Macro-Element Analysis in

Earthquake Engineering
Luc DAVENNE
Laboratoire de Mécanique et Technologie, LMT-Cachan
61 avenue du Président Wilson, 94235 Cachan Cedex, France
[email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents the macro-elements technique for the analysis of the
nonlinear response of civil engineering structures. This numerical method is
developed to be efficient and robust in large scale computations, while keeping the
needed accuracy to model the complex behavior of both materials and structures.
After presenting generalities about the simplified methods based on macro-elements,
we focus on some examples concerning reinforced structures subjected to
earthquake ground motion.

Introduction

In order to compute the representative behavior of structures, one must detail as precisely as
possible the phenomena occurring at the microscopic level. For example, the constitutive
law of a material is expressed on a representative elementary volume (microscopic level)
which size depends on the continuous media theory. The use of complex constitutive laws
in structural computing leads to a good description of the test observations in most of the
cases. Nevertheless, this accurate local analysis cannot be systematically used in an
industrial objective because it would lead to very expensive computations: the structures
are big (great number of degree of freedom), the loads (seismic cases for example) and the
non linear constitutive laws lead to iterative solving which is very long. Moreover, in the
design process, even if the computation time is an important issue (parametric studies for
example), the most costly time is human time. That is the pre-processing (meshing and
preparing the data) and the post-processing (analyzing the results by extracting the pertinent
data). For all these reasons, there is a need of robust and efficient simplified methods using
a reduced number of degree of freedom. But these methods must remain accurate to
correctly represent the real behavior of the modeled structures.
The most common way to reduce the number of degree of freedom is to use structural
elements like beam or plate elements, where kinetic assumptions are made. For example, in
the case of beam elements, there are three level of description usually used (see Figure 1).
In the local approach, the beam is meshed with 3D solid elements with a 3D material
behavior law (Figure 1a). The multifiber method [1, 2] is a semi global approach where the
cross section behavior is integrated from 1D material behavior laws in fibers (Figure 1b).
Finally, in the global approach, the constitutive law of the cross section is directly written
in generalized variables (bending moment and curvature for example). The macro-elements
described in this paper belong to the last approach. Takeda [3] was one of the first authors
to present such global elements and gave analytical bi- or tri-linear laws based on
experimental observations for reinforced concrete beams. The concept can be generalized
to other type of elements, often modeled with concentrated nonlinear springs [4]. The
nonlinear behavior of the macro-elements take often the form of hysteretic rules deduced
from experimental observation. It can also be models written in the frame of plasticity or
damage theories. In this paper we present examples of macro-element build from a
numerical analysis. In the first section we give the main ideas and the difficulties
encountered to do that. In the following sections we give some examples to illustrate the
efficiency of the technique.

Figure 1 : Beam discretization : a) local approach : 3D solid elements ; b) Semi-global approach : Multifiber
elements ; c) Global approach in generalized variables.

1. Multi-Scale Approach

Building a numerical macro-element consists in studying the response of an intermediate

representative elementary volume whose size is between the size of the micro elementary
volume and the size of the whole structure. The analysis is divided in three steps :
Step 1: identify the response of the macro-element, called 'working law', as the
result of the accurate local analyses.
Step 2: synthesize the working laws under the form of analytical or numerical
expressions relating averaging variables (forces and displacements for example) and
including geometrical and material parameters.
Step 3: assemb the macro-elements to make the global analysis of the structure.
This multi-level approach brings the rapidity of an analysis with a low number of
degrees of freedom while keeping the refinement of the local analysis. In an industrial
analysis, only the third step is needed, the working laws being stored in a data base. The
local analysis is uncoupled with the global analysis. The first, long and difficult, is an
expert work. The second, made by a user on different sort of structures having a big size,
must be rapid and accurate. The difficulties are encountered at the first and second step:
- Choice of the micro elementary volume: the described phenomena and the
neglected phenomena must be chosen.
- Choice of the macro-element: this is the volume under which there will be no
detail during the global analysis. Its response must be obtainable without knowing the
structure where it will be.
- Choice of the macro-variables: they govern the behavior of the macro-element and
describe its state in the global analysis.
- Micro behavior analysis: the mechanisms of the local level are examined. The
tools used at this step are refined (3D, detailed constitutive laws, ...). The concern is to
select among the many factors, the ones who have an actual effect on the macro-element
response.
- Macro-element response analysis: it is tested in every situation where it could be
after. Several leading variables and loading paths must be considered. The interesting
information to be transferred from the local level to the global level must be chosen. This is
here the more difficult work and it must define the more exactly as possible the limits of
use of the working laws.
- Building of the working laws: the responses of the macro-element are written with
parameters to be stored in a data base. Every future global analysis will only call this data.

2. Examples of Macro-Elements for Seismic Analysis

In this section we present two examples of macro-elements. The first one is a 2D reinforced
concrete beam macro-element witch takes into account the interaction between the bending
moment and the normal force [5]. The second one is a 2D shallow strip foundation witch
take into account the soil-structure interaction [6]. Both are dedicated to earthquake
engineering (cyclic behavior). We only present the main ideas and a few results.

2.1 A 2D RC Beam Macro-Element

This macro-element is developed for reinforced concrete frames. The local analysis is based
on a multilayered beam analysis. The concrete behavior is modeled with a damage law and
the reinforcement steel with a plasticity law. Both are treated apart to keep the better
generality for the macro-element (there is no slip between concrete and steel).
The seismic analysis of the structure is decomposed in 2 steps. In a pre-processing step,
each kind of concrete geometry of the global structure is subjected to a set of kinematic
radial loading paths (combined curvature and axial strain). The responses are stored in a file
in a clever manner to reduce the data. Then, during the global analysis of the structure, the
behavior of each concrete macro-element is computed by interpolation from the stored data.
The main assumption is to store and use only the radial loading paths. Indeed, in real
structures, the elements can follow non-radial paths, because of the adaptation of the
internal forces when the degradation occurs in near elements for example. However, for
ground motion seismic loading and while the structure is not completely destroyed, we see
that this assumption is reasonable. On the Figure 2, we show the response of a frame under
horizontal seismic loading. The multilayered analysis and the macro-element analysis give
very similar results.

Figure 2 : Reinforced concrete frame under horizontal seismic ground motion

2.2 A 2D SSI Macro-Element

To take into account the soil structure interaction under seismic loading, a shallow strip
foundation macro-element has been developed. The overall linear and nonlinear behavior in
the soil and at the interface is reduced through three degrees of freedom (vertical
displacement z, horizontal displacement x and rotation θ) expressed at the center of the
foundation (assumed as a rigid body). The phenomena represented by the forces acting on
the foundation are separated into two fields. Plasticity of the soil surrounding the
foundation and uplift of the foundation are strongly non linear and coupled and both
concern the near field while elasticity and radiation dissipation in a semi-infinite body
concern the far field. The cyclic nonlinear constitutive laws governing the behavior of this
macro-element are developed within the framework of the plasticity theory and are built
from numerical simulation results, analytical considerations and experimental data form the
literature. The model is particularly well suited for the evolution of the loading surface
towards the failure surface with a vertical force being almost constant, for reproducing the
behavior of the soil and the foundation, initially submitted to the weight of the structure,
and then solicited mainly with moments and horizontal forces (seismic loading).
Fig. 3 presents the floor spectrum at the mass level of a bridge pier for the different cases of
linear and nonlinear interaction, simulated with the macro-element. The period increase due
to nonlinearities is obvious, as well as the reduction of the peak spectral acceleration at the
floor level.
horiz acc at mass level (m/s 2)

40
fixed base
35

30 elast lin
25
elast-uplift
20

15 elast-uplift-plast; SF=4
elast-uplift-plast; SF=3
10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
input motion (free-field) period (s)

Figure 3 : Floor spectrum at the mass level of a bridge pier for different nonlinearities

Conclusion

The use of macro-element in seismic simulation is very useful since it reduces drastically
the computer and human time. It permits to make parametric studies in a reasonable time
with a good accuracy. But macro-elements are often dedicated to particular problems and
one have to be conscious of their limits of use. Moreover, they are efficient to obtain global
and average results on the structure but limited for local results. A perspective is a
multiscale analysis with refinements in critical zones.

References
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analysis in earthquake engineering. Computers & Structures, 81(12), 1223-1239
[2] Spacone E., Filippou F.C., Taucer, F.F., 1996. Fiber Beam-Column Model for Nonlinear Analysis of R/C
Frames. I : Formulation. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 25(7), 711-725.
[3] Takeda T., Sozen M.A., Nielsen N.N., 1970. Reinforced Concrete Response to Simulated Earthquakes,
Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, 96, ST12.
[4] Fajfar P., Fischinger M., Dolsek M. 2004. Macro models and simplified methods for efficient structural
analysis in erthquake engineering. Nato-arw conference, 13-17 june 2004, Bled, Slovenia
![5] Davenne L. 1998. Analysis of seismic response of reinforced concrete frames with macro-elements. 11th
European Conference on Earthquake Engineering XI-ECEE, Paris-La Défense.
[6] Cr!émer C, Pecker A, Davenne L. 2002. Modelling of non linear dynamic behavior of a shallow strip
foundation with macro-element. Journal of Earthquake Engineering,, 6(2), 175-211.