Climbing Up the Leaderboard: An Empirical Study of Applying

Gamification Techniques to a Computer Programming Class

Panagiotis Fotaris1, Theodoros Mastoras2, Richard Leinfellner1 and Yasmine Rosunally3
1
University of East London, School of Arts and Digital Industries, London, UK
2
University of Macedonia, Department of Applied Informatics, Thessaloniki, Greece
3
University of the West of England, School of Computing and Creative Technologies,
Bristol, UK
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: Conventional taught learning practices often experience difficulties in keeping students motivated and engaged.
Video games, however, are very successful at sustaining high levels of motivation and engagement through a set of tasks
for hours without apparent loss of focus. In addition, gamers solve complex problems within a gaming environment
without feeling fatigue or frustration, as they would typically do with a comparable learning task. Based on this notion, the
academic community is keen on exploring methods that can deliver deep learner engagement and has shown increased
interest in adopting gamification – the integration of gaming elements, mechanics, and frameworks into non-game
situations and scenarios – as a means to increase student engagement and improve information retention. Its effectiveness
when applied to education has been debatable though, as attempts have generally been restricted to one-dimensional
approaches such as transposing a trivial reward system onto existing teaching materials and/or assessments. Nevertheless,
a gamified, multi-dimensional, problem-based learning approach can yield improved results even when applied to a very
complex and traditionally dry task like the teaching of computer programming, as shown in this paper. The presented
quasi-experimental study used a combination of instructor feedback, real time sequence of scored quizzes, and live coding
to deliver a fully interactive learning experience. More specifically, the “Kahoot!” Classroom Response System (CRS), the
classroom version of the TV game show “Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?”, and Codecademy’s interactive platform formed
the basis for a learning model which was applied to an entry-level Python programming course. Students were thus
allowed to experience multiple interlocking methods similar to those commonly found in a top quality game experience. To
assess gamification’s impact on learning, empirical data from the gamified group were compared to those from a control
group who was taught through a traditional learning approach, similar to the one which had been used during previous
cohorts. Despite this being a relatively small-scale study, the results and findings for a number of key metrics, including
attendance, downloading of course material, and final grades, were encouraging and proved that the gamified approach
was motivating and enriching for both students and instructors.

Keywords: gamification, game-based learning, learning and teaching, technology enhanced learning, virtual learning
environment, classroom response system, Kahoot, assessment, higher education

1 Introduction
According to research on the dynamics of attention spans during lectures, the typical learner’s attention
increases during the first ten minutes of lecture and diminishes after that point (Hartley and Davies, 1978).
One way to address this issue and recapture the attention of learners is by changing the environment during a
lecture, e.g., via a short break (McKeachie, 1999). This is almost the opposite of the dynamic experienced by
video gamers. The latter are kept at high levels of attention, which in some cases can last for many hours
(Green and Bavelier, 2006). They also have a distinct characteristic where they strive to be on the verge of
what Jane McGonical (2010) describes as an “epic win”. Gamers also share common factors such as urgent
optimism, social fabric, blissful productivity, and epic meaning, which in turn make them super empowered
hopeful individuals (Huang and Soman, 2013). On the other hand, when confronted with complex learning,
students are more likely to feel overwhelmed; there is no instant gratification or short term wins to keep them
engaged and motivated. A promising way to address these counterproductive feelings is to design them out
using techniques similar to ones found in successful gaming environments.

ISSN 1479-4403 94 ©ACPIL

Reference this paper as Fotaris P, Mastoras T, Leinfellner R and Rosunally Y, “Climbing Up the Leaderboard: An
Empirical Study of Applying Gamification Techniques to a Computer Programming Class” The Electronic Journal
of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016, (pp94-110) available online at www.ejel.org
 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

Rather than assuming that the rapid proliferation of sophisticated technologies such as smartphones, tablets,
and laptop computers into every facet of society is the cause of student attention deficit (Griffin, 2014),
educators should be open to new possibilities to teach and educate (Squire, 2003; de Aguilera and Mendiz,
2003). Findings of independent experiments performed in secondary and higher education settings showed
that students who were subjects to learning with video games reported significant improvements in subject
understanding, diligence, and motivation (Barata et al., 2013; Coller and Shernoff, 2009; Kebritchi et al., 2008;
Lee et al., 2004; McClean et al., 2001; Squire et al., 2004).

In the same way that games help stimulate the production of dopamine, a chemical that is considered to play a
key role in motivation, affect and learning (Wimmer et al., 2014), educational techniques which access the
same methodologies could result in learning-reward cycles (Gee, 2003) by reinforcing neuronal connections
and communications during learning activity (NMC Horizon Report, 2013). Additionally, unlike the one-size-
fits-all lecture, these game-based techniques can be balanced to be appropriate to the learners’ skill level
(Koster, 2004) in order to prevent them from becoming frustrated or bored, thus allowing them to experience
“flow”, i.e., a user’s state of “optimal experience” (Barata, 2013; Chen, 2007; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Gamification for learning should use game mechanics, dynamics, and frameworks to non-game processes
along the following principles, which were adapted from Self-Determination Theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000):
 Relatedness – the universal need to interact and be connected with others;
 Competence – the universal need to be effective and master a problem in a given environment;
 Autonomy – the universal need to control one’s own life.
These elements have been shown to affect intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which in turn can have a big
impact on student engagement and motivation (Deterding et al., 2011). Intrinsic motivation (e.g., altruism,
competition, cooperation, sense of belonging, love or aggression) is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the
task itself and inspires people to initiate an activity for its own sake (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Students who are
intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in a task willingly, as well as work to improve their skills,
which will increase their capabilities (Wigfield et al., 2004). In contrast, extrinsic motivation comes from
outside the individual and refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome (e.g., earn
grades, levels, points, badges, awards) or to avoid punishment (Muntean, 2011). Typical extrinsic incentives
include competitions, cheering crowds, and desire to win trophies.

Individual student fatigue could be taken into account so as to determine the optimal combination of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivators; this would automatically re-captivate students and provide a rewarding break
without producing any detrimental effects. By introducing game mechanics into generally unpopular activities
such as assessments, students would enjoy the tasks first and, in the process of completing them, they would
deliver the required assessment.

However, despite the fact that gamification of education is gaining support among an increasing number of
academics who recognise that effectively designed games can stimulate large gains in productivity and
creativity among learners (NMC Horizon Report, 2014), opponents argue that what is lacking is concrete
empirical data to support or refute these theoretical claims (Annetta et al., 2009; Barata et al., 2013). Some of
the negative experiences include disappearance of collaboration among students and overstimulation of
competitiveness. The balance between learning, social collaboration, creativity, and competitiveness which is
apparent in mainstream commercial games seems to be hard to achieve in tools specifically designed for
education (Zaha et al., 2014). As a result, gamification is often reduced into a behaviour model leveraging
human need for positive reward system and instant gratification, which is applied to a traditional teacher-
centred classroom.

Annetta et al. (2009) and Britain and Liber (2004) suggest that both teachers and researchers need to evaluate
video games and gamification from an educational perspective, in order to determine whether they can be
embedded into teaching practices. Based on this notion, the present paper aspires to make a contribution to
the empirical evidence in the gamification field by designing, implementing and evaluating a gamified learning
experience in a higher education setting. This research effort tries to bridge the gap between theory and
practice, as well as to study the educational impact of gamification in a real educational setting. The specific
research questions were:

www.ejel.org 95 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

 Are students who use Codecademy and play “Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?” and “Kahoot!” more
engaged in learning Python programming when compared to peers who engage in traditional class
activities?
 Do students who use Codecademy and play “Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?” and “Kahoot!” develop
deeper understandings of Python programming when compared to peers engaged in more traditional
instruction?

2 Related works
The idea of using gamification for learning is not entirely new. In the 1980s Malone (1980; 1981; 1982) did
research on what makes video games attractive to players and how these aspects can be applied to education
as a means to promote student engagement and motivation. Carroll (1982) analysed the design of the seminal
text adventure “Adventure”, which in turn led him to propose redressing routine work activities in varying
“metaphoric cover stories” in order to turn them into something more intrinsically interesting, and to “urge for
a research program on fun and its relation to ease of use” (Deterding et al., 2011; Carroll and Thomas, 1982).

The new millennium saw the introduction of the terms “ludic engagement”, “ludic design”, and “ludic
activities” to describe “activities motivated by curiosity, exploration, and reflection” (Gaver et al., 2004), as
well as the emergence of a new field called “’funology’ – the science of enjoyable technology” (Blythe et al.,
2004) which was inspired by game design and studied “hedonic attributes” (Hassenzahl, 2003) or
“motivational affordances” (Zhang, 2008) of “pleasurable products” (Jordan, 2002). Related research focused
on using game interfaces and controllers in other contexts (Chao, 2001), creating “games with a purpose” in
which game play is employed to solve human information tasks (e.g., tagging images) (Ahn and Dabbish, 2008),
and exploring “playfulness” as a desirable user experience or mode of interaction.

The use of video games for educational purposes was also emphasized by the works of Prensky (2001) and Gee
(2003). Although these studies were related to game-based learning rather than gamification, their findings
form the core of gamification in education: they described the influence of game play on cognitive
development, identified 36 learning principles found in video games, and recognised potential advantages of
video games in learning such as the value of immediate feedback, self-regulated learning, information on
demand, team collaboration, and motivating cycles of expertise (Borys and Laskowski, 2013).

More recently, major corporations and organisations including Adobe (LevelUp, Jigsaw - Dong et al., 2012),
Microsoft (Ribbon Hero), IBM (SimArchitect - IBM Global Business Services, 2012), and Autodesk (GamiCAD - Li
et al., 2012) consulted with game experts to develop gamified systems that focus on keeping users engaged
while learning new software and techniques. Other successful cases of gamification in education include Khan
Academy, Treehouse, Udemy, and Duolingo, organisations that provide access to a rich library of content
(including interactive challenges, assessments and videos on several subjects) and use badges and points to
keep track of student progress. Codeacademy is an e-learning platform specialised for computer programming,
designed with gamification in mind, while Kahoot is an example of a popular game-based Classroom Response
System (CRS, also commonly known as “clicker”) (Fies and Marshall, 2006) that can be played on any device
with a browser, both in online and traditional learning environments.

In the context of higher and secondary education, gamification can be applied at vastly different scales to any
discipline. At one end is gamification at the micro-scale: individual teachers who gamify their own class
structures (Lee and Hammer, 2011) such as Lee Sheldon (2011), a professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
who turned a conventional learning experience into a game without resorting to technology by discarding
traditional grading and replacing it with earning “experience points”, while also converting homework
assignments into quests (Laster, 2010). At the other end of the scale, a charter school in New York City called
“Quest to Learn” uses game design as its organising framework for teaching and learning. Teachers collaborate
with game designers to develop playful curricula and base the entire school day around game elements
(Corbett, 2010).

To summarise, although the amount of literature on gamification in education is constantly increasing, the
wide range of course types, learning preferences, student backgrounds, and socio-economical environments
requires more systematic studies of the influence of different gamification techniques in order to assess their
efficiency (Barata et al., 2013).

www.ejel.org 96 ©ACPIL
 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

3 Methodology

3.1 Study design and sample

Teaching and assessment of computer programming is considered to be difficult and frequently ineffective,
especially to weaker students, as computer programs and algorithms are abstract and complex entities that
involve concepts and processes which are often found hard to teach and learn (Olsson et al., 2015; Lahtinen et
al., 2005). This sometimes results in undesirable outcomes such as disengagement, cheating, learned
helplessness, and dropping out (Robins et al., 2003; Winslow, 1996). Furthermore, most students would not
describe classroom-based activities in school as playful experiences. However, research on multimodal
teaching has shown that adding more channels for the knowledge transfer can facilitate learning in general
(Olsson et al., 2015). Based on this fact and the concepts of the increasingly popular gamification, game-based
learning, and serious games movements, the present paper evaluates how gamification affected students of a
12-week university course named “Fundamentals of Software Development” (FSD) via the use of the “Kahoot!”
CRS, a modified classroom version of the TV game show “Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?” (WWTBAM), and
Codecademy’s online interactive platform.

To reach this objective faculty staff composed of three lecturers conducted a quasi-experimental study over
two consecutive academic years at the School of Computing and Technology, University of West London. The
sample included a control class (CC) of Ncon = 54 students (43 males, 11 females) who attended the FSD course
in the first year of the study, and an experimental class (EC) of Nexp = 52 students (44 males, 8 females) who
attended FSD in the second year. The participants ranged from 19 to 25 years of age. Additionally, 16 students
of the experimental group were regular gamers (31%), 28 played games occasionally (54%), and 8 did not play
video games at all (15%).

During the first year FSD followed a non-gamified approach that was similar to the one used in previous years.
The syllabus included 12 regular one-hour lectures, 12 two-hour laboratory classes, and 12 one-hour seminars.
The theoretical lectures covered Python programming concepts ranging from loops, functions, and object-
oriented programming, to GUI applications and videogame development. In laboratory classes students were
presented with a series of programming tasks that they had to complete individually during the session, with
the tutors offering occasional help. Finally, seminars were used for revision purposes and were delivered via a
combination of Q+A and typical lectures. All course materials were uploaded to the institutional Virtual
Learning Environment (Blackboard) on a weekly basis. The course evaluation consisted of 6 theoretical quizzes
(30% of total grade) and 2 mandatory assessments: a final exam (35%) and a programming project (35%).

An analysis of the student performance data at the end of the first year showed low attendance rates,
numerous late arrivals to classes, and lack of interest in the reference material (low number of downloads that
increased only before the exams period). In order to address these issues and to make FSD more fun and
engaging, teaching methods changed in the second year to incorporate gamification. Literature indicates that
educational gameplay fosters engagement in critical thinking, creative problem solving, and teamwork (NMC
Horizon Report, 2014). When students are actively engaged in the content that they are learning, there is
increased motivation, transfer of new information, and retention (Premkumar and Coupal, 2008). Additionally,
the attention span of students diminishes after the first 15-20 minutes into a lecture (Middendorf & and
Kalish, 1996). Based on these facts, while the course evaluation remained the same, the delivery of the course
was gamified as follows.

3.2 Gamification of the course

3.2.1 Formative assessment using Kahoot!

The initial one-hour theoretical lectures were replaced by three 20-minute cycles of a micro-lecture, a
formative assessment in the form of a Kahoot! game, and a brief discussion. As mentioned earlier, Kahoot! is a
web-based CRS (Hwang et al., 2015) that uses colourful graphics and audio to temporarily transform a
classroom into a game show, with the instructor acting as the show host and the students being the
competitors. Every week the instructor created three Kahoot! games based on the topics that were going to be
covered in the three micro-lectures of the upcoming class. After a micro-lecture was completed, the instructor
launched its related Kahoot! game, which in turn generated a unique game pin for each session. Students then

www.ejel.org 97 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

used their own digital devices (tablets, smartphones, laptops) or the class desktops to log-in to the game, enter
the game pin, and create a username that would be displayed as the game progressed. Once everyone had
joined the game, the instructor’s computer, which was connected to a large screen, displayed a set of 5 MCQs
for students to answer on their devices. Each answer was transmitted to Kahoot!’s online processing unit
(server) which analysed it and rewarded students with points according to their accuracy and response time
(Figure 1). Between each question Kahoot! showed a distribution chart of the students’ answers, thus allowing
the instructor to receive immediate feedback on whether concepts had been understood by the whole class or
required further elaboration; in the latter case, he paused the game and offered any required explanations.
Consequently, a scoreboard revealed the nicknames and scores of the top five responders, and at the end of
the game a winner was announced and received some candy as a reward.

Figure 1: “Kahoot!” in-game screenshot

Following the game’s completion, the instructor discussed briefly all answers to each question and
downloaded a spreadsheet of the results in order to get an overview of the individual student and overall class
performance. Each student’s score was updated every week and was entered to a leaderboard webpage,
which was publically accessible through Blackboard and displayed enrolled students in descending order
according to their total points. This visual display of progress and ranking provided students with direct
feedback on their performance against both their own goals and the performance of their peers, while also
serving as instant gratification. The thinking behind this decision was that rankings tap into people’s natural
competitiveness and encourage them to do better, which might motivate students to study more by the desire
to improve their position (Natvig et al., 2004).

3.2.2 Collaborative problem solving with “Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?”

The one-hour revision seminar was also changed; the combination of Q+A and lectures that took place during
the first year was replaced by an open-source implementation of WWTBAM, a television quiz show that offers
a top prize of $1 million for answering correctly successive MC questions of increasing difficulty (Figure 2).

Figure 2: “Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?” in-game screenshot

www.ejel.org 98 ©ACPIL
 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

Figure 3: A sample question file

The version of the game used in the classroom featured 540 Python-related MC questions (3 sets of 15
questions per week), which were created by the instructors through a straightforward process that required
the editing of a simple text file (Figure 3).

For logistic purposes the class was randomly divided into four groups of 13 students (11 male, 2 female) who
attended a separate seminar every week for a total of 12 weeks. During the first seminar each group was
randomly split into three teams of 4-5 contestants that remained the same for the duration of the course, and
then the gaming activity started as outlined below.

Each team was seated in front of the class facing the screen with their backs to the audience so that they could
not receive any unsolicited assistance. Students were then asked 15 increasingly difficult questions on Python
programming which covered a different topic every week. Since some of these questions were also scheduled
to appear in the 6 theoretical quizzes, in fairness to the team of student contestants, all other students in the
class were instructed to put away their note-taking materials for the duration of the game. This also enhanced
the perception that the class was taking a break.

Although there was no official time limit to answer a question, each game’s duration was limited to 20 minutes
in order to give all teams the opportunity to play once during the seminar. Questions were multiple-choice: 4
possible answers were given and the team had to collaborate, reach a consensus, and give a single response.
Additionally, at the beginning of each game contestants were presented with an aid of three lifelines:
 Poll The Class: All students provided their answers for a particular question by raising their hands and the
percentage of each specific option as chosen by the class was displayed to the contestants.
 50/50: The game eliminated two incorrect answers, thus leaving contestants with one incorrect and the
correct answer to choose from.
 Ask A Friend: Contestants had 30 seconds to read the question and answer choices to a non-team
classmate, who in turn had the remaining time to offer input.
After viewing a question, the team could respond in one of three ways:
 Refuse to answer the question, quit the game, and retain all points earned up to that point.
 Answer the question and, if their answer was correct, earn points and continue to play, or lose all points
earned to that point and end the game if incorrect. However, the $5,000 and $100,000 prizes were
guaranteed: if a team got a question wrong above these levels, then the prize dropped to the previous
guaranteed prize.
 Use a lifeline (Ask A Friend, Poll The Class, or 50/50).

www.ejel.org 99 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

The game ended when the contestants answered a question incorrectly, decided not to answer a question, or
answered all questions correctly (Figure 4). All answers to each question were conscientiously reviewed for the
entire class as the game proceeded. This discussion of the relative merits of the various provided answers was
an integral part of the learning process that took place during the execution of the game.

Figure 4: “Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?” game procedure

At the end of every seminar, newly earned points were added to the points carried from previous weeks. The
whole scoring process was done manually, with points being collected by faculty and then added to a
leaderboard webpage on Blackboard, which showed the team rankings for every group and provided an entry
point to the gamified experience. After the twelve seminars were completed, the leading team won the title of
“Pythonista of the year” and received chocolate bars as an award. Finally, in order to promote self-assessment
and allow students who missed the seminar sessions to experience this alternative form of learning, the game
and its latest set of questions became available for download at the end of every week.

3.2.3 Practising programming skills with Codecademy

Founded in 2011, Codecademy offers free coding courses tailored for the new computing syllabus in the UK in
a number of programming languages, including Python, JavaScript, HTML/CSS, jQuery, Ruby, and PHP.
Additionally, it serves as a competitive virtual classroom that allows students to track their peers’
achievements and work to match or outdo them. The programming courses are organised into sections
containing a series of interconnected exercises which in turn include an educational text introducing the
related topic, instructions that tell students what to do, and the actual interactive exercise to be completed.
Students earn points for completing each exercise and every completion of a lesson is registered as an
achievement. Other achievements include the maximum number of points earned in one day, the maximum
number of days a student logs-in in a row etc. Badges are also awarded for attaining specific number of points,
exceeding a streak length, or completing certain lessons or courses (Swacha and Baszuro, 2013). These
gamification features have been crucial to making Codecademy one of the most popular online education
providers with over 24 million users to date (Richard Ruth, 2015) and were the main reason behind selecting it
as the delivery platform for the programming exercises.

www.ejel.org 100 ©ACPIL

 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

In the first laboratory session instructors created an “FSD Class” containing 36 lessons of Codecademy’s Python
track that were mapped to the syllabus of FSD. Students were then asked to sign up and create a pupil
account, which was used to enrol them to the FSD class. From that point lab sessions proceeded as follows:
every weekly session began with a five-minute introduction to the exercises for the day, and then students
were required to complete a certain number of Codecademy lessons based on the topics that had been
covered until then. Each lesson was broken down into bite-sized chunks and comprised practical exercises
accompanied by notes that explained the programming techniques and terms used. After reading the exercise
instructions, students would type in their Python code to the code window, submit their code for execution,
and see its output in a separate window (Figure 5). If the code were erroneous, they would receive an error
message and would have to try again. Once they managed to solve the exercise, they would earn points and
proceed to the next lesson. Students who were not able to finish on time could continue the lessons
independently and at their own pace at home, while students who finished early and wished to further their
programming skills were provided with additional exercises.

Figure 5: Codecademy’s lesson screen

The Codecademy platform provided students with direct feedback on their progression via graphical
representations such as completion indicators for each lesson and for the overall course, badges and points for
various achievements etc. (Figure 6). This served as instant gratification and offered an added dimension to
learning, as students could track their peers’ scores and try to surpass them. Additionally, Codecademy’s “Pupil
Tracker” feature allowed instructors to track student progress, including percentage completion, badges, and
last log-in dates, as well as to measure students’ courses and tracks in comparison to one another (Figure 7).

www.ejel.org 101 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

Figure 6: Codecademy’s leaderboard

Figure 7: Codecademy’s Pupil Tracker

In an effort to motivate students to complete the exercises as quickly as possible, the lecturers set a number of
different challenges, e.g., highest score achieved in 1 and in 4 weeks, fastest student to reach 50, 100, and 200
points etc. However, no actual physical rewards were given to the winners. The rationale for this decision was
to allow faculty staff to evaluate whether the aim of winning a challenge was in itself enough as intrinsic
motivation for students to complete their tasks. Each challenge had its own leaderboard, which was made
accessible to the students through Blackboard. At the end of each week, staff used the Pupil Tracker to
download the spreadsheet with the students’ progression and updated the leaderboards accordingly. The
devised challenges motivated the majority of the students to perform on a weekly basis, thus engaging them
with programming activities throughout the semester.

www.ejel.org 102 ©ACPIL

 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

4 Results
To ensure that the gamified approach encouraged students’ active participation in the educational process,
formative and summative assessments of student engagement were performed using the following methods
(Jennings and Angelo, 2006):
 Observation of student behaviour;
 Online survey exploring the effects of gamification in the classroom;
 Students’ self-report of activity through focus groups and semi-structured interviews;
 Collection of administrative data such as student attendance, late arrivals to class, number of reference
material downloads, completion rate of lab exercises, and academic performance.

4.1 Observation of student behaviour

In regards to classroom observation of student behaviour, the majority of the EC students demonstrated the
following characteristics during all seminars, lectures, and laboratory sessions, which are considered
immediate indicators of engagement (Franklin, 2005; Mandernach et al., 2011):
 Actively listened, focused attention and made eye contact;
 Responded to the instructors’ prompts;
 Actively participated in the WWTBAM and Kahoot! games, and in the Codecademy challenges;
 Questioned, explored, brainstormed or discussed the WWTBAM and Kahoot! question topics with their
peers and instructors;
 Utilised decision-making or problem solving skills in questioning and responding;
 Demonstrated body language that was open and relaxed with appropriate smiles or laughter.

4.2 Online survey exploring the effects of gamification in the classroom

To gather quantitative feedback about the effectiveness of the gamified experience, all EC students (Nexp = 52)
completed a 15-question online survey at the end of the semester. Every question had 5 possible answers
measured on a Likert scale of 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

www.ejel.org 103 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

# Question Disagree …-… Agree Aver. Var. Dev. Med.

The games made the learning environment a

1 fun and engaging one.
4.7 0.4 0.6 5

2 The games motivated me to attend classes. 3.8 0.7 0.8 4

The games motivated me to arrive to class on

3 time.
3.7 1.0 1.0 4

I was more motivated to study the course

4 material every week in order to do well in the 3.8 0.5 0.7 4
leaderboard for the games.

I communicated with other players while

5 playing.
4.7 0.4 0.7 5

The total duration of the games was

6 satisfactory.
4.4 0.5 0.7 5

I was comfortable with adding the Top-5

7 leaderboard to the module's Blackboard page.
4.1 0.8 0.9 4

The discussions about the correct and

incorrect answers after every question (i.e.,
8 why wrong answers were wrong, and right
4.4 0.5 0.7 5
answers were right) were satisfying.

I believe that the games have improved my

9 understanding of the covered topics.
4.1 0.5 0.7 4

Performing well in the games increased my

10 self-confidence.
4.3 0.4 0.6 4

I would have prepared and engaged better if

11 the game results were translated to actual 3.3 1.0 1.0 3
marks for the module assessment.

I believe that the games have improved my

12 analytical and problem-solving skills in terms 3.8 1.0 1.0 4
of developing solutions for Python challenges.

I wish Kahoot! and “Who Wants To Be A

13 Millionaire” were used in other modules.
4.1 0.7 0.9 4

I believe that gaming is a valuable use of

14 instructional time
4.1 0.7 0.8 4

I found the use of the leaderboard

15 intimidating.
1.7 0.7 0.8 1

Figure 8: Online survey results

According to the weighted Likert scale average shown in Figure 8, students mostly agreed that the classroom
games made learning fun and would like to see them introduced to other modules as well. Students were also
generally motivated to attend classes and arrive on time, a finding that was also supported by the
administrative data collected at the end of the course. Most students communicated with their peers while
playing and believed that performing well in the games increased their self-confidence. Additionally, they were
not intimidated by the use of leaderboards and some of them even studied the course material on a weekly
basis in order to appear high in the leaderboard rankings. The discussions about the correct and incorrect
answers after every Kahoot! and WWTBAM question were deemed satisfying and improved the students’
understanding of the cover topics. Surprisingly enough, there were mixed opinions about getting some
tangible rewards, such as translation of game points into actual marks for module assessments. Finally, most
students considered gaming a valuable use of instructional time as they felt it helped them improve their
analytical and problem-solving skills.

www.ejel.org 104 ©ACPIL

 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

4.3 Semi-structured interviews for in-depth student feedback

To get extra insight into the survey results, qualitative research was conducted in the form of focus groups and
semi-structured interviews with a small number of students, featuring questions on collaborative learning,
cognitive development, and development of personal skills. As demonstrated by the following sample of
responses, the overall reaction by interviewees was extremely positive:
 “I know that I have learned from watching other people play WWTBAM, as well as through playing
myself.”
 “I feel great when I know all the answers. Bragging rights are a plus, too.”
 “It makes you feel like you’ve learnt something when you complete a lesson in Codecademy.”
 “Seeing my name at the top of the leaderboard made me feel smart and proud.”
 “Although I am rather shy and quiet as a person, playing WWTBAM boosted my confidence and made it
easier for me to collaborate with my classmates.”
 “At last I was allowed to use my iPhone in the class, even if it was for educational purposes.”
 “I enjoy Kahoot! because it’s always fun to beat your classmates.”
 “Lectures don’t feel boring anymore.”

4.4 Analysis of the administrative data

As a means of gauging student persistence, interest, and effort in the gamified classes, there was a comparison
of the attendance and the late arrivals (students arriving to class with at least a 10-minute delay) among the
control and the experimental classes (Figure 9).
Average class attendance for CC was 65% (≈35 students), while EC had an average class attendance of 78%
(≈42 students). Additionally, an average of 4 to 5 CC students and 1 to 2 EC students arrived to class late every
week, respectively. Both findings suggest that gamification motivated EC students to be more punctual and
attend classes more often than their CC peers.
In regards to the reference material, every week the instructors uploaded two compressed files: the first one
contained the lecture notes and handouts, and the second one contained further reading material (book
chapters, journal papers, selected articles, blog posts, and other optional readings). As documented in the
number of the reference material’s weekly downloads, it can be argued that CC students demonstrated a
relative lack of interest with an average of 1.2 weekly file downloads per student (an average of 65 total
downloads per week), which spiked only during the two weeks preceding the final exams; in comparison, every
EC student downloaded 1.7 files every week (an average of 89 total downloads per week) without showing any
significant deviations (Figure 10). When combined with the survey’s results, this could suggest that EC students
were motivated to download and study the course and further reading material every week in order to
perform well in the classroom games.

www.ejel.org 105 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

Class attendance
50

40

Number of Students
30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Week

Control group attendants Experimental group attendants

Control group delayed students Experimental group delayed students

Figure 9: Weekly class attendance

Weekly downloads
130

120

110

100

90
Number of Downloads

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Week

Control group downloads Experimental group downloads

Figure 10: Weekly downloads of reference material

While the CC completion rate of the practical exercises remained roughly around the 50% mark for every
laboratory class, EC students showed a small but steady weekly increase in their completion rate, which might
indicate that the weekly challenges motivated them to try harder so as to complete their exercises and
improve their programming skills. Finally, EC had the best overall academic performance with an average final
grade of 61% compared to CG’s 53%. However, due to the relatively low number of participants, additional
studies are needed to identify possible correlations between gamification and academic performance.

5 Conclusion and future work

The present study explored how the application of gamification in a computer-programming course could
affect the learning experience and the students’ motivation, recall ability, and performance. The
aforementioned findings suggest that using a multi-dimensional gamified learning approach has successfully
achieved the pedagogical goals outlined in the introduction. Based on the concepts of the increasingly popular
gamification, game-based learning and serious games movements, it gives teachers and students the
opportunity to experience first-hand how game mechanics can be used to make learning fun and addictive.
Coupled with effective pedagogy, games can offer a more effective and less intrusive measurement of learning
than traditional assessments.

www.ejel.org 106 ©ACPIL

 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

Both Kahoot! and WWTBAM serve as an opportunity for instant application of knowledge and reinforcement
of learning outcomes. They allow common programming language misconceptions to be revealed and
explored, while also using similar game mechanisms to make students feel good about their accomplishments
and overcome their personal records.

More specifically, Kahoot! provides students with the opportunity for self-assessment through a fun and
engaging atmosphere, which allows them to master new programming concepts relatively quickly. It is a great
tool for learning terminology and can be also used to introduce a topic, as it can help instructors discover what
the students already know and where they should focus their instruction on. Additionally, the findings are
comparable to those from other studies which show that the use of CRS increases students’ attendance,
attentiveness, enthusiasm, confidence, and in-class participation (Duncan, 2005; Suchman et al, 2006; Bullock
et al. 2003; Roschelle et al., 2004; Wit, 2003). As for WWTBAM, it requires students to compare and discuss
their answers with their teammates in order to come to a consensus regarding the answer, thus improving
communication efficiency and honing important employability skills such as problem solving, critical thinking,
and collaboration. In both games students not only reported more enjoyment in their class, but also stated
that confidence in their own learning had grown, while instructors noticed an increase in their own ability to
respond to students’ misconceptions.

This mix of individual and group competition in the classroom catered to the needs of diverse students, some
of which preferred to initially develop their coding skills alone while others performed better in groups. As the
semester progressed though, it was noticed that the students’ engagement decreased slowly in the Kahoot!
sessions; on the other hand, the engagement for WWTBAM remained unchanged. This could be attributed to
the fact that students competing at individual level in Kahoot! began to lose interest once they trailed behind
in the leaderboard. Another concern from the teaching staff’s point of view was the limited length of the
multiple-choice questions and answers in both games, which made their authoring quite challenging.

The use of Codecademy’s points and badges as the sole motivator for completing the practical exercises also
provided some interesting insights. Although students were intrinsically motivated to complete their exercises
and generally performed better than their CC peers, they expressed some concerns about the lesson contents,
saying that some lessons were not always a good fit to the FSD syllabus, lacked clear instructions, and had
ambiguous explanations and vague error messages. As a result, students who struggled on a particular aspect
of programming due to the poor quality of that particular set of lessons tended to associate that aspect with
being difficult to grasp and master, when it was not necessarily so. A possible yet rather demanding solution to
this problem would be to provide students with a more personalised experience by developing lessons
specifically for the FSD syllabus. Additionally, data analytics could be used to identify which programming
concepts are more challenging for students, so as to give the latter opportunities for more practice.

Whilst the results are encouraging, the authors acknowledge that the limited nature of this study does not
preclude the possibility that the improvements in student engagement are simply the result the short-term
“novelty” factors generally associated with the introduction of new technology and learning techniques.
Further study is needed to assess whether the increased student engagement suggested by these methods is
sustainable and applicable to other subjects.

References
Ahn, L. von and Dabbish, L. (2008) “Designing games with a purpose”, Communications of the ACM, vol. 51, no. 8, pp. 58-
67.
Annetta, L.A., Minogue, J., Holmes, S.Y. and Cheng, M.T. (2009) “Investigating the impact of video games on high school
students’ engagement and learning about genetics”, Computers & Education, vol. 53, pp. 74-85.
th
Barata, G., Gama, S., Jorge, J. and Goncalves, D. (2013) “Engaging Engineering Students with Gamification”, in 5
International Conference on Games and Virtual Worlds for Serious Applications (VS-GAMES), Bournemouth, UK, Sep
11-13 2013, pp. 1-8.
Blythe, M., Hassenzahl, M. and Wright, P. (2004) “Introduction: Beyond fun”, Interactions, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 36–37.
Borys, M. and Laskowski, M. (2013) “Implementing game elements into didactic process: A case study”, in Management,
Knowledge and Learning International Conference, Croatia, 19-21 Jun 2013, pp. 819–824.
Britain, S. and Liber, O. (2004) A framework for pedagogical evaluation of virtual learning environments. Research Report,
[Online], Available: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00696234/document [10 Dec 2015].
Bullock, D., LaBella, V., Clingan, T., Ding, Z., Stewart, G. and Thibado, P. (2003) “Enhancing the student-instructor
interaction frequency”, The Physics Teacher, vol. 40, no. 9, pp. 535-541.

www.ejel.org 107 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

Carroll, J. M. (1982) “The Adventure of Getting to Know a Computer”, Computer, vol. 15, no. 11, pp. 49-58.
Carroll, J. M. and Thomas, J. M. (1988) “FUN”, ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 21-24.
Chao, D. (2001) “Doom as an interface for process management”, in Proceedings CHI ’01, New York: ACM Press, pp. 152-
157.
Chen, J. (2007) “Flow in games (and everything else)”, Commun. ACM, vol. 50, pp. 31-34.
Coller B. and Shernoff, D. (2009) “Video game-based education in mechanical engineering: A look at student engagement”,
International Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 308-317.
Corbett, S. (2010) Learning by playing: Video games in the classroom, [Online], Available:
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/19/magazine/19video-t.html [10 Dec 2015].
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: the psychology of optimal experience, New York: Harper and Row.
de Aguilera, M. and Mendiz, A. (2003) “Video games and education: education in the face of a “parallel school””,
Computers in Entertainment, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1:1-1:10.
Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R. and Nacke, L. (2011) “From game design elements to gamefulness: defining
“gamification””, in Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media
Environments (MindTrek ’11), Tampere, Finland, Sep 28-30 2011, ACM Press, pp. 9-15.
Duncan, D. (2005) Clickers in the classroom, Addison: San Francisco, CA: Addison.
Fies, C. and Marshall, J. (2006) “Classroom Report Systems: A Review of the Literature”, Journal of Science Education and
Technology, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 101-109.
Franklin, E.E. (2005) “Assessing teaching artists through classroom observation”, Teaching Artist Journal, vol. 3, pp. 148-
157.
Gee, J.P. (2003) What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gee, J.P. (2008) “Learning and games”, in Katie Salen (ed.). The ecology of games: Connecting youth, games, and learning
(John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation series on digital media and learning), Cambridge, MA: The MIT
Press.
Green, C.S. and Bavelier, D. (2006) “Effect of action video games on the spatial distribution of visuospatial attention”,
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 1465-1478.
Griffin, A. (2014) “Technology Distraction in the Learning Environment”, in Proceedings of the Southern Association for
Information Systems Conference, Macon, GA, USA Mar 21-22, 2014, [Online], Available:
http://saisconferencemgmt.org/proceedings/2014/Griffin.pdf [10 Dec 2015].
Hartley, J. and Davies, K. (1978) “Note Taking: A Critical Review”, Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, vol.
15, pp. 207-224.
Hassenzahl, M. (2003) “The Thing and I: Understanding the Relationship Between User and Product”, in M.A. Blythe, K.
Overbeeke, A.F. Monk and P.C. Wright (eds.), Funology: From Usability to Enjoyment, New York: Kluwer, pp. 31-41.
Huang, W.H-Y. and Soman, D. (2013) A Practitioner’s Guide To Gamification Of Education [Online], Available:
http://inside.rotman.utoronto.ca/behaviouraleconomicsinaction/files/2013/09/GuideGamificationEducationDec2013
.pdf [10 Dec 2015].
Hwang, I., Wong, K., Lam, S. L. and Lam, P. (2015) “Student Response (clicker) Systems: Preferences of Biomedical
Physiology Students in Asian classes”, The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 319-330. [Online],
Available: http://www.ejel.org/volume13/issue5 [23 Jan 2016]
IBM Global Business Services (2012) Online simulation gaming comes of age for employee skill development at IBM
[Online], Available: http://public.dhe.ibm.com/common/ssi/ecm/en/gbc03106usen/GBC03106USEN.PDF [10 Dec
2015].
Jennings, J.M. and Angelo, T. (eds.) (2006) “Student engagement: Measuring and enhancing engagement with learning”,
Proceedings of a symposium, Universities Academic Audit Unit, New Zealand.
Jordan, P.W. (2002) Designing Pleasurable Products. An introduction to the new human factors, London: Taylor & Francis.
Kebritchi, M., Hirumi, A. and Bai, H. (2008) “The effects of modern math computer games on learners’ math achievement
and math course motivation in a public high school setting”, British Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 38, no. 2,
pp. 49-259.
Koster, R. (2004) A theory of fun, New York: Paraglyph Press.
Lahtinen, E., Ala-Mutka, K. and Jarvinen, H. (2005) “A Study of Difficulties of Novice Programmers”, Innovation and
Technology in Computer Science Education 2005, pp. 14–18.
Laster, J. (2010) At Indiana U., a class on game design has students playing to win, [Online], Available:
http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/at-indiana-u-a-class-on-game-design-has-students-playing-towin/21981
[10 Dec 2015].
Lee, J.J. and Hammer, J. (2011) “Gamification in Education: What, How, Why Bother?”, Academic Exchange Quarterly, vol.
15, no. 2, pp. 1-5, [Online], Available: http://www.gamifyingeducation.org/files/Lee-Hammer-AEQ-2011.pdf [10 Dec
2015].
Lee, J.J. Luchini, K., Michael, B., Norris, C. and Soloway, E. (2004) “More than just fun and games: assessing the value of
educational video games in the classroom”, in CHI ’04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems,
ser. CHI EA ’04, New York: ACM Press, pp. 1375–1378.
Li, W., Grossman, T. and Fitzmaurice, G. (2012) “GamiCAD: A Gamified Tutorial System For First Time AutoCAD Users”, in
Proceedings of the 25th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology UIST ’12, Cambridge, MA,

www.ejel.org 108 ©ACPIL

 Panagiotis Fotaris et al

USA, Oct 7-10 2012, pp. 103-112, [Online], Available:

http://www.autodeskresearch.com/pdf/GamiCAD_CameraReady.pdf [10 Dec 2015].
Malone, T.W. (1980) “What makes things fun to learn? Heuristics for designing instructional computer games”, in
rd
Proceedings of the 3 ACM SIGSMALL symposium and the first SIGPC symposium on Small systems – SIGSMALL ’80,
New York: ACM Press, pp. 162–169.
Malone, T.W. (1981) “Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction”, Cognitive Science, vol. 4, pp. 333-370.
Malone, T.W. (1982) “Heuristics for designing enjoyable user interfaces”, in CHI '82 Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on
Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York: ACM Press, pp. 63-68.
Mandernach, B. J., Donnelli-Sallee, E. and Dailey-Hebert, A. (2011) “Assessing Course Student Engagement”, in Miller, R.L.,
Amsel, E., Kowalewski, B., Beins, B., Keith, K. and Peden, B. (eds.), Promoting student engagement, volume 1:
Programs, techniques and opportunities, Syracuse, NY: Society for the Teaching of Psychology, [Online], Available:
http://www.teachpsych.org/teachpsych/pnpp/ [10 Dec 2015].
McClean, P., Saini-eidukat, B., Schwert, D., Slator, B. and White, A. (2001) “Virtual worlds in large enrollment science
th
classes significantly improve authentic learning”, in Proceedings of the 12 International Conference on College
Teaching and Learning, Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning, pp. 111–118.
McGonical, J. (2010) Gaming can make a better world, [Online], Available:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dE1DuBesGYM [10 Dec 2015].
McKeachie, W.J. (1999) McKeachie’s Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, And Theory For College And University Teachers,
Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Middendorf, J. and Kalish, A. (1996) “The ‘‘change-up’’ in lectures”, The National Teaching and Learning Forum, vol. 5, no.
2, pp. 1-7.
th
Muntean, C.I. (2011) “Raising engagement in e-learning through Gamification”, in Proceedings of the 6 International
Conference on Virtual Learning ICVL 2012, pp. 323–329.
Natvig, L., Line, S. and Djupdal, A. (2004) “’Age of computers’; an innovative combination of history and computer game
th
elements for teaching computer fundamentals”, in Proceedings of the 34 Annual Frontiers in Education conference,
ser. FIE 2004, vol. 3, pp. S2F–1–6.
NMC Horizon Report > Higher Education Edition (2013) [Online], Available: http://www.nmc.org/pdf/2013-horizon-report-
HE.pdf [10 Dec 2015].
NMC Horizon Report > Higher Education Edition (2014) [Online], Available: http://www.nmc.org/pdf/2014-nmc-horizon-
report-he-EN.pdf [10 Dec 2015].
Olsson, M., Mozelius, P. and Collin, J. (2015) “Visualisation and Gamification of e-Learning and Programming Education”,
The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 441-454. [Online], Available:
http://www.ejel.org/volume13/issue6 [23 Jan 2016]
Prensky, M. (2001) Digital Game-Based Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Premkumar, K. and Coupal, C. (2008) “Rules of engagement-12 tips for successful use of ‘clickers’ in the classroom”,
Medical Teacher, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 146-149.
Robins, A., Rountree, J. and Rountree, N. (2003) “Learning and Teaching Programming: A Review and Discussion”,
Computer Science Education, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 137-172.
Roschelle, J., Penuel, W. R. and Abrahamson, L. (2004) “Classroom response and communication systems: Research review
and theory”, in Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA, pp. 1–8.
Ruth, R. (2015) “Codecademy is teaching the world programming, for free”, Startup Hook [Online], Available:
http://startuphook.com/employment-2/codecademy-teaching-world-programming-free/498/ [10 Dec 2015].
Ryan, R. and Deci, E.L. (2000) Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions, Contemporary
Educational Psychology, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 54-67.
Sheldon, L. (2011) The Multiplayer Classroom: Designing Coursework as a Game, Boston, MA: Course Technology PTR.
Squire, K.D. (2003) “Video games in education”, International Journal of Intelligent Games & Simulation, vol. 2, no. 1, pp.
49-62.
Squire, K.D., Barnett, M., Grant, J.M. and Higginbotham, T. (2004) “Electromagnetism supercharged!: learning physics with
th
digital simulation games”, in Proceedings of the 6 international conference on Learning sciences, ser. ICLS ’04,
International Society of the Learning Sciences, pp. 513–520.
Suchman, E., Uchiyama, K., Smith, R. and Bender, K. (2006) “Evaluating the impact of a classroom response system in a
microbiology course”, Microbiology Education, vol. 7, p. 3.
Swacha, J. and Baszuro, P. (2013) Gamification-based e-learning Platform for Computer Programming Education.
Proceedings of the 10th IFIP World Conference on Computers in Education, July 1-7 2013, Torun, Poland, pp.122-130.
[Online], Available: http://wcce2013.umk.pl/publications/v1/V1.14_125-Swacha-fullR-FPR.pdf [1 Feb 2016].
Wigfield, A., Guthrie, J.T., Tonks, S. and Perencevich, K.C. (2004) “Children’s motivation for reading: Domain specificity and
instructional influences”, Journal of Educational Research, vol. 97, pp. 299-309.
Wimmer, G.E., Braun, E.K., Daw, N.D. and Shohamy, D. (2014) “Episodic Memory Encoding Interferes with Reward Learning
and Decreases Striatal Prediction Errors”, The Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 45, pp. 14901-14912.
Winslow, L.E. (1996) “Programming pedagogy – a psychological overview”, SIGCSE Bulletin, vol. 28, pp. 17-22.
Wit, E. (2003) “Who wants to be. . . the use of a personal response system in statistics teaching”, MSOR Connections, vol. 3,
no. 2, pp. 14–20.

www.ejel.org 109 ISSN 1479-439X

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016

Zaha, A., Nichols, J. and Deichman, A. (2014) “Gaming and Gamification in Education (K-12)”, Emerging Technologies for
Education Change (EDPE640) – Gaming Newsletter, [Online], Available:
https://edpe640.wikispaces.com/file/view/EDPE640%20-%20Gaming%20Newsletter.pdf/530585356/EDPE640%20-
%20Gaming%20Newsletter.pdf [10 Dec 2015].
Zhang, P. (2008) “Motivational Affordances: Reasons for ICT Design and Use”, Communications of the ACM, vol. 51, no. 11,
pp. 145-147.

www.ejel.org 110 ©ACPIL