TEACHERS COMPETENCIES AND PERFORMANCE IN AP

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature

Local Literature

The Philippine Educational system has several issues and concerns that need to

be addressed for educational reform (Durban & Catalan, 2012). These educational

issues include international, national and local concerns. International and national

concerns revolve around poor performance in achievement examinations. Classroom

issues are focused on teaching and learning. Major teaching issues revolve around the

use of effective teaching strategies. Learning issues include concerns such as

motivation, academic performance, and development of essential skills. Several studies

had been conducted to address these issues. The following review shows some of the

major issues and related concepts to teaching and learning (Torio & Torio, 2016).

Torio, V., & Torio, M. (2016). Whole brain teaching in the Philippines: Teaching

strategy for addressing motivation and academic performance. Retrieved from:

file:///C:/Users/RCLICK/Downloads/Whole_brain_teaching_in_the_Philippines_Teaching

_s.pdf
 Magulod (2017) Quality preservice education is considered as a key factor in

quality Philippine education. All efforts to improve the quality of education in the

Philippines are dependent on the service of teachers who are properly prepared to

undertake various important roles and functions of teachers. It has been the role of

teacher education institutions (TEIs) in the Philippines to ensure the preparation of

quality preservice teachers armed with the knowledge, skills and dispositions to become

effective teachers. These teachers in terms of the quality of learning are the ones who

possess workable knowledge and excellent teaching practices accompanied with well

develop educational philosophies.

Magulod, G. (2017). Educational Philosophies Adhered by Filipino Preservice

Teachers: Basis for Proposing Initiatives for 21st Century Teacher Education Preparation

Program. Retrieved from: http://www.apjmr.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/APJMR-

2017.5.1.21.pdf

Providing teachers with good quality professional

development opportunities has been shown to be
an eective way of increasing their competencies
and improving student learning outcomes in many
dierent settings. A series of systematic reviews have
been undertaken recently to assess the impact of
dierent interventions on student learning outcomes
in developing countries.
4
One of the most consistent
ndings from these reviews has been the positive and
signicant impact that interventions to strengthen
teaching practice, introduce innovative instructional
methods, and strengthen teachers’ subject knowledge
can have on student learning. However, in many
countries, such professional development opportunities
frequently fail to meet even minimum levels of quality
and fall short of what teachers want and need.
Providing teachers with good quality professional
development opportunities has been shown to be
an eective way of increasing their competencies
and improving student learning outcomes in many
dierent settings. A series of systematic reviews have
been undertaken recently to assess the impact of
dierent interventions on student learning outcomes
in developing countries.
4
One of the most consistent
ndings from these reviews has been the positive and
signicant impact that interventions to strengthen
teaching practice, introduce innovative instructional
methods, and strengthen teachers’ subject knowledge
can have on student learning. However, in many
countries, such professional development opportunities
frequently fail to meet even minimum levels of quality
and fall short of what teachers want and need.
Providing teachers with good quality professional
development opportunities has been shown to be
an eective way of increasing their competencies
and improving student learning outcomes in many
dierent settings. A series of systematic reviews have
been undertaken recently to assess the impact of
dierent interventions on student learning outcomes
in developing countries.
4
One of the most consistent
ndings from these reviews has been the positive and
signicant impact that interventions to strengthen
teaching practice, introduce innovative instructional
methods, and strengthen teachers’ subject knowledge
can have on student learning. However, in many
countries, such professional development opportunities
frequently fail to meet even minimum levels of quality
and fall short of what teachers want and need.
Providing teachers with good quality professional
development opportunities has been shown to be
an eective way of increasing their competencies
and improving student learning outcomes in many
dierent settings. A series of systematic reviews have
been undertaken recently to assess the impact of
dierent interventions on student learning outcomes
in developing countries.
4
One of the most consistent
ndings from these reviews has been the positive and
signicant impact that interventions to strengthen
teaching practice, introduce innovative instructional
methods, and strengthen teachers’ subject knowledge
can have on student learning. However, in many
countries, such professional development opportunities
frequently fail to meet even minimum levels of quality
and fall short of what teachers want and need
Providing teachers with good quality professional
development opportunities has been shown to be
an eective way of increasing their competencies
and improving student learning outcomes in many
dierent settings. A series of systematic reviews have
been undertaken recently to assess the impact of
dierent interventions on student learning outcomes
in developing countries.
4
One of the most consistent
ndings from these reviews has been the positive and
signicant impact that interventions to strengthen
teaching practice, introduce innovative instructional
methods, and strengthen teachers’ subject knowledge
can have on student learning. However, in many
countries, such professional development opportunities
frequently fail to meet even minimum levels of quality
and fall short of what teachers want and need
Providing teachers with good quality professional
development opportunities has been shown to be
an eective way of increasing their competencies
and improving student learning outcomes in many
dierent settings. A series of systematic reviews have
been undertaken recently to assess the impact of
dierent interventions on student learning outcomes
in developing countries.
4
One of the most consistent
ndings from these reviews has been the positive and
signicant impact that interventions to strengthen
teaching practice, introduce innovative instructional
methods, and strengthen teachers’ subject knowledge
can have on student learning. However, in many
countries, such professional development opportunities
frequently fail to meet even minimum levels of quality
and fall short of what teachers want and need
Academic performance is one of the facets of student‟s effectiveness. It is the basis of
teacher‟s evaluation and grading and a sort of information on student‟s
weaknesses and
According to Dullas (2016) Academic performance is one of the facets of

student‟s effectiveness. It is the basis of teacher‟s evaluation and grading and a sort of

information on student‟s weaknesses and strengths- the basis of student‟s learning

skills in his/her study.

Semillano (2015) emphasized that teachers are expected to have solid

background to analyze and to evaluate learning tasks and instructional materials. They

are also expected to have a clear understanding of their field to relate in all areas in the

curriculum. Effective teachers of other subjects tend to acquire an updated knowledge

based in those subjects.

Samillano, Joseph ( 2015). Competency Among MAPEH Teachers in Teaching

Performing Arts in Selected Public Secondary Schools in North Cotabato. (Unpublished

Undergraduate Thesis Writing). University of Southern Mindanao. Retrieved July 9,

2015 from

http://www.academia.edu/11417973/Competency_Among_MAPEH_Teachers_in_Teachi

ng_Performing_Arts_ in_Selected_Public_Secondary_Schools_in_North_Cotabato

Foreign Literature
 In an article entitled, “Factors affecting Academic Performance of

Learners” written last June 8, 2012 by Hilma Ndapewa and Ndapewa Mbandeka of

Career Institute Africa, it states that academic performance is one of the crucial areas

of a learner’s life. Some learners may not be bothered if they progress or not, however

their parents are left with great distress if their children do not perform. This is

because families as well as the government invest in the education of the child. On top

of that, generally all parents would want their children to be successful citizens in the

future.

Multiple factors come to play when it comes to academic performance of a

learner, which need to be considered should one want to perform better. Different

people believe that different factors affect learners differently under different

circumstances. However there is some form of consensus on general factors that affect

performance.

Ndapewa, H. & Mbandeka, N. (2012). Factors affecting Academic Performance of

Learners. Retrieved from http://www.newera.com.na/articles/45575/Factors-
affecting-academic-performance-of-learners: Career Institute Africa
According to Hochanadel and Finamore (2015), “It appears that when teachers

teach students how to persist, a growth mindset develops, thus improving grit to

overcome any challenges” (p. 49). Whether a growth mindset is a function of grit, or

whether grit is a function of growth mindset remains open to debate, but clearly these

ideas are closely intertwined and can offer a valuable lens into how adolescents may

operate when challenged academically.

 Hochanadel, A. H., & Finamore, D. (2015). Fixed and growth mindset in

education and how grit helps students persist in the face of adversity. Journal of

International Education Research, 11, 47-50.

Furthermore, simply telling a student that he or she is bright and can surely learn

what is being presented is not a successful strategy; belief in oneself as a learner must

come from within. One strategy related to the development of self-efficacy involves the

use of “learning stories” that capture the narratives of students who are empowered as

learners and who yearn for meaningful learning experiences (Pride, 2014).

Pride, L. D. (2014). Using learning stories to capture “gifted” and “hard worker”

mindsets within a NYC Specialized High School for the Sciences. Theory Into Practice,

53, 41-47.

On the other hand according to Saunders (2014), “at-risk students who adopt a

fixed mindset may become trapped in a recursive pattern of low achievement, low

motivation, and low effort”.

Saunders, S. A. (2014). The impact of a growth mindset intervention on the reading

achievement of at-risk adolescent students. Dissertation Abstracts International Section

A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 74(12-A), 1-229.

Additionally, according to Thurston (2014) students will first rely on their teacher

to become aware of what is expected of them behaviorally during instruction and

gradually become independent while self-monitoring. Also students will initially rely on
token reinforcement; however, as self-management becomes more natural,

reinforcement should fade. This technique will inform both regular education and

special education teachers as to how they can help their students successfully manage

their own behaviors so as to not detract from instructional time.

Thurston, S. (2014). A practical str actical strategy t ategy to improve classr e classroom beha oom

behaviors and viors and academic outcomes of elementary students who exhibit attention

deficit/hyperactivity tendencies. Retrieved from: https://rdw.rowan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?

article=1448&context=etd

Aside from improving the classroom behavior of students to improve the

academic performance of students Iginoba and Marvelous (2015) stated that the importance of

good classroom management in the realization of the objectives of education cannot be over

emphasized. Teaching and learning is all embracing involving a wide range of activities such as writing on

chalkboard, discussing with students, demonstrating a procedure, supervising student’s class work,

reading and marking assignments. Good classroom environment with good desks and seats well-spaced

out, well ventilated, good lighting, good ceiling and roof and smooth floor enhances effective teaching

and learning.

Iginob, O. & Marvelous, A. (2015). THE IMPACT OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ON STUDENTS’

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MUNICIPAL AREA COUNCIL,

ABUJA. Retrieved from:

file:///C:/Users/RCLICK/Downloads/THE_IMPACT_OF_CLASSROOM_MANAGEMENT_ON_ST.pdf

Local Studies
 Llego (2019) explained that teachers have great influence in the lives of their

learners. They are expected to be professionally competent in the practice of their

profession. Moreover, they need also to possess good reputation not only in the school

but in the entire community. Having this big responsibility in the learning environment,

teachers must be guided by this document which comprehensively discuss the different

expectations from a teacher.

Llego, M. (2019). 2019 Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers Explained

. Retrieved from: https://depedtambayan.net/the-code-of-ethics-for-professional-
teachers/

Bauyun & Punongbayan (2015) found out in their studied that

instructors/professors perceived their instructional performance as very good. Faculty

respondents believed that they are qualified to teach the subjects they are handling.

This was manifested by having good interaction between them and the students inside

the classroom, by way of assessing their performance tasks and by way of assessing

through pencil-paper test. However, student respondents perceived that the

instructor/professors’ instructional performance were only satisfactory. They perceived

that CTE faculty members are all in better position to handle the subjects assigned to

them. Interaction between them was effective. Relative to the findings, it is

recommended that instructors/professors should exercise their full potential in teaching

so as to become excellent.
Bauyon, S. & Punongbayan, E. (2015). Instructional Performance of Teacher Education

Faculty Members in One State University in the Philippines. Retrieved from:

http://www.apjmr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/APJMR-2015-3.5.1.16.pdf

Andaya (2016) conducted a study that attempted to investigate the factors that

affect academic performance of indigenous people (IP) st dents and to determine the

relationship between the students’ performance and the different factors; individual,

instructional, classroom management and evaluation factors. The 26 IP first year

students were the respondents of the study. The descriptive-correlational design was

utilized. Data were subjected to statistical analyses using Pearson Product Moment

Correlation coefficient to determine the extent of relationship of the variables and

Multiple regression. Findings showed that 1) performance of the students in HS-GPA

and GA is satisfactory; 2) HS-GPA and GA yielded significant positive correlation; 3)

factor that affect performance is instructional factor (1 st in rank) in a large extent; 4)

HS-GPA showed low correlation to individual and instructional factors and negligible

correlation to classroom management and evaluation factors; 5) GA yielded negligible

correlation to all the factors; 6) individual and instructional are the factors that greatly

affect/influence academic performance of IP students.

Andaya, O. (2016). FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF

INDIGENOUS PEOPLE (IP) STUDENTS OF PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY-NORTH

LUZON. Retrieved from: https://www.apjor.com/downloads/3003201628.pdf

 Lansangan, Quiambao, Baking, Nicdao, Nuqui, and Cruz (2015) found that there

is no significant relationship that exists among pupil, teacher, school related factors and

pupils’ academic performance.

G. Lansangan1 , Dolores T. Quiambao1 , Enrique G. Baking1 , Reynaldo C. Nicdao1 ,

Alvin V. Nuqui1 , Reynaldo C. Cruz. (2015) Correlates Of Students’ Academic

Performance In Intermediate Level. Journal Business and Management

Studies.Retrieved from

http://advancejournals.org/uploads/022ba167856333c99e7d16a9d617aca9e8e

08062593ab8f6249c7b7f6d1b4036/Manuscript/5419.pdf)

Ethel de Leon-Abao (2014) specified that teachers’ instructional competence is

highly instrumental in the development of students’ comprehension and critical thinking

ability. Since reading is significant to success both in the academic and non-academic

undertaking, reading instruction should be made relevant so that students will be led to

function effectively in society.

Ethel de Leon-Abao, (2014). "Teachers’ Instructional Competence on Students’

Comprehension Skills and Critical Thinking Ability", Open Journal of Social

Sciences, 2014, 2, 334-339 Published Online April 2014 in SciRes. Retrieved

from http://www.scirp.org/journal/jss

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jss.2014.24037
 In the study conducted by Fernandez (2013) he determined that there is no

significant relationship between the teachers’ competence and learners’ performance in

the Competency Based Examination under the five learning strands.

Fernandez R.M.(2013). "Teachers’ Competence and Learners’ Performance in the

Alternative Learning System Towards an Enriched Instructional Program" ,

International Journal of Information Technology and Business Management

28th Feb 2013. Vol.22 No.1 © 2012- 2014 JITBM & ARF.Retrieved from

http://www.jitbm.com/22%20volume/4%20Learning%20Process.pdf

Foreign Studies

According to Owolabi and Olabode Thomas (2012) teacher’s academic

qualification only is not enough to positively affect academic performance of the

students but a professional qualification in a specified field of study. He added,

experience counts in the efficiency of the teachers.

Owolabi, Olabode Thomas, Adedayo and Julius Olugbenga (2012). Effect of Teacher’s

Qualification on the Performance of Senior Secondary School Physics Students:

Implication on Technology in Nigeria. Retrieved from

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1079503.pdf

In a study involving 207 participants Kaing (2017) found out that students are

satisfied with the current quality of teaching in higher education in Cambodia (m= 3.58,

sd= 0.49). The lowest score was for lecturers’ attention to “Physical, social and
intellectual development of students” (m= 3.49, sd= 0.71) while the highest score was

for “the lecturers know the content and how to teach it” (m= 3.68, sd= 0.55). After

performed paired-samples t Test, the difference between the two means is statistically

significant at the 0.01 level (t= - 4.14, df= 206). This finding corresponds to what we

expected to receive as feedback from students’ about lecturers’ knowledge on “content

knowledge and how to teach it”.

Kaing, S. (2017). STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF QUALITY OF TEACHING IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN

CAMBODIA. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/RCLICK/Downloads/SopheapKaing_Students-Perception-

on-Quality-of-Teaching-in-Higher-Education.pdf

Kini & Podolsky (2016) explained that there is variation in teacher effectiveness

at every stage of the teaching career, so not every inexperienced teacher is less

effective, and not every experienced teacher is more effective. Nonetheless,

policymakers generally craft policy for the norm, and therefore, it is important to

recognize that, on average, the most effective 20-year teachers are significantly more

effective than the most effective first-year teachers—and these positive effects reach

beyond the experienced teacher’s individual classroom to benefit the school as a whole.

Kini, T. & Podolsky, A. (2016). Does Teaching Experience Increase Teacher

Effectiveness?. Retrieved from:

https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-

files/Teaching_Experience_Report_June_2016.pdf
 Perkins (2019) explained in her study the differential patterns of stability and

change in educational attainment expectations from middle school to high school were

found. Hypotheses that gender and socioeconomic status differentially predict likelihood

of class membership, and class membership differentially predicted likelihood of college

enrollment were partially supported. The second aim of the study was to longitudinally

model the gap between students’ aspirations and expectations from middle school to

the end of high school, which were expected to differ by gender and SES group. All

groups showed a decline in the gap over time, but low-income girls began Grade 7 with

the largest differential compared to all other gender and SES groups. Whereas

trajectories were related to college enrollment 1- year post-secondary, their predictive

power disappeared by 3- years post-secondary. Student perceptions of admired and

supportive adults in the schooling context were investigated as factors shaping the

development of student educational attainment expectations. 

Perkins, K. (2019). Educational Attainment Expectations, Perceptions of Adult Social

Support at School, and Perceptions of Barriers: School-Based Pathways to Educational

Success among Black Youth. Retrieved from:

https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/dissertations/7w62f8544

Tesfay (2017) conducted a study on Factors Affecting Students’ Academic

Performance at Preparatory and High Schools Level and found out students’ related

factors such as self-motivation, lack of adequate effort and carelessness, and self-

confidence were the most prominent factors that affect students’ academic

performance. Moreover, on-availability of support system, lack of proper reading place,

presence of role models, estimated income of the family’; parents attitude towards

students education and household work responsibilities factors had a significant impact

on students’ academic performance.

Tesfay, A. (2017). Factors Affecting Students’ Academic Performance at Preparatory

and High Schools Level. Retrieved from:

file:///C:/Users/RCLICK/Downloads/Factors_Affecting_Students_Academic_Perf.pdf

In addition, Kieti (2017) findings of the study revealed that the learning

resources were inadequate and hence affected academic performance to a great

extent. The study also revealed that the influence of administrative practices on

academic performance was strongly positive and significant (r = .844, P≤ 0.5) and

similarly, teacher related factors and socio economic background of the learners had a

statistically significant influence on academic performance (P≤ 0.5).

Kieti, J. (2017). AN INVESTIGATION INTO FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MATUNGULU SUB-

COUNTY, MACHAKOS COUNTY. Retrieved from:

http://repository.seku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/4125/Kieti_An

%20investigation%20into%20factors%20influencing%20students

%E2%80%99%20academic%20performance%20in%20public%20secondary

%20schools%20in%20Matungulu.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Blazar & Kraft (2016) found out in their study that upper-elementary teachers

have large effects on self-reported measures of students’ self-efficacy in math, and

happiness and behavior in class. Students’ attitudes and behaviors are predicted by

teaching practices most proximal to these measures, including teachers’ emotional

support and classroom organization. However, teachers who are effective at improving

test scores often are not equally effective at improving students’ attitudes and

behaviors. These findings lend empirical evidence to well-established theory on the

multidimensional nature of teaching and the need to identify strategies for improving

the full range of teachers’ skills.

Blazar, D. & Kraft, M. (2016). Teacher and Teaching Effects on Students’ Attitudes and

Behaviors. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5602565/

Butts (2016) found out on his study that teachers received varying levels of

professional development and were more likely to ignore professional development if

(a) such development did not contribute to student achievement and (b) the

professional development received increased their anxiety levels when implementing

the standards. The data reveled that teachers demonstrated the lowest efficacy when it

came to instructional strategies with difficult students from difficult backgrounds.

Interview data from teachers communicated that resources, consistency in expectations

and assessment, and follow-up professional development are the most pressing needs

to increase their sense of teacher efficacy.

Butts, E. (2016). A Study of the Relationship of Teachers’ SelfEfficacy and the Impact of

Common Core Professional Development. Retrieved from:

https://digitalcommons.gardner-webb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?

article=1174&context=education_etd

According to Forand (2012) Compensation reform known as pay-for-performance

has been suggested as one way to motivate teachers to improve their performance and

in turn increase student achievement. The research examines the perceptions and

attitudes towards payfor-performance that exists with teachers of the East Providence

Public School District. It explores the various pay-for-performance programs used

throughout the United States, and it offers an opinion as to the conditions under which

pay-for-performance programs might flourish as well as the types of programs East

Providence teachers may find favorable. An internet based survey with closed-ended

questions is used to assess the attitudes and beliefs of East Providence teachers

regarding pay-for-performance. Findings are analyzed to determine which components

employees believe are important in a compensation system. The research also

examines the relationship between employee demographics (e.g., position title, years of

employment, and grade taught) and their attitudes and beliefs about pay-for-

performance. The information obtained on teachers’ attitudes and beliefs will contribute

to the growing body of research on alternate compensation systems and may assist

East Providence school district representatives if they explore alternate compensation

programs.

Forand, S. (2012). TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS ABOUT PAY-FOR-

PERFORMANCE. Retrieved from:

https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/files/neu:1172/fulltext.pdf