that the remaining factors comprise the lcm( a ,b).)

ASAQ 4. Let d=gcd ( a ,b). Since d is a common factor of a and b, then we can write

a=de and b=df for some integers e and f. We note that e and f must be relatively prime.

For if we suppose otherwise, that is, if gcd ( e , f )=t >1, then dt is a common factor of a and

b which is greater than d. This is a contradiction, as d is the greatest common factor of a

and b.

Then, ab=d 2 ef =d (¿). We want to show that lcm( a ,b)=¿. Clearly, ¿ is a common

multiple of a=de and b=df . Next, we show that de f is the smallest among the common

multiples of a and b. That is, we show that ¿ must divide any common multiple s of a and

b. Since s is a multiple of a and b, then s=ag = deg and s=bh=dfh for some integers g

and h. Suppose ¿∨s . This implies that ¿∨deg or f ∨g. But since s=deg=dfh, this implies

eg=fh. Note that f ∨eg but gcd( e , f )=1. Thus, by SAQ 3, f ∨g. Hence, we have a

contradiction. Therefore, ¿∨s and lcm( a ,b)=¿ We have shown that

ab=d ( ¿ )=lcm ( a ,b ) gcd (a , b).■

2. Modular Arithmetic

READ pages 8-13 of the book. This section of the book gives a lot of practical

applications on the use of modular arithmetic. This is good because most of the time,
higher mathematics tend to be so theoretical that many people question if these have

applications in real life. So please bear in mind these applications. In this section though,

we highlight only the theoretical aspect of modular arithmetic.

We recall that if n is a positive integer and n>1, then we say that two integers a

and b arc congruent modulo n, denoted by a=b(mod n) if and only if n }(a−b).

Examples: 12=6 ( mod 3 ) since 3∨(12−6) . However, 12 ≢ 5(mod 3) since 12−5 is not

divisible by 3.

In other words, we can say that two integers are congruent modulo n, if they

yield the same remainder when divided by n. For example, both 12 and 6 yield a

remainder of 0 when divided by 3. However, 5 when divided by 3 gives a remainder of 2.

So 12 ≢ 5(mod 3).

SAQ 5. Show that if a=b(mod n) and c=d (mod n) then

a+ c ≡(b+ d)(mod n)and

ac ≡bd ( mod n ) .

ASAQ 5. Since a=b ( mod n ) , then n∨( a−b). Similarly, c= ( mod n ) implies n∨(c−d). Thus,

a−b=nk and c−d=nmfor some integers k and m. Hence,

( a−b ) + ( c−d )=nk + nm¿ n( k +m)Thus,

n∨[ ( a−b ) + ( c−d ) ] =[ ( a+ c )−( b+ d ) ]Therefore,

a+ c ≡(b+ d)(mod n)

Next multiplying the equation, a−b=nk by c, we get

ac−bc=nck ( 1 )If we multiply the equation c−d=nm by b, we get

bc−bd =bnm ( 2 )If we add up equations (1) and (2), we get

ac−bd=nck −bnm¿ n( ck−bm)Therefore,

n∨(ac−bd) and ac=bd( mod n).■

3. Mathematical Induction

READ pages 13-16 on Mathematical Induction. Please take note of the paragraphs which

come right after the statements of the First and Second Principle of Mathematical

Induction on pages 13 and 14, respectively. These give you a summary of how to apply

these principles of mathematical induction. The method of mathematical induction is

used when proving a statement involving the set of integers.

Example: Use the First Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove that for every

positive integer n.

n(n+1)
1+2+⋯ +n=
2
Solution: Let S be the set of all positive integers for which the equation holds. First, we

verify the equation for n=1. Clearly,

1(1+1)
1= Thus, 1 ∈ S. Assume that some integer k ∈ S . That is
2

k (k +1)
1+2+⋯ +k =
2

We prove that k +1 ∈ S .

k ( k +1 )
1+2+⋯ +k + ( k + 1 )=[ 1+ 2+ ⋯+ k ] + ( k +1 )¿ + ( k +1 ) by the assumption
2

k (k +1)(k + 2)
¿( k +1) [ ]
2
+1 ¿
2

Observe that the right-hand side (RHS) of the last equation verifies the formula for

n=k +1. ■
SAQ 6. Use the First Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove that

1+3+5+ ⋯+(2n−1)=n2

ASAQ 6. Let S be the set of positive integers for which the equation holds. We verify if

1 ∈ S. Since 1=12 , then 1 ∈ S. Assume now that some integer k ∈ S . That is,

1+3+5+ ⋯+ ( 2 k−1 )=k 2We then prove true for n=k +1.

1+3+ ⋯+ ( 2 k−1 ) + [ 2 ( k +1 ) −1 ]=[ 1+3+⋯+ ( 2 k−1 ) ] + [ 2 ( k +1 )−1 ]¿ k 2 + [ 2 ( k +1 ) −1 ]¿ ( k +1 )2 ■

Look again at Example 9 on page 14 to illustrate the application of the Second

Principle of Mathematical Induction before proceeding to attack the following SAQ.

SAQ 7. Use the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove that if n is a

positive composite integer, then n has a prime divisor p satisfying p ≤ √ n .

ASAQ 7. Let S be the set of positive composite integers for which the statement holds.

We first verify the statement for n=4 , the smallest positive composite integer. Clearly, 4

has a prime divisor, namely p=2 which satisfies 2 ≤ √ 4 . Thus, 4 ∈ S. Assume now that the

statement is true for all composite integers k such that 4 ≤ k <n. We now show that if n is a

composite integer, then n ∈ S . Since n is composite, there exist integers a and b such that

n=ab where 1<a< n and 1<b< n. We first consider the case when at least one of a and b is

composite. Without loss of generality, assume that a is composite. Then by the inductive

assumption, a has a prime divisor p which satisfies p ≤ √ a . Since 1<b< n, this implies
1< √ b< √ n. Thus, p= p ⋅1< √ a ⋅ √ b=√ ab= √n . So, p is a prime divisor of n which is less

than √ n . If neither one of a and b is composite, then both of them are prime. Without loss

of generality, assume that a ≤ b. Then a=√ a ⋅ a ≤ √ ab=√ n . Thus a is a prime divisor of n

satisfying a ≤ √ n. In both cases, n ∈ S . ■

4. Equivalence Relations

READ pages 16-18 of the book. Please pay particular attention to the definition of

equivalence relation and partition. Memorize these definitions. These are important

concepts not only in Abstract Algebra but in other branches of mathematics as well. Look

closely at Examples 13 and 14 on page 17, as they show why the relation congruence

modulo n is an equivalence relation on the set of integers and what are some of its

equivalence classes.

We show one more example which illustrates how to show that a given relation is an

equivalence relation.

Example: Let S be the set of integers. If a , b ∈ S , define aRb if a+ b is even. Prove that R

is an equivalence relation and determine the equivalence classes of S. (This is Exercise

no. 44 on page 24. We also note that a is even if 2∨a.)

Solution: We show that the 3 properties of an equivalence relation are satisfied.

i. Reflexive Property: aRa for all a ∈ S .

Clearly, a+ a=2 a is even. So, aRa .

ii. Symmetric Property: If aRb . then bRa for all a , b ∈ S .

If a+ b is even, then by the commutative property of addition of integers,

b+ a=a+bis also even. Therefore bRa .

iii. Transitive Property: If aRb and bRc then aRc for all a , b , c ∈ S.

If a+ b is even and b+ c is even, then a+ b=2 k and b+ c=2 m for some integers k

and m. Therefore,

(a+ b)+(b+ c)=2 k+ 2 mor

a+ c=2 ( k +m−b ) . Therefore, aRc .

This relation has two distinct equivalence classes, namely,

[0]={... ,−4 ,−2 , 0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , ...} or the set of all even integers, and

[1]={... ,−3 ,−1 , 1, 3 , 5 ,7. .. } or the set of all odd integers. We note that the sum of two

even integers is again even and that the sum of any two odd integers is also even. We also

observe that the two equivalence classes partition the set S.

SAQ 8. Let S be the set of integers. If a , b ∈ S , define aRb if ab ≥ 0. Is R an equivalence

relation on S? (This is Exercise no. 43 on page 24).

ASAQ 8. We verify the properties of an equivalence relation.

i. Reflexive Property: aRa for all a ∈ S .

Clearly, aa=a2 >0 . Therefore, aRa .

ii. Symmetric Property. If aRb then bRa for all a , b ∈ S .

If ab ≥ 0, then by the commutative property of multiplication on S,

ba=ab ≥ 0. Thus. bRa .

iii. Transitive Property: If aRb and bRc then aRc , for all a , b , c ∈ S.

If ab ≥ 0 and bc ≥0 , then the product (ab)(bc)=a b 2 c ≥ 0. If b2 > 0, dividing

both sides of a b 2 c >0 by b 2 , gives ac >0 . However, if b=0, then it is possible that a and c

have opposite signs. In this case, ac <0 .

Since the transitive property is not satisfied, we conclude that R is NOT an

equivalence relation on S. ■

5. Functions

READ pages 19-21 of the book.

We recall that a function from set A to set B , denoted by f : A → B is an

assignment of elements of set A to elements of set B, such that every element of set A is

assigned to exactly one element in set B. The set A is called the domain while the set B is

called the codomain of the function. If f assigns a to b , denoted by f (a)=b , then b is

called the image of a under f while a is called the pre-image or inverse image of b under f

A function may be expressed as a set of ordered pairs (a , b) where a ∈ A and

b ∈ B . As a set of ordered pairs, a function does not allow the first component to repeat.

That is, a function may not have elements of the form (a , b) and (a , c ) as this will mean

that the clement a ∈ A is paired with two elements b and c in B. A function f : A → B may

also be expressed as some equation in the form y=f (x ) or some rule which can generate

a set of ordered pairs ( x , y ) where x ∈ A and y ∈ B.

Example: Determine which of the following are functions.

1. S={(1,2),(2,3), (3,4) ,(4,5)}

2. T ={(1,2) ,(1,3),(3,4) ,( 4,5)}

3. y=x 2. Let the domain be the set of real numbers.

4. y 2=x . Let the domain be the set of nonnegative integers.

5. Let A=the set of all men and B=the set of all women. Let f (x)=mother of x .

Solution:

1. S is a function.

2. T is not a function. Observe that the element 1 is paired with two elements namely, 2

and 3.

3. This is a function. Every real number x is paired with only one element of y .

4. This is not a function. For example, the element x=1 has two images 1 and −1.

5. This is a function. Every man has only one mother.

SAQ 9. Determine which of the following are functions.

1. S={(1.5),(2,4),(3,3) ,(4,2) ,(5,1) }

2. T ={(1,5),( 2,4) ,(3,3 ,) ,(2,2),(1,1)}

3. y=¿ x∨¿. Let the domain be the set of real numbers

4. y=⌊ x ⌋ . Let the domain be the set of real numbers. The symbol ⌊ x ⌋ denotes the

largest integer less than or equal to x . For example, ⌊ 1.5 ⌋ =1 , ⌊ 3 ⌋=3 and

⌊−2.4 ⌋=−3.

5. Let A=the set of all items∈a certain grocery store . B=all positive real numbers . Let

f ( x )= price of x .

ASAQ 9.

1. function.

2. not a function. The element 1 has 2 images, namely 5 and 1. Likewise, the element 2

has two images, namely 2 and 4 .

3. function.

4. function. This is called the greatest integer function of x or the floor function of x .

5. function. Every item in the grocery store can have only one price.
 Next, we recall that a function ϕ from set A to set B is one-to-one if ϕ ( a1 )=ϕ ( a2 )

implies a 1=a2. Equivalently, ϕ is one-to-one if a 1 ≠ a2 implies ϕ ( a1 ) ≠ ϕ (a2 ). This last

statement translates to the following: distinct elements should have distinct images. If

two or more elements have the same image, then the function is said to be many-to-one.

Examples: Determine which of the following functions are one-to-one.

1. S={(1,3),(2,5),(3,7) ,(4,9) ,(5,11)}

2. y=2 x +3. Let the domain be the set of integers.

3. y=x 2. Let the domain be the set of real numbers.

4. Let A=the set of all men and B=the set of all women. Let f (x)=mother of x .

Solution:

1. one-to-one. Clearly, distinct elements have distinct images.

2. one-to-one. Suppose y 1= y 2. This means 2 x1 +3=2 x 2 +3. Subtracting both sides by 3,

and then dividing both sides by 2 yields x 1=x 2

3. not one-to-one. It suffices to show that there exist two distinct elements which have

the same image. For example, both 1 and −1 have the same image which is 1.

Likewise, 2 and −2 have the image which is 4 .

4. not one-to-one. Two brothers have the same mother.

SAQ 10. Determine which of the following functions are one-to-one.

1. y=| x|. Let the domain be the set of real numbers

 2. y=⌊ x ⌋ . Let the domain be the set of real numbers. The symbol ⌊ x ⌋ denotes the

greatest integer function of x or the floor function of x .

3. y=2x Let the domain be the set of real numbers.

4. Let A=the set of all items∈a certain grocery store .

B=all positive real numbers . Let f (x)= price of x .

ASAQ 10.

1. not one-to-one. Both 1 and −1 have the same image.

2. not one-to-one. The numbers 1 ,1.1 , 1.2 ,1.3 and 1.4 all have the same image which is

1. These are just a few of the numbers having the same image. There many more

such numbers having the same image.

3. one-to-one. Suppose 2 x =2x . Then applying logarithm on both sides, we get

1 2

x 1 log 2=x2 log 2. Canceling the common factor log 2, we get x 1=x 2

4. not one-to-one. Two different items may have the same price. For example, two cans

of milk, having the same brand and same size, are considered as two different items.

Of course, two distinct items, like soap and toothpaste may also have the same price.

Lastly, we recall that a function ϕ from set A to set B is onto if every element of

B is the image of at least one element of A . The property of being onto depends not only

on what the function is, but also on what the domain and codomain are.
Examples: Determine which of the following functions are onto.

1. y=2 x . Let A=B=the set of integers .

2. y=2 x . Let A=B=the set of real numbers .

3. y=x 2. Let A=B=the set of real numbers

4. Let A=the set of all men and B=the set of all women. Let f (x)=mother of x .

Solutions:

1. not onto. Observe that the set of odd integers do not have pre-images. For

1 1
example, the pre-image of 1 should be but is not an element of the domain.
2 2

y
2. onto. Every real number y has a pre-image which is again a real number.
2

3. not onto. The negative real numbers do not have pre-images

4. not onto. Not all women are mothers.

SAQ 11. Determine which of the following functions are onto.

1. y=| x|. Let A=B=the set of real numbers .

2. y=2 x +1. Let A=B=the set of integers .

3. y=2 x +1. Let A=B=the set of real numbers .

4. y=2x Let A=B the set of real numbers .

5. Let A=the set of all items∈a certain grocery store . B=all positive real numbers . Let

f ( x )= price of x .

ASAQ 11.

1. not onto. The negative real numbers have no pre-images. For example, there is no

real number whose absolute value is −1.

2. not onto. The even integers do not have pre-images.

y−1
3. onto. Every real number y has a pre-image namely,
2

4. not onto. The negative real numbers and 0 do not have pre-images.

5. not onto. Not all real numbers can be prices of commodities. For example, an item

cannot have π as its price.

Now, try to do as many of the Exercises on pages 21-24 as you can. Do your

best! After solving, you can check your answers with those given by the book. These

answers can be found in one of the appendixes at the end of the book.

So, that ends it for the first module. I hope everything is clear to you. If not read

and re-read until you understand everything perfectly. Move on now to the rest of the

modules. There are greater challenges ahead of you!