[Experiment 8]

[Loss of Containment of Gas]

Group No 04

GA Muhammad Athir bin Mohamed Anuar

Name Abdul Rahman Saeed (15002144)
Subhashini Alaganandham (16000893)
Sanmuga Priyan Latchumaya (16001442)
Mohammad Zikry (17007096)
Amelia Malini (16002008)

1
TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 3

2.0 Literature Review…………………………………………………..…………………. 4

3.0 Methodology………………………………………………………………………….. 6

3.1 Experiment A: To determine the effect of pressure head on maximum flow of 6

gas for orifice having different size but at same level
3.2 Experiment B: To determine the effect of pressure head on maximum flow of 6
gas for orifice having same size but at different level

4.0 Results and Discussions……………………………………………………………….. 7

4.1 Experiment A: To determine the effect of pressure head on maximum flow of 7

gas for orifice having different size but at same level
4.2 Experiment B: To determine the effect of pressure head on maximum flow of 9
gas for orifice having same size but at different level

4.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 12
6.0 Appendices……………………………………………………………………………... 13

2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
An accident is defined as failure in subsystem or whole system that damages many unit
hence disrupting the future and ongoing output of system (Perrow, 2011). In industries, most
accidents in plants can result in spills of toxic, flammable and explosive materials. It also begins
with an incident, which usually results in the loss of containment of material from the process.
Incident involves damage that limited to parts whether the failure disrupts the system or not.
Common incidents are the rupture or break of a pipeline, a hole in a tank or pipe, runaway
reaction, or fire external to the vessel. It also can be caused by material degradation and
corrosion failure (Javaherdashti, Nwaoha, & Tan, 2013). Once the incident is known, source
models are selected to describe how materials are discharged from the process.

The source model provides a description of the rate of discharge, the total quantity
discharged or total time of discharge, and the state of the discharge that is solid, liquid, vapor
or a combination (C,2010). For flammable releases, fire and explosion models convert the
source model information on the release into energy hazard potential such as thermal radiation
and explosion over pressure. Effective models convert these incident-specific results into
effects on people which injury or death and structures. Source models are constructed from
fundamental or empirical equations representing the physicochemical processes occurring
during the release of materials. For a reasonably complex plant, many source models are
needed to describe the release to ensure safe design.

Release mechanisms are classified into two types; wide and limited aperture releases.
In the wide aperture case, a large hole develops in the process unit and release a large amount
of material in a short burst of time. One of the example is the over pressuring and explosion of
a storage tank. For the limited aperture case, gas/vapour is released at a slow rate that conditions
for upstream pressure are not immediately affected with the assumption of constant upstream
pressure is frequently valid (Crowl, & Louvar, 2014). Energy contained within the gas or
vapour in form of pressure is converted into kinetic energy as the gas or vapor escapes and
expands through the hole. While exiting through the leak, the density, pressure, and
temperature for the gas or vapour change.

3
 Gas and vapour discharge are classified to two types of release; throttling and free
expansion releases. For throttling releases, the gas flows through a small crack which is very
small in diameter with large frictional losses hence little of the energy essential to the gas
pressure is converted to kinetic energy. For the free expansion release which is applied in this
experiment, most of the pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy with the assumption of
isentropic behaviour is valid (Crowl, & Louvar, .2014). Free expansion release source models
require only the diameter of the leak and not the level of leak. The equation to determine the
maximum flow rate can be found in the appendices section.

The objectives for this experiment are to determine the effect of pressure head on maximum
flow of gas for orifice having different size which are 0.005m, 0.0028m, 0.0038m and 0.001m
in diameter but at same level, 0 cm and to determine the effect of pressure head on maximum
flow of gas for orifice having same size but at different levels which are 0cm, 5cm, 10cm and
15cm.

2.0 Literature Review

Loss of containment of a material can occur due to incidents such as rupture of

pipeline, hole in tank/pipeline, runaway reaction or fire external to the vessel. When a loss of
containment of gas occurs in any processing plant, a source model is used to estimate the
consequences or how the materials are being discharged from the process. Source models are
constructed from empirical equations that represent the physiochemical process that takes
place when a loss of containment occurs. However, this is at best still an estimation as the
physical processes that take place are not completely understood. For more complex plants,
several source models are used to predict the consequences. A source model is able to
provide the following information:
• Rate of discharge
• Total quantity of discharge (total time of discharge)
• State of the discharge (solid, liquid, vapor or a combination)

Several source models that are frequently used include:

4
 • Flow of liquid through a hole
• Flow of liquid through pipes
• Flow of vapor through a hole *(Scope of our experiment)
• Flow of gases through pipes
• Flashing liquids
• Liquid pool evaporating or boiling

For many safety studies the maximum flow rate of vapor through the hole is required. The
equation for the Maximum Mass Flow Rate, Qm for the flow of vapor through a hole is:

γ+1
γ𝑔𝑐 𝑀 2 γ−1
𝑄𝑚 = 𝐶0 𝐴𝑃0 √( )( )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇0 γ + 1
Equation (1)

A fire and explosion model is obtained when the information obtained from the
source model is converted into potential energy hazards such as thermal radiation,
overpressure and explosions. An effect model is able to translate these incident-related results
into effects on people (death or injury), structures (loss/damage) and the environment. A
dispersion model is a model that describes how the material is transported downwind and
dispersed to some concentration levels.
Release mechanisms are classified into two categories: wide and limited aperture
releases. For wide aperture releases, a large amount of material is released in a short period of
time whereas for the limited aperture releases, the material is released slowly so it causes no
instantaneous effect to the upstream conditions.

5
 Figure 2: Various types of limited aperture releases

3.0 Methodology
3.1 Procedure for experiment 8A: To determine the effect of pressure head on maximum flow
of gas for orifice having different size but the same level

i. All on/off ball valves (ball valve 1, ball valve 2, orifice 1, 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 3 & 4)
were ensured to be closed.
ii. The compressed air inlet ball valve 1 was turned on and the gas containment tank was
pressurized to 4 bar.
iii. The compressed air inlet ball valve 1 was closed.
iv. Orifice no.1 was turned on and the time for air discharge while looking at pressure
gauge until there is no more air flow out of the orifice was noted.
v. Step 2 to step 4 was repeated for orifice no 2A, 3 and 4 having different size as of
orifice no.1 but at same level.
vi. The same experiment was repeated by adjusting pressure 3, 2 and 1 bar.
vii. After completing the experiment, the drain ball valve 2 was turned on to release the
pressure left in the pressure containment tank.

3.2 Procedure for experiment 8B: To determine the effect of pressure head on maximum flow
of gas for orifice having same size but at different levels.

i. All on/off ball valves (ball valve 1, ball valve 2, orifice 1, 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 3 & 4)
were ensured to be closed.

6
 ii. The compressed air inlet ball valve 1 was turned on and the gas containment tank
was pressurized to 4 bar.
iii. The compressed air inlet ball valve was closed. Orifice no. 2A was turned on and
the time for air discharge while looking at pressure gauge until there is no more air
flow out of the orifice was noted.
iv. Step 2 to step 4 was repeated for orifice no. 2B, 2C & 2D having same size but at
different levels.
v. The same experiment was repeated by adjusting pressure 3, 2, and 1 bar.
vi. After completing the experiment, the drain ball valve 2 was turned on to release
the pressure left in the pressure containment tank.

4.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

There are two main objectives that are set to be achieved at the end of this experiment.
The objectives are as follows:

i. To study the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for orifice having different
size but at same level.

ii. To study the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for orifice having same
size but at different level.

The results of the experiment are being tabulated in the appendix. For experiment part A,
the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for orifice having different size but at
the same level are being investigated. Then, followed by experiment part 2, which is to
investigate the relationship between pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for orifice
having same size but at different level.

4.1 To investigate the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for orifice
having different size but at same level.

The experiment for part A is mainly to investigate the effect of pressure head on mass
flow rate of gas for orifice having different size but at the same level. The orifice comes with

7
four different sizes, which differ in term of the diameter. The first one have 0.5 cm diameter,
the second one is 0.28 cm, 0.38 for the third and 0.1 cm for the forth orifice. For the first trial,
the pressure is set to be at 4 bar, which then reduced to 3 bar, 2 bar and lastly 1 bar. All other
parameters are kept constant. The discharge time is being recorded and tabulated in the table
(Appendix). The data is then being analysed and the maximum mass flow rate versus orifice
size is plotted.

γ+1
γ𝑔 𝑀 2 γ−1
𝑄𝑚 = 𝐶0 𝐴𝑃0 √( 𝑐 ) ( )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇0 γ + 1

From the maximum mass flow rate equation, we can clearly see that the area of the
orifice opening is proportional to the maximum flow rate. This means that as the size of the
orifice decreases, the flow rate will also decrease which results in longer time needed for the
gas to be totally discharged. The orifice 1 with 0.5 cm size have the fastest discharge time due
to larger size of the orifice.

Maximum mass flow rate versus Orifice size

5.00E-09

4.50E-09
Maximum Mass Flow Rate, Qm (kg/s)

4.00E-09

3.50E-09

3.00E-09
1 bar
2.50E-09
2 bar
2.00E-09 3 bar
1.50E-09 4 bar

1.00E-09

5.00E-10

0.00E+00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Orifice Size (cm)

Figure 4.1.1: Graph of maximum mass flow rate against orifice size.

8
From the graph above, the orifice with the largest size, which is orifice 1 has the highest
maximum flow rate compared to the smaller sized orifice. This result is fully supported by the
equation of the maximum flow rate that has been discussed before, which proves that as the
size of the orifice increase, the maximum flow rate also increase.

In term of discharge time of the different sizes of the orifice, the bigger the size of the
orifice, the faster the discharge time recorded. This is because the smaller the orifice size, the
harder for the gas to be fully discharge due to small opening. Pressure head also one of the
main concern in this experiment. Based on our calculation, the highest instantaneous maximum
flow rate recorded is when 4 bars of pressure are being used. The rate of the mass flow rate
increases as the pressure increases.

Discharge Time versus Orifice Size

700

600

500
Discharge Time (s)

400
1 bar
300 2 bar
3 bar
200
4 bar

100

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-100
Orifice Size (cm)

Figure 4.1.2: Graph of discharge time versus the orifice sizes.

4.2 To investigate the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for orifice
having same size but at different level.

9
 In Part B of the experiment, the aim is to study the effect of pressure head on mass flow
rate of gas for orifice having same size but at different level. In all or the trials, the same size
of orifice are being used, which is 0.28 cm at different level of tank. The difference of each
level is fixed to be 5.0 cm, which means the lowest level is at 0 cm and the highest level to be
at 15 cm from the bottom of the tank. The experiment was run at 4 different pressure levels,
which are 1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar and 4 bar respectively.

From the data obtained, the discharge time increases as we go up the higher level. Level
2D, which located at 15 cm above the bottom of the tank gives the longest discharge time
compared to level 2A, 2B and 2C. This result is mainly due to the pressure effect in the tank.

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

where 𝑃 = Pressure head

𝑃𝑠 = Surface pressure
𝜌 = Density of the fluid/gas
𝑔 = Gravitational constant
ℎ = Height of the orifice

By referring to the pressure equation, as the height of the orifice increases, h, the surface
pressure will decrease. This is what makes the gas to take longer time to fully discharge if the
orifice located at the higher level in the tank.

10
 Discharge Time versus Orifice Level
70

60

50
Discharge Time (s)

40
1 bar
2 bar
30
3 bar

20 4 bar

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Orifice Level

Figure 4.2.1: Discharge Time against Orifice Level

Maximum mass flow rate versus Orifice level

1.60E-09
Maximum Mass Flow Rate, Qm (kg/s)

1.40E-09

1.20E-09

1.00E-09
1 bar
8.00E-10
2 bar
6.00E-10 3 bar

4.00E-10 4 bar

2.00E-10

0.00E+00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Orifice Level (cm)

Figure 4.2.2: Graph of Maximum mass flowrate against Orifice Level

In term of maximum mass flowrate, the value is constant across the same level or the orifice in
the tank. However, as the pressure increases from 1 bar to 4 bar, the maximum flow rate is

11
increase, but still constant across the level of orifice in the tank. Referring to the maximum
mass flow rate equation, the height of the orifice will not affect the flow rate at all. Even though
the flow rate might be affected by the gravitational constant, the difference in value is too small
due to the small height different in this experiment.

12
5.0 CONCLUSION

The experiment is conducted to understand the relationship between pressure head and the
mass flow rate of gas for orifice at different sizes and levels. Based on the investigation, graph
on the maximum mass flow rate against orifice size is obtained. Is it found that orifice size is
directly proportional maximum mass flow rate allowing orifice 1 with the largest size to hit the
maximum mass flow rate of air escaping the tank. Not only that, the bigger orifice size also
contributes to shorter time to discharge due to small radius of the opening. Pressure head is a
significant manipulated variable affecting the flow rate of the air through the orifice. Therefore,
orifice 1 with the biggest opening and at the highest pressure displayed the maximum flow rate
in the shortest period of time.
As for the experiment with different levels of orifice but constant size of 0.28cm, orifice
2A located at the bottom most followed by 2B, 2C and 2D in a horizontal manner. The distance
between the adjacent orifice is 5cm. The data attained confirms that orifice 2A does have higher
discharge time2 compared to the rest even though the difference is rather constant among the
other 3 orifices. However, the maximum mass flow rate is not affected by the difference in
height of the orifices.

5.1 ERROR AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• Error: Parallax error may present while noting down the reading of the pressure gauge
Recommendation: Ensure that the eye is positioned perpendicular to the scale when
taking reading

• Error: Human error which results in delaying when using the stopwatch
Recommendations: The person handling stopwatch should be alert and focused while
operating the stopwatch to gain a more accurate data

13
6.0 APPENDIX

6.1 Experiment A: To investigate the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for
orifice having different size but at same level.

Table 6.1.1: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure = 1 bar

Maximum mass
Orifice Size Discharge Pressure
Orifice No. Area (m2) flow rate, Qm
(cm) Time (sec) Head (m)
(kg/s)
1 0.5 8.1 1.96E-05 1.19E-09 8494.73
2A 0.28 14.96 6.16E-06 3.72E-10 8494.73
3 0.38 10.84 1.13E-05 6.86E-10 8494.73
4 0.1 244.81 7.85E-07 4.75E-11 8494.73

Table 6.1.2: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure = 2 bar

Maximum mass
Orifice Size Discharge Pressure
Orifice No. Area (m2) flow rate, Qm
(cm) Time (sec) Head (m)
(kg/s)
1 0.5 13.88 1.96E-05 2.37E-09 16989.47
2A 0.28 22.28 6.16E-06 7.45E-10 16989.47
3 0.38 16.21 1.13E-05 1.37E-09 16989.47
4 0.1 408.8 7.85E-07 9.50E-11 16989.47

Table 6.1.3: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure = 3 bar

Maximum mass
Orifice Size Discharge Pressure
Orifice No. Area (m2) flow rate, Qm
(cm) Time (sec) Head (m)
(kg/s)
1 0.5 16.5 1.96E-05 3.56E-09 25484.20
2A 0.28 28.74 6.16E-06 1.12E-09 25484.20

14
 3 0.38 23.2 1.13E-05 2.06E-09 25484.20
4 0.1 492.66 7.85E-07 1.42E-10 25484.20

Table 6.1.4: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure =4 bar

Maximum mass
Orifice Size Discharge Pressure
Orifice No. Area (m2) flow rate, Qm
(cm) Time (sec) Head (m)
(kg/s)
1 0.5 16.04 1.96E-05 4.75E-09 33978.93
2A 0.28 31.09 6.16E-06 1.49E-09 33978.93
3 0.38 22.7 1.13E-05 2.74E-09 33978.93
4 0.1 610.5 7.85E-07 1.90E-10 33978.93

6.2 Experiment B: To investigate the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of gas for
orifice having same size but at different level.

Table 6.2.1: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure = 1 bar

Maximum
Orifice Orifice Discharge Pressure Head
Area (m2) mass flow rate,
No. size (m) Time (sec) (m)
Qm (kg/s)
2A 0.0028 14.96 6.16E-06 3.72E-10 8494.73
2B 0.0028 24.43 6.16E-06 3.72E-10 8494.73
2C 0.0028 27.62 6.16E-06 3.72E-10 8494.73
2D 0.0028 28.58 6.16E-06 3.72E-10 8494.73

Table 6.2.2: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure = 2 bar

Maximum
Orifice Orifice Discharge Pressure Head
Area (m2) mass flow rate,
No. size (mm) Time (sec) (m)
Qm (kg/s)

15
 2A 0.0028 22.28 6.16E-06 7.45E-10 16989.47
2B 0.0028 40.81 6.16E-06 7.45E-10 16989.47
2C 0.0028 41.35 6.16E-06 7.45E-10 16989.47
2D 0.0028 42.59 6.16E-06 7.45E-10 16989.47

Table 6.2.3: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure = 3 bar

Maximum
Orifice Orifice Discharge Pressure Head
Area (m2) mass flow rate,
No. size (mm) Time (sec) (m)
Qm (kg/s)
2A 0.0028 28.74 6.16E-06 1.12E-09 25484.20
2B 0.0028 47.91 6.16E-06 1.12E-09 25484.20
2C 0.0028 50.28 6.16E-06 1.12E-09 25484.20
2D 0.0028 51.24 6.16E-06 1.12E-09 25484.20

Table 6.2.4: Recorded discharge time and Instantaneous mass flow rate at Pressure = 4 bar

Maximum
Orifice Orifice Discharge Pressure Head
Area (m2) mass flow rate,
No. size (mm) Time (sec) (m)
Qm (kg/s)
2A 0.0028 31.09 6.16E-06 1.49E-09 33978.93
2B 0.0028 59.47 6.16E-06 1.49E-09 33978.93
2C 0.0028 61 6.16E-06 1.49E-09 33978.93
2D 0.0028 61.54 6.16E-06 1.49E-09 33978.93

16
6.3 Calculations
6.3.1 Maximum Mass Flow Rate, Qm

γ+1
γ𝑔 𝑀 2 γ−1
𝑄𝑚 = 𝐶0 𝐴𝑃0 √( 𝑐 ) ( )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇0 γ + 1

Where,
M = the molecular weight of escaping vapour or gas, kg/kmol
T0 = the temperature of the source, K
Rg = the ideal gas constant, m3.kPa/kmol.K
𝛾 = the heat capacity ratio (Cp/Cv)
C0 = the discharge coefficient
gc = the gravitational constant, m/s2
A = the area of the orifice, m2
P0 = the pressure inside process unit, kPa

Given that the constant value are as follows:

M = 28.97 kg/kmol
T0 = 25oC = 298.15K
Rg = 8.314 m3.kPa/kmol.K
𝛾 = 1.40
C0 = 1
gc = 6.67 x 10-11 m3/kgs2

For sample calculation, the experiment A with orifice size 0.5 cm is being used,

Orifice size = 0.5 cm

Pressure = 1 bar = 100kPa
Discharge time = 8.1 s

Area of the orifice, A

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

17
 𝐴 = 𝜋(0.005𝑚/2)2 = 0.0000196 𝑚2

Maximum Mass Flow Rate

𝑄𝑚 = 1 × 0.0000196𝑚2 × 100𝑘𝑃𝑎

1.4+1
1.4 × 6.67 × 10−11 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔𝑠2 × 28.97𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 2 1.4−1
× √( )( )
𝑚3 . 𝑘𝑃𝑎 1.4 + 1
8.314 × 298.15𝐾
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾

10−9 𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑚 = 1.19 ×
𝑠

6.3.2 Pressure Head

∆𝑃
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
𝜌𝑔

Where,
∆𝑃 = the pressure difference, N/m2
𝜌 = the fluid density, kg/m3
𝑔 = the acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

For sample calculation, the experiment A with orifice size 0.5 cm is being used,

∆𝑃 = 1 bar = 100000 N/m2

𝜌 = 1.20 kg/m3 (Given)
𝑔 = 9.81m/s2

100000𝑁 𝑚3 𝑠2 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 2
× × × = 8494.73𝑚
𝑚 1.20𝑘𝑔 9.81𝑚 1𝑁. 𝑠 2

18