unit

Protection Two types

non unit

line

non unit type Compare

(distance) Unit type
Primary & Back – up protections

local remote

Zone of protection

#1 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Distance relays(non- unit)

Z1, Z2 , Z0

Ia1, Ia2 , Ia0

relay
fault

#2 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Distance Relay
Expressions for Impedance calculations(Positive sequence impedance

Phase to Ground Fault(a-g)

VA= Ia1 Z1 + Ia2 Z2 + Ia0 Z0

= Ia1 Z1 + Ia2 Z2 + Ia0 Z0- Ia0 Z1+ Ia0 Z1

Z0 - Z1
=Z1[Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 ] + Z1 I
Z1 a0
=Z1[ Ia + 3kIa0 ]
Z0 - Z1
K: Zero sequence compensation factor K=
3 Z1

#3 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Phase to Phase fault(b-c)

Ib = - Ic ; Ib0 = - 0 ; Ic0 = - 0 ;

Vb= Ib1 Z1 + Ib2 Z2 = Ib Z1

Vc= Ic1 Z1 + Ic2 Z2 = Ic Z1

Vb –Vc Z1[Ib –Ic ]

= [Ib –Ic ] = Z1
Ib –Ic

#4 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 +JX

Load

-R R

No Load
Reverse

-JX

#5 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Poly-phase protection

3 ph-ph
3 ph-G relays

T3 T3

T2 Z3 T2
Z2 Z2
T1 T1
Z4 Z1 Z1
Reverse Relay
fault
Forward 3
1 2

#6 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 jx
jx Z3
Z2 Z2
Z1 Z1
Z3

R Z4
Z4

- Transients in voltage & current inputs

- Load Encroachment
- Tolerance for fault resistance(RF)
- Power swing effects
- Parallel lines; Mutual coupling
#7 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
 Switched Distance protection

 Switching networks to ensure measuring elements connected to

correct phase under fault conditions
 Switching networks controlled by fault detectors responsive to
current, impedance or combination of current and voltage.

Limitations: Operating time increases

 First to identify the fault phases
 To switch the measuring elements to correct phases

#8 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Ex: Zone-1 Operation requires 3 functions

 starting
Phase selection
measurement

Poly phase distance protection

 Does not use special switching or phase
selective networks but use special combination
of relaying signals

#9 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Starting relays
Operates for selected phases depending on type of fault and energie
switching networks for measuring elements
Overcurrent starter relays
Current setting considerations:
Depends on max load current, max. sound phase currents
To provide back-up function
Under voltage starter relays
Resistance earthed systems(3 phase – to – neutral connected under
voltage element)
Impedance starter relay

Improves fault coverage

#10 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
 Distance protection based on information links

To avoid delayed operation for internal faults beyond zone-1 setting
 Provides co-ordinated tripping between line ends
Information link through pilot-wire, power – line – carrier.
Tripping Schemes
 Received signal is used for direct tripping
 Received signal and the conditions of the relays at the receiving end
Three basic arrangements based on trip command

 Direct inter tripping

 permissive under reach
 permissive over reach
#11 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
 Direct tripping

 operation of relays at either end initiate tripping at that end and

transmits the information to initiate tripping by remote end relays
 should ensure correct tripping in the presence of interference
Probability of incorrect tripping as speed of communication channel
increases
 Applied mainly to transformer feeder where circuit breaker is not
associated with transformer
Permissive inter tripping
 Tripping action of received signal is made dependant on fault
detecting relay
Reduces the risk of unwanted tripping due to noise/interference

#12 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Permissive under reach

i. With independent control

• Operates independently of the received inter trip signal

• Instantaneous operation of Zone-2 and operation of receive
relay results in tripping
ii. Accelerated distance protection

Permissive inter trip – over reaching

• Zone-1 relays with extended reach

• Tripping at each end depends on the operation of zone-1 relay at
both ends

#13 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Disadvantage

For low fault level, tripping at one end is delayed, resulting in delayed
operation

Blocking Schemes

 blocks the operation on detecting reverse faults at a relay location

 either end blocks the operation of other

#14 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

What is apparent impedance & why ?

2
I2
1 If2 3
I1 S If1
S
ZR = V1 If
I1
Z2
Z1

#15 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Case 1: I 2  
Z R  Z1  Z 2 I1  I f 1

Case 2:V1  Z 2 . I f 1  Z1 . I1  Z 2  I1  I 2   Z1 . I1

V1  I2 
 Z R   . Z 2    Z1  Z 2 
I1  I1 

#16 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Relay

ZA I relay ZL ZB
EA EB 0

EA - EB
I relay =
ZT
ZT =ZA +ZB + ZL
V relay EA-I relay ZA
Zseen (relay)= =
I relay I relay
EA = -ZA +ZT
1
= -ZA + ZT 1- cos + jsin
EA - EB

1 = -ZA +ZT
= -ZA +ZT EB 1- j cot /2
1- - 2
EA

#17 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 X

-ZB

-ZT/2 EA > 1
=1800 EB
-ZL
EA = 1
EB
R
Power swing
EA < 1
-ZA EB

Power swing condition

#18 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
 x
c Allowance for fault
resistance

Reduces the
resistance reach

b a

e
f
R
d

#19 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Parallel lines ‘a’ and ‘b’ are introduced to reduce reach for the
following reasons:

To avoid the tripping of a healthy line when load encroaches the
relay characteristic (especially during peak load conditions)

Reduces the effect of power swings on the operation of the relay

‘C’ & ‘D’ provides allowance for fault

resistance

‘e’ & ‘f’ lines provides directional feature for the

parallelogram Characteristic

#20 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 JX
LINE
3RD ZONE

a b LOAD IMPEDANCE
0
40 80 120 160 240 280 320
1ST ZONE
R(ohms)

LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 132 kv LINE

#21 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 400 LINE
JX

300
3RD ZONE

200
1ST ZONE
100
LOAD IMPEDANCE

100 200 300 400 500

R(ohms)

LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 400 kv LINE

#22 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
 X-axis

XF

: setting angle

RB  R-axis
RF

XB
QUADRILATERAL CHAR OF TRACTION REALY

#23 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Rcal = Vcos *Icos+Vsin * Isin
Icos *Icos+Isin * Isin

Vsin *Icos-Vcos * Isin

Xcal =
Icos *Icos+Isin * Isin

Logic: a) DISTANCE PROTECTION

XB<Xcal<Xf

RB + Xcal < R < R Xcal

cal f +
tan tan

#24 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 X-Axis: Resistance in ohms OP. Point
30
Y-Axis: Resistance in ohms
25
20

15 Trip No Trip
10
5
Phase-Ground Fault
0
Load = 500A
-5
Power Factor = 0.8 Lagging
-10
Fault Location = 7.15 km
-15
From relaying point
-20
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Variation of fault impedance measured by the relay with sample
#25 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
X-Axis X5

X3

Zone 3
X2
Zone 2
X1 Power Swing Zone
Zone 1

RB
3 1

Zone 4 2
RBS RFS R-Axis
RF
X4

X6

Quadrilateral characteristic of distance relay

#26 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
 Relay Logic (For All zones; Fault Quadrilateral)
X4 < Xcal < X3
RB+Xcal cot 1 < Rcal < RF + Xcal cot 1
Additional relay Logic For Zone Detection
Zone-1 If R < 0; -R tan 3 < X < X
cal cal cal 1

If Rcal > 0; -Rcal tan 2 < Xcal< X1

Zone-2
If Rcal < 0; -Rcal tan 3 < Xcal< X2
If Rcal > 0; -Rcal tan 2 < Xcal< X2
Zone-3 R & X reach in Fault Quadrilateral and if not detected in Zone-1
Or Zone-2
Zone-4
Zone-3 reverse reach
#27 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
Power Swing (Power Swing Quadrilateral)

X3 < Xcal < X4 And RF + Xcal cot 1< Rcal < RB + Xcal cot 1

And
X6 < Xcal < X5 And RBS + Xcal cot 1< Rcal < RFS + Xcal cot 1

#28 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Relay Logic
The fault detection characteristic can be realised by simple logic
Expressions given by,
If XB1< Xcal < XF1; RB1 < Rcal < RF1
OR
If XF1< Xcal < XF2; RB1 – (Xcal < XF1)*cot  < Rcal <
RF1 + (Xcal - XF1)*cot 
OR
If XB2< Xcal < XB1; RB1 + (Xcal - XB1)*cot  < Rcal <
RF1 - (Xcal - XB1)*cot 
OR
If XF2< Xcal < XF OR XB < Xcal < XB2 ; RB < Rcal < RF

#29 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Where RF, RF1 and RB , RB1 are resistance reach setting in the
forward and reverse direction respectively. XF, XF1 and XF2
are forward reactance reach settings. XB, XB1 and XB2
are reverse reactance reach settings.  is the setting angle.
Rcal and Xcal are computed values of R and X

#30 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Power Swings

• Surges of Power resulting after the removal of a short circuit.

•Resulting from connecting a generator to the system at an instant whe
they are out of phase(Loss of Synchronism).

Power Swing Blocking

• Measured impedance should lie in power swing band for more than th
preset value of the timer (in ms)
• Relay operation blocked for few seconds

#31 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 X

Zone-3

Zone-2

(R3X3)
Zone-1
(R2X2)
(R1X1)

offset R

#32 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Z1
R1 = cos 
Z
Zone-1
Z1
X1 = sin 
Z
Z2
R2 = cos 
Z
Zone-2
Z2
X2 = sin 
Z
Z3 Zoffset
R3 = cos  - cos 
Z 2 Zone-3
Zoffset
X3 =
Z3
sin  - sin 
Z 2

#33 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Relay Settings

Z1, Z2, Z1 Zone-1, Zone-2 & Zone-3 forward reach settings

Zoffset Reverse reach setting for Zone-3

 Characteristic angle to suit line angle(450 750)

#34 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 Generalized Equations for Circular characteristic
r2 = (Rcal - R) 2 + (Xcal -X ) 2

Rcal , Xcal : Measured values of Resistance & Reactance computed

using relaying algorithm

R, X : Relay reach settings, (R1 - X1) for Zone-1,
(R2 – X2) for Zone-2 , (R3 – X3) for Zone-3

r : computed value
, , of radius

#35 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Fault Detection Logic

r2 < r2th

r2th : Stored threshold values of square of radius . Compared for three

Different zones (zone detection)

Timers of predetermined relays are initiated if the fault is detected

in Zone-2 and Zone-3

#36 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

 XF X

Additional fault
coverage

XF2
XF1

Load Load
RB RB1 RF1 RF
R
XB1
XB2

XB

Fault characteristic of Distance Relay

#37 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
 Conclusions

 digital distance relaying schemes based on DSP processors

have led to the reassessment of relaying algorithms for
developing high performance numeric distance relays.
Suitable pre-filtering techniques based on IIR and FIR filters
improves the performance of numeric relays.
Evaluation studies show that short data window algorithms can
be used for high speed distance designs
Multiprocessor based configuration for high speed and accurate
distance relay designs has been proposed.
The reliability of multiprocessor based relays can be improved
by executing several algorithms in parallel and by OR/AND
gating their outputs to issue trip signal during faults.

#38 Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd.