Grammar Reference 1

Nouns – Plurals
1. If the noun is regular, we add -s.
e.g. book - books, table – tables, car - cars, chair – chairs

2. If the noun ends in -s, -sh, -ch, -x, -z, -o, we add -es
e.g. kiss - kisses, cargo - cargoes, mosquito - mosquitoes, quiz - quizzes, watch -
watches, match - matches, box - boxes, mesh - meshes, dish - dishes, wish - wishes.

3. Some words that end in -o take the regular -s not -es. These words are usually shortened
words or foreign words.
e.g. piano - pianos, kangaroo - kangaroos .

4. If a noun ends in -f or -fe, we often drop the -f, -fe and add -ves.
e.g. calf - calves, loaf - loaves, self - selves, leaf - leaves, half - halves, wolf - wolves

5. Some words that end in -f or -fe, take the regular -s.

e.g. cliff - cliffs, roof - roofs, handkerchief - handkerchiefs, belief - beliefs, safe - safes

6. Some words that end in -f or -fe, take -s and -ves.

e.g. hoof - hoofs/hooves, scarf - scarfs/scarves, dwarf - dwarfs/dwarves

7. If a noun ends in a vowel (a,e,I,o,u)+y, the spelling is regular.

e.g. key - keys, joy - joys,

8. If a noun ends in a consonant + y, we drop the -y and add -ies.

e.g. baby - babies, family - families, country - countries
Grammar Reference 2

Present States and Actions

Present simple

Question

Where do I
We
You live?
They
Where does He
She live?
It

Positive and Negative

I
You work
They don’t work hard
He
She works
It doesn’t work hard

The present simple is one of the most common tenses in English. It can refer to the present
(now), but it can also refer to all time and regular time (permanent situations and habits).

e.g. I want a cup of tea = now

The sun rises in the east. = all time
I play football on Sundays morning. = regular time

The present simple is used:

1. To express an action that happens again, that is a habit.

e.g. I go to work by bus.
Margaret smokes ten cigarettes a day.
I wash my hair twice a week.

2. To express a fact this is always true.

e.g. Andre comes from Kenya.
Some birds fly south in the winter.
Alice has brown eyes.
3. To express a fact which stays at same for a long time (a state)
e.g. Paul works in a bank.
Abdala lives in a flat near the centre of town.
I prefer coffee to tea.
Grammar Reference 3

Conditionals

USE

• We use if to show that one action depends on a condition or another action.

e.g. If it rains, we get wet.

• We can join two simple sentences with if. Then we have two clauses. The if clause
and the main clause.
e.g. I will tell you if I see him.

• We can put the if clause first or second. If it comes first, there is comma after it.
e.g. you can go now if you want to → If you want to, you can go now.

• To make a question by using the question form of the verb in the main clause.
e.g. If it is hot, will they go swimming?
Would you buy a house if you were rich?

General Truth conditionals

Form
We use the present simple or progressive in both the if clause and the main clause.

If + present + present
If you heat ice it melts.

Use
1. For things that are generally true. Example: natural laws and scientific facts.
e.g. you feel cold if the sun does not shine.
If it rains in the desert, it often floods.

2. For actions or states that happen often, regularly. In sentences like this, if really
means every time or whenever.
e.g. if you do not study hard, you do not pass the class.

Future conditionals (Type 1)

We usually use the present simple or progressive (continuous) or the present perfect in the
if clause and the future with will in the main clause.
e.g. if you leave money here, somebody will steal it.
If it rain now, we will get wet.

This type of conditional is used to talk about something that may happen in the future, it is
possible or very probable.

(Type 2)
Form
We use the past simple or progressive in the if clause and would + the verb infinitive in the
main clause.

If + past would + verb infinitive

If you climbed that mountain you would be very tired.

We can also use modal verbs in the conditional clauses

e.g. We could buy that motorbike if we had enough money.

This type of conditional is used for situations we imagine in the present or future, and for
the result we imagine, for situations which are possible, to give or ask for advice, or say
what someone should do. We can also use were or was in these sentences.

Examples

I would go on holiday, if I had time.

If they sang well they would be famous.

If my dog had six legs, it would run fast.

If I were you, I would buy that suit.

Would you do that if you were me?

If Sofia was more friendly, she would have many friends

(Type 3)
Form
We use the past perfect simple or progressive in the if clause and the perfect conditional
would have + past participle in the main clause.

If + past perfect + would have + verb infinitive

If + you had met George, you would have liked him

This type of conditional is used for actions that have never happened. This means that we
express what the results would have been if the action had happened.
e.g. If I had listened to my mother, I would not have made this mistake.
Grammar Reference 4

State Verbs

1. There are certain groups of verbs that are usually used in the Present Simple. This is
because their meanings are related to states or conditions which are facts and not
activities. This is a feature of the use of the Present Simple. The group of verbs are:

believe, think, understand, suppose, expect, agree, doubt, know, remember, forget,
mean, imagine, realize, deserve, prefer.

e.g. I believe you.

Do you understand?
I know her face, but I forget her name.

Verbs of emotions and feelings

like, love, hate, care, hope, wish, want, admit

e.g. I like black coffee.

Do you want to go out?
I don’t care.

Verbs of having and being

belong, own, have, possess, contain, cost, seem, appear, need, depend on, weigh, come
from, resemble.

e.g. This book belongs to Eduardo Boaventura.

How much does it cost?
He has a lot of money.

Verbs of the senses

look, hear, taste, smell, feel

e.g. The food smells good.

When the subject is a person, we often use can.

e.g. Can you see that bird.
Can you smell something burning?
I can hear someone singing.

2. Some of these verbs can be used in the Present Continuous, but with a change of
meaning. In the Continuous, the verb expresses an activity, not a state.
e.g. I think you’re right. (=opinion)
We’re thinking of going to the cinema. (=mental activity)
He has a lot of money. (=possession)
Ancha is having a bath. (=activity)
I see what you mean. (=understand)
Are you seeing João tomorrow? (=activity)
The soup tastes awful. (=state)
I’m tasting the soup to see if it needs salt. (=activity)
Grammar Reference 5

Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb used with one or two particles or prepositions, such as up, down,
in, on, out, off, etc.

e.g. Antonio put down the book .

I am looking forward to seeing you again

Some phrasal verbs do not take an object.

e.g. my mother stood up and said hello to my brother.

Come on, we are going to be late for the meeting.
Look out! There is a car coming.

Some phrasal verbs which take an object can separate: if the object is a noun, we can put it
before or after the particle.

e.g. Please bring back the books or

Please bring the books back.

Some phrasal verbs take an object but cannot separate the verb from the particle.

e.g. The twins look after my dog.

We use phrasal verbs a great deal when we speak, instead of more formal/sounding words
with the same meaning. We also use them in informal writing, like letters to friends.

e.g.

Phrasal verb Meaning

Bring back return something

Bring up raise a child
Clear up tidy
Cross out draw a line through
Cut up cut into small pieces
Fill in complete a form
Get back recover something
Give back return something borrowed
Put on start wearing
Put out make a fire stop burning
Take off get undressed
Grammar Reference 6

Past Tenses

The Past Simple

Positive

I
You finished yesterday
He/She/It arrived
We left three weeks
They ago

Negative

I
You finish
He/She/It didn’t arrive
We yesterday
They leave

Question

I
You finish?
Did He/She/It
We enjoy the meal?
You
They

The Past Simple is used:

1. To express a finished action in the past.

e.g. We met in1987.
I went to Nampula last week.
Manuel left two hours ago.

2. To express actions which follow each other in a story.

e.g. Mary walked into the room and stopped . She listened carefully. She heard a
noise coming from behind the curtain. She threw the curtain open, and then she saw...

3. To express a past habit.

e.g. When I was a child, we lived in a small house by the sea. Every day I walked for
metres on the beach with my dog.
This use is often expressed with used to.
e.g. We used to live in a small house... I used to walk metres...
Grammar Reference 7

Past Continuous

We often use the past continuous in sentences together with the Past simple. When this
happens, the Past Continuous refers to longer, ‘background’ activities, whilst the Past
Simple refers to shorter actions that happened in the middle of the longer ones.

Positive and Negative

I
He was
She wasn’t
it working
We
You were
They weren’t

Question

was I
He
She
What It doing?
were We
You
They

The Past continuous is used:

1. To express an activity in progress before, and probably after, a particular time in the
past.
e.g. I walked past your house last night. There was an awful lot of noise.
What were you doing?
At 6.30 this morning, I was having breakfast.

2. To describe a situation or activity during a period in the past.

e.g. Ancha looked lovely. She was wearing a green cotton dress. Her eyes were
shining in the light of candles that were burning nearby.

3. To express an interrupted past action.

e.g. When the phone rang, I was having a bath.
 We were playing volleyball when it started to rain.

4. To express an incomplete activity in the past in other to contrast with the Past Simple
which expresses a completed activity.

e.g. I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn’t finish it)
I watched a film during the flight. (The whole film)

5. The Past Simple is usually used to express a repeated past habit or situation.

e.g. I went out with Mario for years.

But the Past Continuous can be used if the repeated habit becomes a longer ‘setting’ for
something.

e.g. I was going out with Mario when I first met Andre.
Grammar Reference 8

Past Perfect

Perfect means ‘complete before’, so Past Perfect refers to an action in the past which was
completed before another action in the past.

e.g. I didn’t want to go to the cinema with the others because I’d seen the film before.

Positive and Negative

I
You had seen him before
We hadn’t finished work at 6.00.
(etc)

Question

you
he been before?
Where had they
(etc)

The Past Perfect is used to look back to a time in the past and refers to on action that
happened before then.

Examples
o When I got to the party, Peter had gone home.
o Mike had not gone to the cinema with us last night.
o Anna had not been happy since she got a puppy for Christmas.
o We both had liked the book we read last week.
o Look at this new watch! I had got it last Sunday.
o As soon as he had finished his ice/cream, he left.
o I had seen that film before.
Grammar Reference 9

Future Forms

There is no future tense in English as there are in many other languages. However, English
has several forms that can refer to the future. Three of these are will, going to and the
Present Continuous.

e.g. I’ll see you later.

We’re going to see a film tonight. Do you want to come?
I’m seeing the doctor tomorrow evening.

The difference between them is not near or distant future, or about certainty. The speaker
chooses a future form depending on when the decision was taken, and how the speaker sees
the future event.

Positive and Negative

I
He ‘ll help you.
They won't
I’m/I’m not watch the football tonight.
She’s/She isn’t going to
We’re/We are
I’m/I am not
He’s/He isn’t catching the 10.00 train.
You’re/You
aren’t

Question

will you arrive?

What time are you going to
are you meeting the manager?

Note: We avoid saying going to come or going to go

e.g. We are coming tomorrow.
When are you going home?

1. Prediction (will and going to)

will

The most common use of will is an auxiliary verb to show future time. It expresses a
future fact or prediction. It is called the pure future or the Future Simple.
 e.g. We’ll be away for two weeks.
Our love will last forever.

going to

going to can also express a prediction, especially, when it is based on a present fact.
There is evidence now that something is certain to happen.

e.g. Maria is going to have a baby. (We can see she’s pregnant.)
Ferroviário de Nampula are going to win the match. (It’s four nil, and there’s only
five minutes left.)

Sometimes there is no difference between will and going to.

will ruin
This government the country with
its economy policies.
is going to ruin

2. Decision and intension (will and going to)

Will is also used as a modal auxiliary verb to express a decision, intention or offer made
at the moment of speaking.

e.g. I’ll have the steak, please.

I’ll see you tomorrow. Bye!
Give me a ring some time. We’ll go out for a drink.
Grammar Reference 10

Reported Speech
There are two ways to say what someone has said: direct and reported speech.

Direct Speech
 I am one of your best friend, Josefina said.
 They want you to be their godfather and godmother, Ricardo said.

Reported speech
 Jopsefina said she was one of my best friends.
 Ricardo said they wanted us to be their godfather and godmother.

Form
Reported speech reports what someone has said. Usually, this was in the past, so the
reporting verb (say) and the reported verb (be) are in the past.
Examples

My mother is going away, said Oscar.

↓
 Oscar said that his mother was going away.
 The students told us that their teacher did not come.
 John told Mary that it was cold in there.
 My friends said they would come for the party.

Tenses
If the reporting verb is in the past (and this is very common), this affects most of the
reported verbs and time phrases.

Tenses change as follow

Direct speech reported speech

Present simple past simple

Present progressive past progressive
Past simple past perfect
Past progressive past perfect progressive
Present perfect past perfect
Present perfect progressive past perfect progressive
Future perfect conditional perfect
Future with will conditional
Am going to was going to

Modals
Can could
Must had to
May might
Shall should

Time words and phrases

Direct speech Reported speech
Ago before
At the moment at that moment
Last Sunday the Sunday before/the previous Sunday
Last time the time before
Next Sunday the following Sunday
Last year the year before
Next year the following year
Now then/at that moment
The day after tomorrow in two days
The day before yesterday two days before
This afternoon that afternoon
Today that day
Tomorrow the following day
Tonight that night
Yesterday the day before/the previous day
Grammar Reference 11

Prepositions
Of time

at, on, in, since, until/till, by, from, to, before, after...

Examples
 The program starts at 6 o’clock.
 We have a holiday at New Year.
 Will I see you at the weekend?\
 We usually go to my grandmother’s house on Sunday.
 Bill was born in Lichinga on 6th October
 Where are you going on Christmas Eve?
 It is always hot in December.
 My sister was born in 1992.
 I have not seen Joana since last night.
 I will be finished by next Monday.
 The shops in here normally open from 8.30 to 6.30 p.m.
 I knew Frederico before I came to Germany.
 They left Africa and moved to Lisbon after the Second World War.

Of place

I sat in the front of the car.

Write your name on the front of the book.

They will meet you at school.

There is a policeman behind the door.

The bakery is opposite the chemistry.

My house is near the green shop.

Of movement
o Angela walked towards the man.
o We walk home from school each and everyday.
o The little boys are running round the tree.
o The frog jumped into the water from the tree.