Neutral Geometry: 1 Geometry Without Parallel Axiom
Neutral Geometry: 1 Geometry Without Parallel Axiom
l
A’ P A R
Theorem 1.1 (Alternate Interior Angle Theorem). If two distinct lines cut by a
transversal have a pair of congruent alternate interior angles, then the two lines are par-
allel.
Proof. Let l, m be two lines cut by a transversal t such that ∠AP Q ∼ = ∠B 0 QP ; see Figure 1.
We need to show that l, m do not meet. Suppose they meet at a point R, say, on the side
of A, B bounded by t. Draw a point R0 on the ray r(Q, B 0 ) so that QR0 ∼ = P R. Then
∼ 0 ∼ 0
∆QP R = ∆P QR by SAS. Thus ∠P QR = ∠QP R , i.e., ∠BQP = ∠R P Q. ∼ 0
Corollary 1.2. Tow distinct lines perpendicular to a common line are parallel. In particular,
there is exactly one line through a point P perpendicular to a given line l.
Proof. Let l, m be two distinct lines perpendicular to a common line t. If l, m are cut by t at
two distinct points P, Q respectively, then all interior angles are right angles. Hence they are
congruent by Right Angle Congruence Theorem. In particular, the alternate interior angles
1
are congruent. So l, m are parallel by Alternate Interior Angle Theorem 1.1. If l, m are cut
by t at the same point, we must have l = m, since all right angles are congruent and the two
lines perpendicular to t must be the same.
In the case that P is not on the line l, suppose there are two lines m, n perpendicular to
l and both pass through P . Then m, n are parallel by Alternate Interior Angle Theorem 1.1.
This is contradictory to the fact that they meet at P . In the case that P is on l, the
perpendicular line to l through P is unique because all right angles are congruent and two
perpendicular lines must be the same.
Corollary 1.3. Through a point P not on a line l there exists at least one line m parallel
to l.
Proof. Through the point P not on line l there is a unique line m perpendicular to l. Through
P there is a unique line n perpendicular to m. The line m cut both lines l, n and all interior
angles are right angles, hence they are congruent. Of course, the alternate interior angles
are congruent. So l, n are parallel by Alternate Interior Angle Theorem.
Warning. Uniqueness of perpendicular line does not imply the uniqueness of parallel line.
Recall the exterior angle of a triangle and its remote exterior angles.
Theorem 1.4 (Exterior Angle Theorem). An exterior angle of a triangle is greater than
each of its remote interior angles.
Proof. Given a triangle ∆ABC and its exterior angle ∠BCD at vertex C. See Figure 2. We
show ∠B < ∠BCD first. Suppose ∠ABC ∼ = ∠BCD. Then lines AB, AC are parallel (since
alternate interior angles are congruent). This is impossible.
B
A D
G C
E
Suppose ∠ABC > ∠BCD. Take an interior point F of ∠ABC such that ∠F BC ∼ =
∠BCD. Then lines BF , CD are parallel (since alternate interior angles are congruent).
However, BF meets AC at G between A and C by Between-Cross Lemma. Since AC is
part of line CD, this is contradictory to that BF , CD are parallel. Hence we must have
∠ABC < ∠BCD.
Likewise, the exterior angle ∠ACE > ∠BAC. Since ∠ACE ∼ = ∠BCD as opposite
angles, we have ∠BCD > ∠BAC by linear order property of angles.
Proposition 1.5 (Side-angle-angle criterion) (SAA). Given triangles ∆ABC and ∆A0 B 0 C 0 .
If AB ∼
= A0 B 0 , ∠BAC ∼
= ∠B 0 A0 C 0 , and ∠ACB ∼
= ∠A0 C 0 B 0 , then ∆ABC ∼
= ∆A0 B 0 C 0 .
Proof. Suppose ∠ABC > ∠A0 B 0 C 0 . Pick an interior point D of ∠ABC such that ∠ABD ∼ =
0 0 0
∠A B C . The line BD meets AC at E between A and C by Between-Cross Lemma. Then
∆ABE ∼ = ∆A0 B 0 C 0 by ASA. Thus ∠AEB ∼ = ∠A0 C 0 B 0 . Since ∠A0 C 0 B 0 ∼
= ∠ACB, then
∼
∠AEB = ∠ACB. Note that ∠AEB is an exterior angle of ∆BCE at E. Then ∠AEB >
∠ECB, i.e., ∠AEB > ∠ACB by Exterior Angle Theorem. This is a contradiction.
Suppose ∠ABC < ∠A0 B 0 C 0 . A similar argument leads to a contradiction.
2
B B’
A E C A’ C’
A D C
Proposition 1.6. Given right triangles ∆ABC and ∆A0 B 0 C 0 with right angles ∠C and ∠C 0 .
If AB ∼
= A0 B 0 and BC ∼
= B 0 C 0 , then ∆ABC ∼
= ∆A0 B 0 C 0 .
Proof. Suppose AC > A0 C 0 . Let E be a point between A and C such that EC ∼= A0 C 0 . See
Figure 5. Then ∆EBC ∼ = ∆A B C by SAS. Subsequently, EB ∼
0 0 0
= AB ∼
0 0
= AB. This means
∼
that ∆BAE is an isosceles triangle. Hence ∠EAB = ∠AEB. Now Exterior Angle Theorem
B B’
A E C D A’ C’
i.e., ∠AEB > ∠AEB, which is a contradiction. Likewise, AC < A0 C 0 leads to a similar
contradiction. We then have AC ∼
= A0 C 0 . Hence ∆ABC ∼
= ∆A0 B 0 C 0 by SAS.
A midpoint of a segment AB is a point P between A and B such that AP ∼
= P B. It is
easy to see that the midpoint of a segment is unique if it exists.
3
P
B E
A C D
Proof. Given a triangle ∆ABC. We plan to find the midpoint of segment BC. Extend
AC to a point D such that A ∗ C ∗ D. Then A, D are on opposite sides of line BC. Since
∠DCB > ∠ABC by Exterior Angle Theorem, there exists a unique ray r(C, P ) between
rays r(C, B), r(C, D) such that ∠ABC ∼ = ∠BCP . Note that P, D are on the same side of
BC. Mark the unique point E on r(C, P ) such that AB ∼ = CE by Congruence Axiom 1.
Note that D, E, P are the same side BC. Since A, D are on opposite sides of BC, then A, E
are on opposite sides of BC. So line BC meets the segment AE at a point F between A
and E. To see that F is between B and C, it suffices to show that E ∈ ˚ ∠BAC because of
Crossbar Theorem. In fact, E, P, B are on the same side of AC. Since ∠ABC ∼ = ∠BCE,
line CE is parallel to AB; of course, E, P, C are the same side of AB. Then E ∈ ˚
∠BAC.
∼ ∼ ∼
Now we have AB = EC, ∠ABC = ∠ECB, and ∠AF B = EF C (opposite angles), then
∆ABF ∼ = ECF by SAA. Hence BF ∼ = CF . The uniqueness is trivial.
Proposition 1.8 (Bisector Theorem). (a) Every angle has a unique bisector. (b) Every
segment has a unique perpendicular bisector.
Proof. (a) Given an angle ∠AOB with OA ∼ = OB. Draw the segment AB, find the midpoint
P of AB, and draw segment OP . Then ∆OP A ∼ = ∆OP B by SSS. Hence ∠AOP ∼ = ∠BOP .
So ray r(O, P ) is a bisector of ∠AOB. The uniqueness is trivial.
(b) Trivial.
Proposition 1.9 (Angle-opposite-side relation). For any triangle ∆ABC, we have
∠A > ∠B if and only if BC > AC.
A D B
Proof. “⇐” (sufficiency): Find bisector r(C, P ) of ∠C, which meets AB at D between A
and B. Lay off CA on CB to have segment CE ∼ = CA. Then ∆ACD ∼ = ∆ECD by SAS.
∼
So ∠A = ∠CED. Note that ∠CED > ∠B by Exterior Angle Theorem for ∆BDE. Hence
∠A > ∠B.
“⇒” (necessity): If BC ∼
= AC, then ∆ABC is an isosceles triangle. So ∠A ∼
= ∠B, which
is contradictory to ∠A > ∠B. If BC < AC, then ∠B > ∠A, which is contradictory to
∠A > ∠B. Hence BC > AC by trichotomy of segments.
4
Corollary 1.10. (a) If ∠Q is a right angle for a triangle ∆P QR, then ∠P < ∠Q, ∠R < ∠Q.
(b) Given a point P not on a line l, let Q be the foot of the perpendicular line through
P . Then P Q < P R for all points R on l other than Q.
l
A R Q B
Proof. Mark two points A, B on line l such that A ∗ R ∗ Q ∗ B. Then ∠BQP > ∠QRP
by Exterior Angle Theorem for ∆RQP . Since ∠BQP ∼ = ∠RQP , then ∠QRP < ∠RQP .
Subsequently, P Q < P R by the angle-opposite-side relation for triangle ∆RQP .
5
Theorem 2.1. Fix a segment OI, called unit segment. There exists a unique mapping
from the set of all segments to the set R+ of positive real numbers, AB 7→ |AB|, satisfying
the properties:
(a) |OI| = 1.
(b) |AB| = |CD| if and only if AB ∼ = CD.
(c) A ∗ B ∗ C if and only if |AC| = |AB| + |BC|.
(d) |AB| < |CD| if and only if AB < CD.
(e) For each positive real number a, there exists a segment AB such that |AB| = a.
Proof. (Sketch) Fix open ray r̊(O, I). Each segment is congruent to a segment OA with
unique point A ∈ r̊(O, I). It suffices to assign for each point A ∈ r̊(O, I) a positive real
number. The right endpoints of the segments 2p q · OI are assigned to numbers 2p q, known
as dyatic rational numbers. If Archimedes’ axiom is satisfied, then every point in r̊(O, I)
has a decimal expression with base 2, and the point is assigned to the real number with
decimal expression.
Given a real number a > 0. Let Σ1 := {P ∈ r̊(O, I) : |OQ| ≤ a} and Σ2 := r̊(O, I) r Σ1 .
Then {Σ1 , Σ2 } is a Dedekind cut of r̊(O, I). There exists a unique Q such that Σ1 = [O, Q]
and Σ2 = (Q, ·). We must have |OQ| = a.
Definition 1. (a) Two angles ∠AOB and ∠A0 O0 B 0 are said to be addable if there exists
an angle ∠AOC such that B ∈ ˚ ∠AOC and ∠BOC ∼ = ∠A0 O0 B 0 . We define the partial
addition
∠AOB + ∠B 0 O0 C 0 := ∠AOC.
(b) An half-plane is also known as a flat angle. We assume that all flat angles are
congruent.
Theorem 2.2 (Degree measure of angles). There exists a unique mapping from the set of
all angles to the interval (0, 180) of real numbers, ∠A 7→ ∠A◦ , satisfying the properties:
(a) ∠A◦ = 90◦ if ∠A is a right angle.
(b) ∠A◦ = ∠B ◦ if and only if ∠A ∼ = ∠B.
(c) If h(O, B) is contained in ∠o AOC, then ∠AOC ◦ = ∠AOB ◦ + ∠BOC ◦ .
(d) ∠A◦ < ∠B ◦ if and only if ∠A < ∠B.
(e) If ∠A, ∠B are complementary, then ∠A◦ + ∠B ◦ = 180◦ .
(f ) For each positive real number a ∈ (0, 180), there exists an angle ∠AOB such that
∠AOB ◦ = 180◦ .
Proof. (Sketch) Fix ray r(O, A) and consider angles ∠AOB. Since each angle can be bisected,
we denote by 12 · ∠AOB the angle ∠AOP , where r(O, P ) is the bisector of ∠AOB. We then
have angles µ µ µ ¶¶¶
1 1 1 1
· ∠AOB := · · · · · · ∠AOB , k ≥ 1.
2k 2 2 2
| {z }
k
6
Now we fix a right angle ∠ROT . Assign the angles 2−p q ∠ROT to the real numbers
90 · 2−p q, that is,
2−p q ∠ROT 7→ (2−p q ∠ROT )◦ = 90 · 2−p q ◦ .
Dedekind’s axiom ensures that the assignment can be extended into a bijection from angle
congruence classes onto the open interval (0, 180) of real numbers expressed in decimal form
of base 2, satisfying (a)-(f). For instance, for part (e) about complementary angles ∠A, ∠B,
we see that 12 ∠A + 21 ∠B is a right angle so that
µ ¶◦
1 1
∠A + ∠B = 90◦ .
2 2
Corollary 2.3 (Consecutive Interior Angle Theorem). If two distinct lines cut by a
transversal have a pair of consecutive interior angles whose angle sum is a flat angle, then
the two lines are parallel.
Proof. We assume in Figure 1 that ∠AP Q + ∠BQP is congruent to a flat angle. Since
∠B 0 QP + ∠BQP is congruent is a flat angle, we see that ∠AP Q ∼
= ∠B 0 QP . So mkl.
Proposition 2.4 (Triangle inequality). Let A, B, C be three distinct non-collinear points.
Then
|AC| < |AB| + |BC|.
Proof. There exists a unique point D such that A ∗ B ∗ D and BD ∼
= BC by Congruence
∼
Axiom 1. See Figure 9. Then ∠BCD = BDC because of the isosceles triangle ∆BCD.
Since ∠ACD > ∠BCD ∼ = ∠BDC, we have ∠ACD > ∠BDC = ∠ADC. Hence AD > AC
by the angle-opposite-side relation. Since AD ∼
= AB + BC, we obtain AB + BC > AC.
Subsequently, |AB| + |BC| > |AC| by measure of segments.
D
B
A C
B
D
B’
E
P F
A C A’ C’
7
Proof. “⇒”: Let ∠BAC > ∠B 0 A0 C 0 . Draw a ray r(A, P ) between r(A, B) and r(A, C) such
that ∠BAP ∼ = ∠B 0 A0 C 0 . Let D be a point on r(A, P ) such that AD ∼ = A0 C 0 , and E the
intersection of r(A, P ) and BC such that B ∗ E ∗ C. Draw the angle bisector of ∠CAD and
its intersection with CE at F between C and E. Then ∆ACF ∼ = ∆ADF by SAS. Hence
FC ∼ = F D. Note that BF + F D > BD by triangle inequality. Then BF + F C > BD. Since
∼ 0 0 ∼
BF + F C = BC and B C = BD. We obtain BC > B C . 0 0
just proved previously, which is also a contradiction. Hence we have ∠BAC > ∠B 0 A0 C 0 by
trichotomy of angles.
3 Saccheri-Legendre theorem
Lemma 2. Given a triangle ∆ABC. Let D be the midpoint of BC and E a point on the
ray r(A, D) such that DE ∼
= AD and A ∗ D ∗ E. Draw the segment CE. Then
(a) The angle sum of ∆AEC equals the angle sum of ∆ABC.
(b) Either ∠EAC ≤ 12 ∠BAC or ∠AEC ≤ 12 ∠BAC.
B E
A C
8
Corollary 3.2. The sum of two angles of a triangle is less than or equal to its remote
exterior angle.
Proof. Given a triangle ∆ABC. Let ext (∠C) denote the exterior angle of ∆ABC at C.
Then
∠A + ∠B + ∠C ≤ 108◦ = ∠C + ext (∠C).
So ∠A + ∠B ≤ ext (∠C).
¤̊ABCD := ˚
∠ABC ∩ ˚
∠BCD ∩ ˚
∠CDA ∩ ˚
∠DAB,
Proof. “⇐:” Take a point P ∈ ¤̊ABCD. Then C, P are the on the same side of AB; D, P
are the on the same side of AB. So C, D are the same side of AB. Likewise, A, B are the
same side of CD. Hence ¤ABCD is convex by definition.
“⇒:” Let A, B be on the same side of CD, and C, D be on the same side of AB. Draw
segment AC to have triangles ∆ABC and ∆CDA. Then either B, D are on opposite sides
of AC or B, D are on the same side of AC.
Case 1. Points B, D are on opposite sides of CA. Then CA meets BD at a point P such
that B ∗ P ∗ D. There are three subcases.
Subcase 1.1. C ∗ P ∗ A. This means that AC intersects BD at P such that A ∗ P ∗ C
and B ∗ P ∗ D. Since P ∈ AC, we have P ∈ ˚ ∠ABC and P ∈ ˚ ∠CDA. Since P ∈ BD, we
˚ ˚
have P ∈ ∠DAB and P ∈ ∠BCD. Hence P ∈ ¤̊ABCD. See the left of Figure 12.
Subcase 1.2. P ∗ C ∗ A. Then P ∈ ˚ ∠DAB by Crossbar Theorem. Thus C ∈ ∆DAB.˚
Hence ray r(D, C) intersects AB at Q such that A ∗ Q ∗ B. This is contradictory to that
A, B are on the same side of CD. See the middle of Figure 12.
Subcase 1.3. C ∗ A ∗ P . Then P ∈ ˚ ∠BCD by Crossbar Theorem. Thus A ∈ ∆BCD.˚
Hence ray r(B, A) intersects CD at Q such that C ∗ Q ∗ D. This is contradictory to that
C, D are on the same side of AB. See the right of Figure 12.
C D D C
P P C
A
D
P
B A B A B
Case 2. Points B, D are on the same side of AC. Then either r(A, D) is between r(A, B)
and r(A, C), or r(A, B) is between r(A, D) and r(A, C).
9
Subcase 2.1. Ray r(A, D) is between r(A, B) and r(A, C). Then r(A, D) meets BC at a
point Q such that B ∗ Q ∗ C. If D ∗ Q ∗ A, then AD meets BC at Q, which is contradictory to
definition of quadrilateral ¤ABCD. See the left of Figure 13. If Q∗ D ∗ A, then D ∈ ˚
∠BAC.
Thus r(C, D) meets AB, which is contradictory to that A, B are on the same side of CD.
See the moddle of Figure 13.
C C C
D Q B
Q Q
D
B A B A D A
Subcase 2.2. Ray r(A, B) is between r(A, D) and r(A, C). Then r(A, B) meets CD at a
point Q such that C ∗ Q ∗ D. Then C, D are on opposite sides of AB, contradictory to that
C, D are on the same side of AB. See the right of Figure 13.
Proposition 3.3. Degree measure of angle sum of convex quadrilateral is at most 360◦ .
Proof. Given a convex quadrilateral ¤ABCD and consider triangles ∆ABC and ∆CDA by
drawing segment AC. We have ∠BCA + ∠ACD ∼ = ∠BCD, ∠BAC + ∠CAD ∼ = ∠BAD.
Then the angle sum of ¤ABCD is congruent to the addition of the angle sum of ∆ABC and
the angle sum of ∆CDA. Hence the angle sum of ¤ABCD is less than or equal to 360◦ .
Proposition 4.1 (Additivity of angle defect). Given a triangle ∆ABC and point D
between A and B on segment AB. Draw segment CD to have triangles ∆ACD and ∆BCD.
Then
δABC = δACD + δBCD.
Consequently, the angle sum of ∆ABC is equal to 180◦ if and only if the angle sums of both
triangles ∆ACD and ∆BCD are equal to 180◦ .
A D B
Proof. Trivial.
10
Theorem 4.2 (Once-Then-All Theorem). If there is one triangle whose angle sum is
180◦ , then all triangles have angle sum equal to 180◦ . This can be split into the following
three statements.
(a) If there exists a triangle whose angle sum is 180◦ , then there exists a rectangle.
(b) If there exists a rectangle, then every right triangle has angle sum equal to 180◦ .
(c) If all right triangles have angle sum equal to 180◦ , then every triangle has angle sum
equal to 180◦ .
Proof. Let ∆ABC be a triangle. Then ∆ABC has at least two acute angles, say, ∠A and
∠B. There exists a unique line CD perpendicular to AB, meeting AB at D. If D ∗ A ∗ B,
then ∠BAC > ∠ADC = right angle, which is a contradiction. Likewise, A ∗ B ∗ D is
impossible. Then we must have A ∗ D ∗ B. Thus ∆ACD and ∆BCD are right triangles.
(a) Let ∆ABC have angle sum equal to 180◦ , i.e., its angle defect is zero. Then both
right triangles ∆ACD and ∆BCD have angle sum equal 180◦ . We construct a rectangle
¤BDCE from the right triangle ∆BCD.
C C E
P
D A B A D B
Draw ray r(C, P ) to be such that ∠BCP ∼ = ∠CBD. Mark a point on r(C, P ) such that
CE ∼ = DB. Then ∆CBD ∼ = ∆BCE by SAS. Thus ∠BCD ∼ = ∠CBE, ∠BEC ∼ = ∠CDB, so
∠BEC is a right angle. Since δCBD = 0, so is δBCE. Moreover, ∠DCB+∠BCE ∼ = ∠DCE
is a right angle. Hence the quadrilateral ¤BDCE is a rectangle.
(b) Given an arbitrary right triangle ∆A0 B 0 C 0 . It is easy to see that a rectangle can be
doubled in either side. So we may assume that there exists a rectangle ¤ABCD such that
AB > A0 B 0 and CB > C 0 B 0 . See Figure 16. Clearly, ∆ABC and ∆ADC are right triangles,
having zero angle defect. Mark points P on AB and Q on BC such that A ∗ P ∗ B, C ∗ Q ∗ B,
and P B ∼ = A0 B 0 , QB ∼
= C 0 B 0 . Then ∆P BQ ∼= ∆A0 B 0 C 0 . Now the triangle ∆P BC has
zero angle defect by additivity. Then ∆P BQ has zero angle defect by additivity again. So
∆A0 B 0 C 0 has zero angle defect.
D C
Q C’
A P B A’ B’
(c) Now for an arbitrary triangle ∆ABC, we may assume that ∠A and ∠B are acute.
Then ∆ABC can be divided into two right triangles ∆ACD and ∆BCD. Then ∆ACD and
∆BCD have zero angle defect. So is ∆ABC by additivity of angle defect. Hence ∆ABC
has angle sum of degree measures equal to 180◦ .
Corollary 4.3. If a triangle has positive angle defect, then all triangles have positive angle
defect.
Proof. Trivial.
11
5 Equivalence of Parallel Postulates
Unique Parallel Line Postulate (UPLP). Through a point P not on a line l there exists
exactly one line m parallel to l.
Euclid’s Postulate V (EPV). If two distinct lines l, m intersect a transversal t in such a
way that the sum of the interior angles on one side of t is less than a flat angle, then l, m
meet on the same side of t having the two interior angles.
Hilbert’s Axiom of Parallelism (HAP). Through a point P not on a line l there exists
at most one line m parallel to l.
Theorem 5.1. Euclid’s Postulate V ⇔ Hilbert’s Axiom of Parallelism.
l
A’
t
P
A
R’
m
B’ Q B
P’
Proof. Given distinct lines l, m, t such that l, t meet at P and m, t meet at Q. Mark point
A on l and point B on m on the same side of t. Mark point A0 on l and B 0 on m such
that A0 ∗ P ∗ A and B 0 ∗ Q ∗ B. Draw ray r(Q, R0 ) on open half-pane H̊(t, B 0 ) such that
∠R0 QP ∼= ∠AP Q. Extend r(Q, R0 ) to line m0 . Then m0 is parallel to l.
“⇒:” Let m be an arbitrary line through Q and parallel to l. EPV implies
12
Proof. (a) There exists a line m through P and parallel to l, having congruent alternate
interior angles. Then every line parallel to l must be this line m. So the alternate interior
angles are congruent.
(b) It follows from (a) and the fact that opposite angles are congruent.
(c) It follows from the fact that the sum of supplementary angles is 180◦ .
(d) Extend the segment AC to E and draw ray r(C, D) such that ∠BCD ∼ = ∠B. Then
∼
r(C, D) is parallel to AB. Thus ∠DCE = ∠A. Hence ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = ∠DCE ◦ +
◦ ◦ ◦
A B E
Theorem 5.3. Angle sum of a triangle equal to 180◦ ⇒ Hilbert’s axiom of parallelism.
Proof. Given a line l and point P not on l. Let t be the unique line through P and perpen-
dicular to l, meeting l at Q. Through P there is a unique line m perpendicular to t. Then
m is parallel to l. Let n be an arbitrary line through P and parallel to l, but distinct from
m. Pick a point R on m such that n intersects the interior of ∠QP R. Fix a point S on n
such that S ∈ ˚∠QP Y . Then angle ∠RP S is acute. See Figure 19.
t
P R Y
m
Z
X n
l
Q
Let X be a point on the open ray r̊(P, S). Drop perpendicular XY to m with foot Y
on m, and perpendicular XZ to t with foot Z on t. Note that l, m, XZ are parallel to each
other. So X, Z are on the same side of lines l, m respectively. We then have P ∗ Z ∗ Q.
Analogously, lines t, XY are parallel to each other. Then X, Y are on the same side of t and
P, Z are on the same side of XY . Hence the quadrilateral ¤P Y XZ is convex.
Note that ∠XZP , ∠ZP Y , ∠P Y X are right angles. Since every triangle has angle sum
equal to 180◦ , then ∠ZP X + ∠P XZ is a right angle. Since ∠ZP X + ∠XP Y is a right angle,
we see that ∠XP Y ∼ = ∠P XZ. Thus ∆P XY ∼ = ∆XP Z by SAA. Subsequently, P Z ∼ = XY .
Now we can take X to be such that XY > P Q by Aristotle’s axiom. Then P Z > P Q,
which is impossible. (Aristotle’s axiom can be easily followed from Archimedes’ axiom when
rectangle exists. However, it is no need to assume the existence of rectangle to obtain
Aristotle’s axiom from Archimedes’ axiom.)
13
6 Saccheri quadrilaterals and Lambert quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is said to be a Saccheri quadrilateral if its two base angles are right angles
and the base-angle adjacent opposite sides are congruent. For instance, for quadrilateral
¤ABCD with right angles ∠A, ∠B and AD ∼ = BC is a Saccheri quadrilateral.
D C
A B
C
C
E
D E
D
A F B
A B
Proof. (a) “⇐”: Assume AD < BC. Find a point E on BC such that BE ∼ = AD and
B ∗ E ∗ C; see the left of Figure 21. It is clear that B, E, C are on the same side of AD for
BC is parallel to AD. We claim that A, B are on the same side of DC. Suppose it is not
true, i.e., DC meets AB at point F such that A ∗ F ∗ B. Note that C, D, F are collinear.
Then ∠AF D (=∠AF C) is larger than ∠B and ∠BF D > ∠A by Exterior Angle Theorem.
Since ∠A, ∠B are right angles, so the sum of ∠AF D, ∠BF D are not a flat angle, which is
a contradiction.
Now we see that B is in the interior of ∠ADC. Since B ∗ E ∗ C, it follows that E is also
in the interior of ∠ADC. So the ray r(D, E) is between rays r(D, A) and r(D, C). Hence
∠ADE ∼ = ∠BED. Clearly, Exterior Angle Theorem implies
∠D > ∠ADE ∼
= ∠BED > ∠C.
14
“⇒”: Assume ∠C < ∠D. If AD ∼ = BC, then ∠C ∼ = ∠D by Proposition 6.1, which is
contradictory to ∠C < ∠D. If BC < AD, then ∠C > ∠D by the previous argument, which
is a contradictory to ∠C < ∠D. So we must have AD < BC.
(b) Trivial.
Proposition 6.3 (Property of quadrilateral with three right angles). Let ¤ABCD be a
Lambert quadrilateral with right angles ∠A, ∠B, ∠C.
(a) Then ∠D is never obtuse.
(b) If ∠D is a right angle, then the opposite sides of ¤ABCD are congruent.
(c) If ∠D is acute, then each side adjacent to ∠D is greater than its opposite side.
Proof. Assume that AB, CD and AD, BC are two pairs of opposite sides of ¤ABCD.
(a) Trivial because Lambert quadrilateral is convex and its angle sum is less than or
equal to 360◦ .
(b) The quadrilateral ¤ABCD is a rectangle. Then AD ∼ = BC and AB ∼ = CD by the
property of quadrilateral with two adjacent right angles.
(c) Then ∠D < ∠A and ∠D < ∠C. Hence AB < DC and CB < DA by the property of
quadrilateral with two adjacent right angles.
Lemma 7. Given a right triangle ∆OXY such that ∠Y is a right angle and ∠O is acute.
Extend OX to X 0 such that O ∗ X ∗ X 0 and OX ∼ = XX 0 , extend Y X to Z such that Y ∗ X ∗ Z
and X 0 Z is perpendicular to XY , and extend OY to Y 0 such that O ∗ Y ∗ Y 0 and X 0 Y 0 is
perpendicular to OY . See Figure 22. Then
(a) X 0 Y 0 is at least a double of XY , i.e., X 0 Y 0 ≥ 2 · XY .
(b) OY 0 is at most a double of OY , i.e., OY 0 ≤ 2 · OY .
Z X’
O Y Y’
Proof. Since XO ∼ = XX 0 , ∠XY O ∼ = ∠XZX 0 = right angle, and ∠OXY ∼ = ∠X 0 XZ, then
∆OY X ∼ = ∆X XZ by SAA. So XY ∼
0
= XZ and X Z ∼ 0
= OY . Note that ¤Y Y 0 X 0 Z is
a Lambert quadrilateral with right angles ∠Y 0 Y Z, ∠Y Y 0 X 0 , ∠Y ZX 0 . We have |X 0 Y 0 | ≥
|ZY | = 2|XY | and |Y Y 0 | ≤ |ZX 0 | = |OY | by the property of quadrilateral with three right
angles. Hence |X 0 Y 0 | ≥ 2|XY | and |OY 0 | ≤ 2|OY |.
Archimedes’ axiom implies Aristotle’s axiom. Given an acute angle ∠XOY . For an
arbitrary segment AB, there exists a point Y 0 on ray r(O, Y ) such that X 0 Y 0 > AB, where
X 0 Y 0 is perpendicular to OY with foot Y 0 on ray r(O, Y ).
Proof. Note that there exists a positive integer n such that 2n · XY > AB by Archimedes’s
axiom. Let X1 be a point on r(O, X) such that OX1 ∼ = 2 · OX, and let X1 Y1 be a segment
perpendicular to OY with foot Y1 on OY . Then |X1 Y1 | ≥ 2|XY |. Analogously, let X2 be a
point on r(O, X) such that OX2 ∼ = 2 · OX1 , and let X2 Y2 be the segment perpendicular to
OY with foot of X2 on OY . Then |X2 Y2 | ≥ 2|X1 Y1 | ≥ 22 · |XY |. Continue this procedure,
15
X2
X1
X
O Y Y1 Y2
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