PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:09 PM Page 3

The Weather
of
The Canadian Prairies

Graphic Area Forecast 32

PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:09 PM Page i

The Weather
of
The Canadian Prairies
Graphic Area Forecast 32

by
Glenn Vickers
Sandra Buzza
Dave Schmidt
John Mullock
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Copyright

Copyright © 2001 NAV CANADA. All rights reserved. No part of this document may
be reproduced in any form, including photocopying or transmission electronically to
any computer, without prior written consent of NAV CANADA. The information
contained in this document is confidential and proprietary to NAV CANADA and may
not be used or disclosed except as expressly authorized in writing by NAV CANADA.

Trademarks

Product names mentioned in this document may be trademarks or registered

trademarks of their respective companies and are hereby acknowledged.

Relief Maps

Copyright © 2000. Government of Canada with permission from Natural Resources

Canada

Design and illustration by

Ideas in Motion
Kelowna, British Columbia
ph: (250) 717-5937
[email protected]
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LAKP-Prairies iii

The Weather of the Prairies

Graphic Area Forecast 32 Prairie Region
Preface

For NAV CANADA’s Flight Service Specialists (FSS), providing weather briefings
to help pilots navigate through the day-to-day fluctuations in the weather is a critical
role. While available weather products are becoming increasingly more sophisticated
and, at the same time more easily understood, an understanding of local and region-
al climatological patterns is essential to the effective performance of this role.

This Prairies Local Area Knowledge Aviation Weather manual is one of a series of
six publications prepared by the Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC) for NAV
CANADA. Each of the six manuals corresponds to a specific graphic forecast area
(GFA) Domain, with the exception of the Nunavut – Arctic manual that covers two
GFA Domains. These manuals form an important part of the training program on
local aviation weather knowledge for FSS working in the area and a useful tool in the
day-to-day service delivery by FSS.

Within the GFA domains, the weather shows strong climatological patterns con-
trolled either by season or topography. This manual describes the Domain of the
GFACN32 (Alberta – Saskatchewan – Manitoba). This area offers beautiful open
spaces for flying but can also provide harsh flying conditions. As most pilots flying
the region can attest, these variations in weather can take place quiet abruptly. From
the Foothills of Alberta to the Canadian Shield area of Manitoba, local topography
plays a key role in determining both the general climatology and local flying condi-
tions in a particular region.

This manual provides some insight on specific weather effects and patterns in this
area. While a manual cannot replace intricate details and knowledge of the Prairies
that FSS and experienced pilots of the area have acquired over the years, this manual
is a collection of that knowledge taken from interviews with local pilots, dispatchers,
Flight Service Specialists, and MSC personnel.

By understanding the weather and hazards in this specific area, FSS will be more
able to assist pilots to plan their flights in a safe and efficient manner. While this is
the manual’s fundamental purpose, NAV CANADA recognizes the value of the
information collected for pilots themselves. More and better information on weather
in the hands of pilots will always contribute to aviation safety. For that reason, the
manuals are being made available to NAV CANADA customers.
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iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This manual was made possible through funding by NAV CANADA, Flight
Information Centre project office.

NAV CANADA would like to thank The Meteorological Service of Canada

(MSC), both national and regional personnel, for working with us to compile the
information for each Graphic Area Forecast (GFA) domain, and present it in a
user-friendly, professional format. Special thanks also go to meteorologists Glenn
Vickers, Sandra Buzza and Dave Schmidt, Prairie Aviation and Arctic Weather
Centre, Edmonton, and John Mullock, Mountain Weather Centre, Kelowna.
Glenn’s, Sandra’s, and Dave’s regional expertise has been instrumental for the devel-
opment of the Prairie GFA document while John’s experience and efforts have
ensured high quality and consistent material from Atlantic to Pacific to Arctic.

This endeavour could not have been as successful without the contributions of
many people within the aviation community. We would like to thank all the partici-
pants who provided information through interviews with MSC, including flight
service specialists, pilots, dispatchers, meteorologists and other aviation groups. Their
willingness to share their experiences and knowledge contributed greatly to the suc-
cess of this document.

Roger M. Brown
January, 2002

Readers are invited to submit any comments to:

NAV CANADA
Customer Service Centre
77 Metcalfe St.
Ottawa, Ontario
K1P 5L6

Toll free phone line: 1-800-876-4693-4

(within North America disregard the last digit)
Toll-free fax line: 1-877-663-6656
E-mail: [email protected]
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LAKP-Prairies v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
CHAPTER 1 BASICS OF METEOROLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Heat Transfer and Water Vapour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Lifting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Air Masses and Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
CHAPTER 2 AVIATION WEATHER HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
The Freezing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Types of Aircraft Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Meteorological Factors Affecting Icing . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Aerodynamic Factors Affecting Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Other Forms of Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Types of Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Causes of Reduced Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Wind, Shear and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Stability and the Diurnal Variation in Wind . . . . . . . .19
Wind Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Relationship Between Wind Shear & Turbulence . . . .20
Low Levels Jets - Frontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Low Levels Jets - Nocturnal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Topographical Effects on Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Lee Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
The Formation of Lee Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Characteristics of Lee Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Clouds Associated with Lee Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Frontal Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Frontal Waves and Occlusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Thunderstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
The Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Types of Thunderstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Specific Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
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vi CONTENTS

Cold Weather Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Volcanic Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Deformation Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
CHAPTER 3 WEATHER PATTERNS OF THE PRAIRIES . . . . .47
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Geography of the Prairies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
The Rocky Mountains and Foothills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
The Prairie Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
The Canadian Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
The Mean Atmospheric Circulation System . . . . . . . . .53
Upper Troughs and Upper Ridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Semi-Permanent Surface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Migratory Surface Weather Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Gulf of Alaska Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Colorado Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Mackenzie Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Winter Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Blizzards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Arctic Outbreaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Cold Air Damming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Chinooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Summer Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Cold Lows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Typical surface and upper level pattern
for an cold low event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
CHAPTER 4 SEASONAL WEATHER & LOCAL EFFECTS . . . .69
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Weather of Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Transition Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Local Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Edmonton and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Edmonton to Jasper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Whitecourt, Edson, and the Swan Hills Area
to Grande Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Grande Prairie and Southward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Grande Prairie - Peace River and Area Westward . . .83
Peace River - High Level and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Northwestern Alberta including Rainbow Lake, Fort
Vermilion and Steen River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Edmonton - Slave Lake and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Edmonton to Ft. McMurray and Northward . . . . . . .93
Edmonton to Cold Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Edmonton to Lloydminster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
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Edmonton to Calgary via Red Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Calgary, Springbank Area and Westward . . . . . . . . .101
South of Calgary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Weather of Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Local Effects for Southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . .113
Regina to Saskatoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Regina to Yorkton and Eastward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Yorkton Eastward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Yorkton to Estevan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Estevan - Regina (Souris/Wascana Basin) . . . . . . . .120
The Missouri Coteau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Swift Current to Moose Jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Moose Jaw to Regina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Yorkton to Saskatoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Local Effects for Northern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . .130
Saskatoon - Prince Albert - North Battleford . . . . .130
Prince Albert to Meadow Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Prince Albert to La Ronge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
La Ronge and Points North . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Stony Rapids and the Lake Athabasca
Drainage Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Weather of Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Transitional Seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Local Area Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
Winnipeg and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
Winnipeg to Portage La Prairie to Brandon . . . . . .147
Brandon and Westward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Brandon to Dauphin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Dauphin and Vicinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
The Interlakes Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
North of the Lakes - The Pas -
Flin Flon - Thompson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Norway House - Island Lake - Thompson . . . . . . .156
Thompson and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Thompson - Lynn Lake - Northwards . . . . . . . . . .161
Thompson - Gillam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Churchill - Hudson Bay Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
CHAPTER 5 AIRPORT CLIMATOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
TABLE OF SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
MAP INDEX Chapter 4 Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Inside Back Cover
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viii
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LAKP-Prairies ix

Introduction
Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere, a sea of air that is in a constant state
of flux. Within it storms are born, grow in intensity as they sweep across sections of
the globe, then dissipate. No one is immune to the day-to-day fluctuations in the
weather, especially the aviator who must operate within the atmosphere.

Traditionally, weather information for the aviation community has largely been
provided in textual format. One such product, the area forecast (FA), was designed to
provide the forecast weather for the next twelve hours over a specific geographical
area. This information consisted of a description of the expected motion of significant
weather systems, the associated clouds, weather and visibility.

In April 2000, the Graphical Area Forecast (GFA) came into being, superceding
the area forecast. A number of MSC Forecast Centres now work together, using
graphical software packages, to produce a single national graphical depiction of the
forecast weather systems and the associated weather. This single national map is then
partitioned into a number of GFA Domains for use by Flight Service Specialists,
flight dispatchers and pilots.
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x INTRODUCTION

This Prairie Local Area Knowledge Aviation Weather Manual is one of a series of
six similar publications. All are produced by NAV CANADA in partnership with the
MSC. These manuals are designed to provide a resource for Flight Service Specialists
and pilots to help with the understanding of local aviation weather. Each of the six
manuals corresponds to a Graphical Area Forecast (GFA) Domain, with the excep-
tion of the Nunavut - Arctic manual which covers two GFA Domains. MSC aviation
meteorologists provide most of the broader scale information on meteorology and
weather systems affecting the various domains. Experienced pilots who work in or
around it on a daily basis, however, best understand the local weather. Interviews with
local pilots, dispatchers and Flight Service Specialists, form the basis for the infor-
mation presented in Chapter 4.

Within the domains, the weather shows strong climatological patterns that are
controlled either by season or topography. For example, in British Columbia there is
a distinctive difference between the moist coastal areas and the dry interior because
of the mountains. The weather in the Arctic varies strongly seasonally between the
frozen landscape of winter and the open water of summer. These changes are impor-
tant in understanding how the weather works and each book will be laid out so as to
recognize these climatological differences.

This manual describes the weather of the GFACN32 Prairie. This area often has
beautiful flying weather but can also have some of the toughest flying conditions in
the world. As most pilots flying in the region can attest, these variations in flying
weather can take place quite abruptly. From the flat plains of Southern Saskatchewan
to the rising mountains of Western Alberta, local topography plays a key role in deter-
mining both the general climatology and local flying conditions in a particular region.
Statistically, approximately 30% of aviation accidents are weather related and up to
75% of delays are due to weather.

This manual is “instant knowledge” about how the weather behaves in this area but
it is not “experience”. The information presented in this manual is by no means
exhaustive. The variability of local aviation weather in the Prairies could result in a
publication several times the size of this one. However, by understanding some of the
weather and hazards in these areas, pilots may be able to relate the hazards to topog-
raphy and weather systems in areas not specifically mentioned.
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LAKP-Prairies 1

Chapter 1

Basics of Meteorology
To properly understand weather, it is essential to understand some of the basic
principles that drive the weather machine. There are numerous books on the market
that describe these principles in great detail with varying degrees of success. This sec-
tion is not intended to replace these books, but rather to serve as a review.

Heat Transfer and Water Vapour

The atmosphere is a "heat engine" that runs on one of the fundamental rules of
physics: excess heat in one area (the tropics) must flow to colder areas (the poles).
There are a number of different methods of heat transfer but a particularly efficient
method is through the use of water.

Within our atmosphere, water can exist in three states depending on its energy
level. Changes from one state to another are called phase changes and are readily
accomplished at ordinary atmospheric pressures and temperatures. The heat taken in
or released during a phase change is called latent heat.

LATENT HEAT ABSORBED

LATENT HEAT RELEASED

CO
ND
EN
NG

SA
TI
TI

ON
EL

EV
M

AP
OR
NG

AT
ZI
EE

I
ON
FR

SUBLIMATION

DEPOSITION

Fig. 1-1 - Heat transfer and water vapour

How much water the air contains in the form of vapour is directly related to its
temperature. The warmer the air, the more water vapour it can contain. Air that con-
tains its maximum amount of water vapour, at that given temperature, is said to be
saturated. A quick measure of the moisture content of the atmosphere can be made
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2 CHAPTER ONE

by looking at the dew point temperature. The higher (warmer) the dew point tem-
perature, the greater the amount of water vapour.

The planetary heat engine consists of water being evaporated by the sun into water
vapour at the equator (storing heat) and transporting it towards the poles on the
winds where it is condensed back into a solid or liquid state (releasing heat). Most of
what we refer to as "weather," such as wind, cloud, fog and precipitation is related to
this conversion activity. The severity of the weather is often a measure of how much
latent heat is released during these activities.

Lifting Processes

The simplest and most common way water vapour is converted back to a liquid or
solid state is by lifting. When air is lifted, it cools until it becomes saturated. Any
additional lift will result in further cooling which reduces the amount of water vapour
the air can hold. The excess water vapour is condensed out in the form of cloud
droplets or ice crystals which then can go on to form precipitation. There are several
methods of lifting an air mass. The most common are convection, orographic lift
(upslope flow), frontal lift, and convergence into an area of low pressure.

Fig. 1-2 - Convection as a result of Fig.1-3 - Orographic (upslope) lift

daytime heating
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LAKP-Prairies 3

Fig.1-4 - Warm air overrunning cold air along a warm front

Surfac
rface Divergence
er ce
Conve
onve
onvergence

Fig. 1-5 - Divergence and convergence at the surface and aloft

in a high low couplet

Subsidence
Subsidence, in meteorology, refers to the downward motion of air. This subsiding
motion occurs within an area of high pressure, as well as on the downward side of
a range of hills or mountains. As the air descends, it is subjected to increasing
atmospheric pressure and, therefore, begins to compress. This compression causes
the air’s temperature to increase which will consequently lower its relative humidity.
As a result, areas in which subsidence occurs will not only receive less precipitation
than surrounding areas (referred to as a “rain shadow”) but will often see the cloud
layers thin and break up.
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4 CHAPTER ONE

Fig.1-6 - Moist air moving over mountains where it loses its moisture and sinks
into a dry subsidence area

Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere

The temperature lapse rate of the atmosphere refers to the change of temperature
with a change in height. In the standard case, temperature decreases with height
through the troposphere to the tropopause and then becomes relatively constant in the
stratosphere.

Two other conditions are possible: an inversion, in which the temperature increas-
es with height, or an isothermal layer, in which the temperature remains constant with
height.

-9°C

NORMAL

A
L 3°C
T
I ISOTHERMAL
T LAYER
U
D
3°C
E

Fig. 1-7 - Different lapse rates of the atmosphere

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LAKP-Prairies 5

The temperature lapse rate of the atmosphere is a direct measurement of the sta-
bility of the atmosphere.

Stability

It would be impossible to examine weather without taking into account the stabil-
ity of the air. Stability refers to the ability of a parcel of air to resist vertical motion.
If a parcel of air is displaced upwards and then released it is said to be unstable if it
continues to ascend (since the parcel is warmer than the surrounding air), stable if it
returns to the level from which it originated (since the parcel is cooler than the sur-
rounding air), and neutral if the parcel remains at the level it was released (since the
parcel’s temperature is that of the surrounding air).

The type of cloud and precipitation produced varies with stability. Unstable air,
when lifted, has a tendency to develop convective clouds and showery precipitation.
Stable air is inclined to produce deep layer cloud and widespread steady precipitation.
Neutral air will produce stable type weather which will change to unstable type
weather if the lifting continues.

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 1-8 - Stability in the atmosphere - (a) Stable (b) Unstable (c) Neutral
The stability of an air mass has the ability to be changed. One way to destabilize
the air is to heat it from below, in much the same manner as you would heat water in
a kettle. In the natural environment this can be accomplished when the sun heats the
ground which, in turn, heats the air in contact with it, or when cold air moves over a
warmer surface such as open water in the fall or winter. The reverse case, cooling the
air from below, will stabilize the air. Both processes occur readily.

Consider a typical summer day where the air is destabilized by the sun, resulting in
the development of large convective cloud and accompanying showers or thunder-
showers during the afternoon and evening. After sunset, the surface cools and the
air mass stabilizes slowly, causing the convective activity to die off and the clouds to
dissipate.
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6 CHAPTER ONE

On any given day there may be several processes acting simultaneously that can
either destabilize or stabilize the air mass. To further complicate the issue, these
competing effects can occur over areas as large as an entire GFA domain to as small
as a football field. To determine which one will dominate remains in the realm of a
meteorologist and is beyond the scope of this manual.

Wind
Horizontal differences in temperature result in horizontal differences in pressure. It
is these horizontal changes in pressure that cause the wind to blow as the atmosphere
attempts to equalize pressure by moving air from an area of high pressure to an area
of low pressure. The larger the pressure difference, the stronger the wind and, as a
result, the day-to-day wind can range from the gentlest breeze around an inland air-
field to storm force winds over the water.

Pressure difference
from A to B is 4 hPa
in 70 miles

Pressure difference
from C to D is 4 hPa
in 200 miles

Fig. 1-9 - The greater pressure changes with horizontal difference, the stronger the wind

Wind has both speed and direction, so for aviation purposes several conventions
have been adopted. Wind direction is always reported as the direction from which the
wind is blowing while wind speed is the average steady state value over a certain
length of time. Short-term variations in speed are reported as either gusts or squalls
depending on how long they last.

Above the surface, the wind tends to be relatively smooth and changes direction
and speed only in response to changes in pressure. At the surface, however, the wind
is affected by friction and topography. Friction has a tendency to slow the wind over
rough surfaces whereas topography, most commonly, induces localized changes in
direction and speed.

Air Masses and Fronts

Air Masses

When a section of the troposphere, hundreds of miles across, remains stationary or

moves slowly across an area having fairly uniform temperature and moisture, then the
air takes on the characteristics of this surface and becomes known as an air mass. The
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area where air masses are created are called "source regions" and are either ice or snow
covered polar regions, cold northern oceans, tropical oceans or large desert areas.

Although the moisture and temperature characteristics of an air mass are relatively
uniform, the horizontal weather may vary due to different processes acting on it. It is
quite possible for one area to be reporting clear skies while another area is reporting
widespread thunderstorms.

Fronts

When air masses move out of their source regions they come into contact with
other air masses. The transition zone between two different air masses is referred to
as a frontal zone, or front. Across this transition zone temperature, moisture content,
pressure, and wind can change rapidly over a short distance.

The principal types of fronts are:

Cold Front - The cold air is advancing and undercutting the warm air.
The leading edge of the cold air is the cold front.

Warm front - The cold air is retreating and being replaced by warm
air. The trailing edge of the cold air is the warm front.

Stationary front - The cold air is neither advancing nor retreating.

These fronts are frequently referred to quasi-stationary fronts although
there usually is some small-scale localized motion occurring.

Trowal - Trough of warm air aloft.

Table 1-1

More will be said about frontal weather later in this manual.

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Chapter 2

Aviation Weather Hazards

Introduction

Throughout its history, aviation has had an intimate relationship with the weather.
Time has brought improvements - better aircraft, improved air navigation systems
and a systemized program of pilot training. Despite this, weather continues to exact
its toll.

In the aviation world, ‘weather’ tends to be used to mean not only “what’s happen-
ing now?” but also “what’s going to happen during my flight?”. Based on the answer
received, the pilot will opt to continue or cancel his flight. In this section we will
examine some specific weather elements and how they affect flight.

Icing
One of simplest assumptions made about clouds is that cloud droplets are in a
liquid form at temperatures warmer than 0°C and that they freeze into ice crystals
within a few degrees below zero. In reality, however, 0°C marks the temperature below
which water droplets become supercooled and are capable of freezing. While some
of the droplets actually do freeze spontaneously just below 0°C, others persist in the
liquid state at much lower temperatures.

Aircraft icing occurs when supercooled water droplets strike an aircraft whose
temperature is colder than 0°C. The effects icing can have on an aircraft can be quite
serious and include:

Fig. 2-1 - Effects of icing

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10 CHAPTER TWO

• disruption of the smooth laminar flow over the wings causing a decrease in lift
and an increase in the stall speed. This last effect is particularly dangerous. An
“iced” aircraft is effectively an “experimental” aircraft with an unknown stall
speed.
• increase in weight and drag thus increasing fuel consumption.
• partial or complete blockage of pitot heads and static ports giving erroneous
instrument readings.
• restriction of visibility as windshear glazes over.
The Freezing Process

When a supercooled water droplet strikes an aircraft surface, it begins to freeze,

releasing latent heat. This latent heat warms the remainder of the droplet to near 0°C,
allowing the unfrozen part of the droplet to spread back across the surface until freez-
ing is complete. The lower the air temperature and the colder the aircraft surface, the
greater the fraction of the droplet that freezes immediately on impact. Similarly, the
smaller the droplet, the greater the fraction of the droplet that freezes immediately on
impact. Finally, the more frequent the droplets strike the aircraft surface, the greater
the amount of water that will flow back over the aircraft surface. In general, the max-
imum potential for icing occurs with large droplets at temperatures just below 0°C .

Fig. 2-2 - Freezing of supercooled droplets on impact

Types of Aircraft Ice

Rime Ice
Rime ice is a product of small droplets where each droplet has a chance to freeze
completely before another droplet hits the same place. The ice that is formed is
opaque and brittle because of the air trapped between the droplets. Rime ice tends to
form on the leading edges of airfoils, builds forward into the air stream and has low
adhesive properties.
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Clear Ice

In the situation where each large droplet does not freeze completely before addi-
tional droplets become deposited on the first, supercooled water from each drop
merges and spreads backwards across the aircraft surface before freezing completely
to form an ice with high adhesive properties. Clear ice tends to range from transpar-
ent to a very tough opaque layer and will build back across the aircraft surface as well
as forward into the air stream.

Mixed Ice

When the temperature and the range of droplet size vary widely, the ice that forms
is a mixture of rime ice and clear ice. This type of ice usually has more adhesive prop-
erties than rime ice, is opaque in appearance, rough, and generally builds forward into
the air stream faster than it spreads back over the aircraft surface.

Clear

Rime

Mixed
Fig. 2-3 - Accumulation patterns of different icing types

Meteorological Factors Affecting Icing

(a) Liquid Water Content of the Cloud

The liquid water content of a cloud is dependent on the size and number of
droplets in a given volume of air. The greater the liquid water content, the more
serious the icing potential. Clouds with strong vertical updrafts generally have a
higher liquid water content as the updrafts prevent even the large drops from pre-
cipitating.

The strongest updrafts are to be found in convective clouds, clouds formed by

abrupt orographic lift, and in lee wave clouds. Layer clouds tend to have weak
updrafts and are generally composed of small droplets.

(b) Temperature Structure in the Cloud

Warm air can contain more water vapour than cold air. Thus, clouds that form in
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12 CHAPTER TWO

warm air masses will have a higher liquid water content than those that form in
cold air.

The temperature structure in a cloud has a significant effect on the size and
number of droplets. Larger supercooled droplets begin to freeze spontaneously
around -10°C with the rate of freezing of all size of droplets increasing rapidly as
temperatures fall below -15°C. By -40°C, virtually all the droplets will be frozen.
The exceptions are clouds with very strong vertical updrafts, such as towering
cumulus or cumulonimbus, where liquid water droplets can be carried to great
heights before freezing.

These factors allow the icing intensities to change rapidly with time so that it is
possible for aircraft only minutes apart to encounter entirely different icing condi-
tions in the same area. Despite this, some generally accepted rules have been devel-
oped:

(1) Within large cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds:

• at temperatures between 0°C and -25°C, severe clear icing likely.

• at temperatures between -25°C and -40°C, light rime icing likely; small possi-
bility of moderate to severe rime or mixed icing in newly developed clouds.
• at temperatures below -40°C, little chance of icing.
(2) Within layer cloud:

• the most significant icing layer is generally confined to the 0°C to -15°C tem-
perature range.
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• icing is usually less severe than in convective cloud due to the weaker updrafts
and smaller droplets.
• icing layers tend to be shallow in depth but great in horizontal extent.
(3) Situations in which icing may be greater than expected:

• air moving across large unfrozen lakes in the fall and winter will increase its
moisture content and destabilize rapidly due to heating from below. The cloud
that forms, while resembling a layer cloud, will actually be a convective cloud
capped by an inversion with relatively strong updrafts and a large concentration
of supercooled drops.
• thick layer cloud formed by rapid mass ascent, such as in an intensifying low or
along mountain slopes, will also have enhanced concentrations of supercooled
drops. Furthermore, there is a strong possibility that such lift will destabilize the
air mass resulting in embedded convective clouds with their enhanced icing
potential.
• lenticular clouds can have very strong vertical currents associated with them.
Icing can be severe and, because of the droplet size, tend toward clear icing.
Supercooled Large Drop Icing
Supercooled large drop (SLD) icing has, until fairly recently, only been associated
with freezing rain. Several accidents and significant icing events have revealed the
existence of a deadly form of SLD icing in non-typical situations and locations. It was
found that large cloud drops, the size of freezing drizzle drops, could exist within
some stratiform cloud layers, whose cloud top is usually at 10,000 feet or less. The air
temperature within the cloud (and above) remains below 0°C but warmer than -18°C
throughout the cloud layer. These large drops of liquid water form near the cloud top,
in the presence of light to moderate mechanical turbulence, and remain throughout
the cloud layer. SLD icing is usually severe and clear. Ice accretion onto flight sur-
faces of 2.5 cm or more in 15 minutes or less have been observed.

There are a few indicators that may help announce SLD icing beforehand. SLD
icing-producing stratiform clouds often occur in a stable air mass, in the presence of
a gentle upslope circulation, sometimes coming from a large body of water. The air
above the cloud layer is always dry, with no significant cloud layers above. The pres-
ence of freezing drizzle underneath, or liquid drizzle when the surface air tempera-
ture is slightly above 0°C, is a sure indication of SLD icing within the cloud. Other
areas where this type of icing is found is in the cloud to the southwest of a low pres-
sure centre and behind cold fronts where low level stratocumulus are common (cloud
tops often below 13,000 feet). Constant and careful attention must be paid when fly-
ing a holding pattern within a cloud layer in winter.

Over the Prairies, SLD icing-producing clouds are common in a easterly to north-
easterly flow off Hudson Bay, in north-eastern Manitoba, in northern Saskatchewan,
and in Alberta. These low-level clouds often produce drizzle or freezing drizzle.
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14 CHAPTER TWO

The Glory: A Warning Sign for Aircraft Icing

Photo 2-1 - Glory surrounding aircraft shadow credit: Alister Ling

on cloud top
The glory is one of the most common forms of halo visible in the sky. For the pilot
it is a warning sign of potential icing because it is only visible when there are liquid
water droplets in the cloud. If the air temperature at cloud level is below freezing,
icing will occur in those clouds that produce a glory.

A glory can be seen by looking downwards and seeing it surround the shadow that
your aircraft casts onto the cloud tops. They can also be seen by looking upwards
towards the sun (or bright moon) through clouds made of liquid droplets.

It is possible to be high enough above the clouds or fog that your shadow is too
small to see at the center of the glory. Although ice crystals often produce other halos
and arcs, only water droplets form bullseyes.

Aerodynamic Factors Affecting Icing

There are various aerodynamic factors that affect the collection efficiency of an air-
craft surface. Collection efficiency can be defined as the fraction of liquid water
droplets that actually strike the aircraft relative to the number of droplets encountered
along the flight path.
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Larger Droplets

150 KT 100 KT 150 KT

150 KT 160 KT 150 KT

(a) Airfoil Shape (b) Aircraft Speed (c) Droplet Size

Fig. 2-5 -Variations in collection efficiency

Collection efficiency is dependent on three factors:

(a) The radius of curvature of the aircraft component. Airfoils with a big radius of
curvature disrupt the airflow (like a bow wave) causing the smaller supercooled
droplets to be carried around the airfoil by the air stream. For this reason, large
thick components (thick wings, canopies) collect ice less efficiently than thin
components (thin wings, struts, antenna).
(b) Speed. The faster the aircraft the less chance the droplets have to be diverted
around the airfoil by the air stream.
(c) Droplet size. The larger the droplet the more difficult it is for the air stream to
displace it.
Other Forms of Icing

(a) Freezing Rain and Ice Pellets

Freezing rain occurs when liquid water drops that are above freezing fall into a
layer of air whose temperature is colder than 0°C and supercool before hitting
some object. The most common scenario leading to freezing rain in Western
Canada is “warm overrunning”. In this case, warm air (above 0°C) is forced up
and over colder air at the surface. In such a scenario, rain that falls into the cold
air supercools, resulting in freezing rain that can last for hours especially if cold
air continues to drain into the area from the surrounding terrain. When the
cold air is sufficiently deep, the freezing raindrops can freeze completely before
reaching the surface causing ice pellets. Pilots should be aware, however, that
ice pellets at the surface imply freezing rain aloft. Such conditions are relatively
common in the winter and tend to last a little longer in valleys than over flat
terrain.
(b) Freezing Drizzle or Snow Grains
Freezing drizzle is different from freezing rain in that the water droplets are
smaller. Another important difference is that freezing drizzle may develop in air
masses whose entire temperature profile is below freezing. In other words,
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16 CHAPTER TWO

freezing drizzle can occur without the presence of a warm layer (above 0°C)
aloft. In this case, favorable areas for the development of freezing drizzle are in
moist maritime air masses, preferably in areas of moderate to strong upslope
flow. The icing associated with freezing drizzle may have a significant impact
on aviation. Similar to ice pellets, snow grains imply the presence of freezing
drizzle aloft.
(c) Snow
Dry snow will not adhere to an aircraft surface and will not normally cause
icing problems. Wet snow, however, can freeze hard to an aircraft surface that is
at subzero temperatures and be extremely difficult to remove. A very dangerous
situation can arise when an aircraft attempts to take off with wet snow on the
flight surfaces. Once the aircraft is set in motion, evaporational cooling will
cause the wet snow to freeze hard causing a drastic reduction in lift as well as
increasing the weight and drag. Wet snow can also freeze to the windscreens
making visibility difficult to impossible.
(d) Freezing Spray
Freezing spray develops over open water when there is an outbreak of Arctic
air. While the water itself is near or above freezing, any water that is picked up
by the wind or is splashed onto an object will quickly freeze, causing a rapid
increase in weight and shifting the centre of gravity.
(e) Freezing Fog
Freezing fog is a common occurrence during the winter. Fog is simply “a cloud
touching the ground” and, like its airborne cousin, will have a high percentage
of supercooled water droplets at temperatures just below freezing (0°C to -10°C).
Aircraft landing, taking off, or even taxiing, in freezing fog should anticipate
rime icing.
Visibility
Reduced visibility is the meteorological component which impacts flight operations
the most. Topographic features all tend to look the same at low levels making good
route navigation essential. This can only be done in times of clear visibility.

Types of Visibility
There are several terms used to describe the different types of visibility used by the
aviation community.

(a) Horizontal visibility - the furthest visibility obtained horizontally in a specific

direction by referencing objects or lights at known distances.
(b) Prevailing visibility - the ground level visibility which is common to one-half
or more of the horizon circle.
(c) Vertical visibility - the maximum visibility obtained by looking vertically
upwards into a surface-based obstruction such as fog or snow.
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(d) Slant visibility - visibility observed by looking forward and downwards from
the cockpit of the aircraft.
(e) Flight visibility - the average range of visibility at any given time forward from
the cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
Causes of Reduced Visibility
(a) Lithometers
Lithometers are dry particles suspended in the atmosphere and include haze,
smoke, sand and dust. Of these, smoke and haze cause the most problems. The
most common sources of smoke are forest fires. Smoke from distant sources
will resemble haze but, near a fire, smoke can reduce the visibility significantly.
(b) Precipitation
Rain can reduce visibility, however, the restriction is seldom less than one mile
other than in the heaviest showers beneath cumulonimbus clouds. Drizzle,
because of the greater number of drops in each volume of air, is usually more
effective than rain at reducing the visibility, especially when accompanied by fog.
Snow affects visibility more than rain or drizzle and can easily reduce it to less
than one mile. Blowing snow is a product of strong winds picking up the snow
particles and lifting them into the air. Fresh fallen snow is easily disturbed and
can be lifted a few hundred feet. Under extreme conditions, the cockpit visibili-
ty will be excellent during a landing approach until the aircraft flares, at which
time the horizontal visibility will be reduced abruptly.
(c) Fog
Fog is the most common and persistent visibility obstruction encountered by
the aviation community. A cloud based on the ground, fog, can consist of water
droplets, supercooled water droplets, ice crystals or a mix of supercooled
droplets and ice crystals.
(i) Radiation Fog
Radiation fog begins to form over land usually under clear skies and light
winds typically after midnight and peaks early in the morning. As the land
surface loses heat and radiates it into space, the air above the land is cooled
and loses its ability to hold moisture. If an abundance of condensation
nuclei is present in the atmosphere, radiation fog may develop before the
temperature-dewpoint spread reaches zero. After sunrise, the fog begins to
burn off from the edges over land but any fog that has drifted over water
will take longer to burn off.
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18 CHAPTER TWO

Photo 2-2 - Radiation fog in a valley credit: Alister Ling

(ii) Precipitation or Frontal Fog
Precipitation fog, or frontal fog, forms ahead of warm fronts when precipi-
tation falls through a cooler layer of air near the ground. The precipitation
saturates the air at the surface and fog forms. Breaks in the precipitation
usually results in the fog becoming thicker.
(iii) Steam Fog
Steam fog forms when very cold arctic air moves over relatively warmer
water. In this case moisture evaporates from the water surface and saturates
the air. The extremely cold air cannot hold all the evaporated moisture, so
the excess condenses into fog. The result looks like steam or smoke rising
from the water, and is usually no more than 50 to 100 feet thick. Steam fog,
also called arctic sea smoke, can produce significant icing conditions.
(iv) Advection Fog
Fog that forms when warm moist air moves across a snow, ice or cold water
surface.
(v) Ice Fog
Ice fog occurs when water vapour sublimates directly into ice crystals. In con-
ditions of light winds and temperatures colder than -30°C or so, water vapour
from manmade sources or cracks in ice-covered rivers can form widespread
and persistent ice fog. The fog produced by local heating systems, and even
aircraft engines, can reduce the local visibility to near zero, closing an airport
for hours or even days.
(d) Snow Squalls and Streamers
Snow squalls are relatively small areas of heavy snowfall. They develop when
cold arctic air passes over a relatively warm water surface, such as Lake
Winnipeg, before freeze-up. An injection of heat and moisture from the lake
into the low levels of the atmosphere destabilizes the air mass. If sufficient
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destabilization occurs, convective clouds begin to develop with snow beginning

shortly thereafter. Snowsqualls usually develop in bands of cloud, or streamers,
that form parallel to the direction of flow. Movement of these snow squalls can
generally be tied to the mean winds between 3,000 and 5,000 feet. Not only
can snowsqualls reduce visibility to near zero but, due to their convective nature,
significant icing and turbulence are often encountered within the clouds.

Cold Air

Warm Water

Fig. 2-6 - Snowsqualls building over open water

Wind, Shear and Turbulence

The “why” of winds are quite well understood. It is the daily variations of the winds,
where they blow and how strong, that remains a constant problem for meteorologists
to unravel. The problem becomes even more difficult when local effects such as wind
flow through coastal inlets or in mountain valleys are added to the dilemma. The
result of these effects can give one airport persistent light winds while another has
nightly episodes of strong gusty winds.

Stability and the Diurnal Variation in Wind

In a stable weather pattern, daytime winds are generally stronger and gustier than
nighttime winds. During the day, the heating from the sun sets up convective mixing
which carries the stronger winds aloft down to the surface and mixes them with the
slower surface winds. This causes the surface wind to increase in speed and become
gusty, while at the same time reducing the wind speeds aloft in the mixed layer.

After sunset, the surface of the earth cools which, in turn, cools the air near the sur-
face resulting in the development of a temperature inversion. This inversion deepens
as cooling continues, ending the convective mixing and causing the surface winds to
slacken.
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20 CHAPTER TWO

Wind Shear
Wind shear is nothing more than a change in wind direction and/or wind speed
over the distance between two points. If the points are in a vertical direction then it
is called vertical shear, if they are in a horizontal direction than it is called horizontal
shear.

In the aviation world, the major concern is how abruptly the change occurs. If the
change is gradual, a change in direction or speed will result in nothing more than a
minor change in the ground speed. If the change is abrupt, however, there will be a
rapid change of airspeed or track. Depending on the aircraft type, it may take a sig-
nificant time to correct the situation, placing the aircraft in peril, particularly during
takeoff and landing.

Significant shearing can occur when the surface wind blowing along a valley varies
significantly from the free flowing wind above the valley. Changes in direction of 90°
and speed changes of 25 knots are reasonably common in mountainous terrain.

Updrafts and downdrafts also induce shears. An abrupt downdraft will cause a brief
decrease in the wing’s attack angle resulting in a loss of lift. An updraft will increase
the wing’s attack angle and consequently increase the lift, however, there is a risk that
it could be increased beyond the stall angle.

Shears can also be encountered along fronts. Frontal zones are generally thick
enough that the change is gradual, however, cold frontal zones as thin as 200 feet have
been measured. Significant directional shears across a warm front have also been
observed with the directional change greater than 90 degrees over several hundred
feet. Pilots doing a take-off or a landing approach through a frontal surface that is just
above the ground should be wary.

Mechanical turbulence is a form of shear induced when a rough surface disrupts the
smooth wind flow. The amount of shearing and the depth of the shearing layer depends
on the wind speed, the roughness of the obstruction and the stability of the air.

The Relationship Between Wind Shear and Turbulence

Turbulence is the direct result of wind shear. The stronger the shear the greater the
tendency for the laminar flow of the air to break down into eddies resulting in turbu-
lence. However, not all shear zones are turbulent, so the absence of turbulence does
not infer that there is no shear.

Low-Level Jets - Frontal

In developing low pressure systems, a narrow band of very strong winds often
develops just ahead of the cold front and above the warm frontal zone. Meteorologists
call these bands of strong winds “low-level jets”. They are typically located between
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500 and 5,000 feet and can be several hundred feet wide. Wind speeds associated with
low-level jets can reach as high as 100 knots in more intense storms. The main
problem with these features is that they can produce severe turbulence, or at least
significant changes in airspeed. Critical periods for low-level windshear or turbulence
with these features are one to three hours prior to a cold frontal passage. These con-
ditions are made worse by the fact that they occur in the low levels of the atmosphere
and affect aircraft in the more important phases of flight - landing and take off.

ER L
T
JE
LO

Fig. 2-7 - Idealized low and frontal system showing the

position of the low-level and upper-level jet

T
JE
L
VE
LE
W
LO

Fig. 2-8 - Complex winds around a low-level jet can result in

significant low-level wind shear and turbulence
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22 CHAPTER TWO

Low-Level Jets - Nocturnal

There is another type of low-level jet known as “the low-level nocturnal jet”. This
jet is a band of relatively high wind speeds, typically centred at altitudes ranging
between 700 and 2,000 feet above the ground (just below the top of the nocturnal
inversion) but on occasion can be as high as 3,000 feet. Wind speeds usually range
between 20 and 40 knots but have been observed up to 60 knots.

The low-level nocturnal jet tends to form over relatively flat terrain and resembles
a ribbon of wind in that it is thousands of miles long, a few hundred feet thick and
up to hundreds of miles wide. Low-level nocturnal jets have been observed in moun-
tainous terrain but tend to be localized in character.

The low-level nocturnal jet forms mainly in the summer on clear nights (this allows
the inversion to form). The winds just below the top of the inversion will begin to
increase just after sunset, reach its maximum speed a couple of hours after midnight,
then dissipate in the morning as the sun’s heat destroys the inversion.

Topographical Effects on Wind

(a) Lee Effects

When the winds blow against a steep cliff or over rugged terrain, gusty turbu-
lent winds result. Eddies often form downwind of the hills, which create sta-
tionary zones of stronger and lighter winds. These zones of strong winds are
fairly predictable and usually persist as long as the wind direction and stability
of the air stream do not change. The lighter winds, which occur in areas called
wind shadows, can vary in speed and direction, particularly downwind of higher
hills. In the lee of the hills, the wind is usually gusty and the wind direction is
often completely opposite to the wind blowing over the top of the hills. Smaller
reverse eddies may also be encountered close to the hills. The Livingstone
Range to the west of Claresholm, Alberta produces areas where the wind can
be calm but, a short distance away, the winds will be strong westerly.

Fig. 2-9 - Lee effects

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(b) Friction Effects

The winds that blow well above the surface of the earth are not strongly influ-
enced by the presence of the earth itself. Closer to the earth, however, frictional
effects decrease the speed of the air movement and back the wind (turns the
wind direction counter-clockwise) towards the lower pressure. For example, in
the northern hemisphere, a southerly wind becomes more southeasterly when
blowing over rougher ground. There can be a significant reduction in the wind
speed over a rough terrain when compared to the wind produced by the same
pressure gradient over a relatively smooth prairie.

Fig. 2-10 - Friction effects

(c) Converging Winds

When two or more winds flow together or converge, a stronger wind is created.
Similar effects can be noted where two or more valleys come together.

10
0 KT

15 KT
25
KT

Fig. 2-11 - Converging winds

(d) Diverging Winds
A divergence of the air stream occurs when a single air stream splits into two or
more streams. Each will have a lower speed than the parent air stream.
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24 CHAPTER TWO

KT
15
25 KT

10
KT

Fig. 2-12 - Diverging winds

(e) Corner Winds

When the prevailing wind encounters a headland, there is a tendency for the
wind to curl around the feature. This change in direction, if done abruptly, can
result in turbulence.
(f ) Funnelled or Gap Winds
When winds are forced to flow through a narrow opening or gap, such as an
inlet or narrow section of a pass, the wind speed will increase and may even
double in strength. This effect is similar to pinching a water hose and is called
funnelling.

Fig. 2-13 - Funnelled winds

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LAKP-Prairies 25

(g) Channelled Winds

The topography can also change the direction of the winds by forcing the
flow along the direction of a pass or valley. This is referred to as channelling.
(h) Sea and Land Breezes
Sea and land breezes are only observed under light wind conditions, and
depend on temperature differences between adjoining regions.
A sea breeze occurs when the air over the land is heated more rapidly than the
air over the adjacent water surface. As a result, the warmer air rises and the rel-
atively cool air from the water flows onshore to replace it. By late afternoon,
the time of maximum heating, the sea breeze circulation may be 1,500 to 3,000
feet deep, have obtained speeds of 10 to 15 knots and extend as far as 50 nauti-
cal miles inland.

Fig. 2-14 - Sea breeze

During the evening the sea breeze subsides. At night, as the land cools, a land
breeze develops in the opposite direction and flows from the land out over the
water. It is generally not as strong as the sea breeze, but at times it can be quite
gusty.

Fig. 2-15 - Land breeze

Both land and sea breezes can be influenced by channelling and funnelling
resulting in almost frontal-like conditions, with sudden wind shifts and gusty
winds that may reach up to 50 knots. Example of this can be found near the
larger lakes in the Prairies and are often referred to as “lake effect winds”.
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26 CHAPTER TWO

(i) Anabatic and Katabatic Winds

During the day, the sides of the valleys become warmer than the valley bottoms
since they are better exposed to the sun. As a result, the winds blow up the
slope. These daytime, upslope winds are called anabatic winds. Gently sloped
valley sides, especially those facing south, are more efficiently heated than those
of a steep, narrow valley. As a result, valley breezes will be stronger in the wider
valleys. An anabatic wind, if extended to sufficient height, will produce cloud.
In addition, such a wind offers additional lift to aircraft and gliders. This effect
occurs in the Oldman River Valley, to the west of the Lethbridge Airport,
where a westerly flow is enhanced by this heating of the valley sides making it
quite turbulent on the bluffs on the east side of the valley. This is generally a
low-level effect and only noticeable up to 200 to300 feet above the bluffs.

At night, the air cools over the mountain slopes and sinks to the valley floor. If the
valley floor is sloping, the winds will move along the valley towards lower ground.
The cool night winds are called drainage winds, or katabatic winds, and are often
quite gusty and usually stronger than anabatic winds. Some valley airports have
windsocks situated at various locations along their runways to show the changeable
conditions due to the katabatic flow. Katabatic winds are observed frequently in
locales such as Banff or Jasper.
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(j) Glacier Winds

Under extreme cooling conditions, such as an underlying ice cover, the katabat-
ic winds can develop to hazardous proportions. As the ice is providing the cool-
ing, a shallow wind of 80 knots or more can form and will persist during the
day and night. In some locations the katabatic flow “pulsates” with the cold air
building up to some critical value before being released to rush downslope.
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28 CHAPTER TWO

It is important to recognize that combinations of these effects can operate at any

given time. Katabatic winds are easily funnelled resulting in winds of unexpected
directions and strengths in narrow passes. Around glaciers in the summer, wind fields
can be chaotic. Katabatic winds from the top of the glacier struggle for dominance
with localized convection, or anabatic winds, induced by heated rock slopes below the
ice. Many sightseeing pilots prefer to avoid glaciated areas during the afternoon
hours.

Lee Waves
When air flows across a mountain or hill, it is disturbed the same way as water
flowing over a rock. The air initially is displaced upwards across the mountain, dips
sharply on the lee side, then rises and falls in a series of waves downstream. These
waves are called “mountain waves” or “lee waves” and are most notable for their
turbulence. They often develop on the lee side of the Rocky Mountains.

The Formation of Lee Waves

The development of lee waves requires that several conditions be met:

(a) the wind direction must be within 30 degrees of perpendicular to the mountain
or hill. The greater the height of the mountain and the sharper the drop off to
the lee side, the more extensive the induced oscillations.
(b) wind speed should exceed 15
knots for small hills and 30
knots for mountain ridges. A jet
stream with its associated strong
winds below the jet axis is an
ideal situation.
(c) the wind direction should be 30 0

constant while increasing in

speed with height throughout 30 0

the troposphere.
(c) the air should be stable near
the mountain peaks but less
stable below. The unstable layer
encourages the air to ascend and
Fig. 2-19 - Angles for lee wave
the stable layer encourages the development
development of a downstream
wave pattern.
While all these conditions can be met at any time of the year, winter wind speeds
are generally stronger resulting in more dangerous lee waves.
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Characteristics of Lee Waves

Once a lee wave pattern has been established, it follows several basic rules:

• stronger the wind, the longer the wavelength. The typical wavelength is about 6
miles but can vary from as short as 3 miles to as long as 15 miles.
• position of the individual wave crests will remain nearly stationary with the
wind blowing through them as long as the mean wind speed remains nearly
constant.
• individual wave amplitude can exceed 3,000 feet.
• layer of lee waves often extends from just below the tops of the mountains to
4,000 to 6,000 feet above the tops but can extend higher.
• induced vertical currents within the wave can reach values of 4,500 feet per
minute.
• wind speed is stronger through the wave crest and slower through the wave
trough.
• wave closest to the obstruction will be the strongest with the waves further
downstream getting progressively weaker.
• a large eddy called a “rotor” may form below each wave crest.
• mountain ranges downstream may amplify or nullify induced wave patterns.
• downdrafts are frequently found on the downwind side of the obstruction.
These downdrafts typically reach values of 2,000 feet per minute but down-
drafts up to 5,000 feet per minute have been reported. The strongest downdraft
is usually found at a height near the top of the summit and could force an air-
craft into the ground.

W
A

Fig. 2-20 - Amplitude (A) and wavelength (W) in lee waves

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30 CHAPTER TWO

65 Knots

55 Knots

45 Knots 48 Knots

Fig. 2-21 - Stronger wind in wave crest in lee waves

Fig. 2-22 - A rotor may form beneath wave crests

Clouds Associated with Lee Waves

Lee waves involve lift and, if sufficient moisture is available, characteristic clouds
will form. The signature clouds may be absent, however, due to the air being too dry
or the cloud being embedded within other clouds and not visible. It is essential to
realize, nevertheless, that the absence of lee wave clouds does not mean that there are
no lee waves present.

(a) Cap cloud

A cloud often forms over the peak of the mountain range and remains station-
ary. Frequently, it may have an almost “waterfall” appearance on the leeward
side of the mountain. This effect is caused by subsidence and often signifies a
strong downdraft just to the lee of the mountaintop.
(b) Lenticular clouds
A lens shaped cloud may be found at the crest of each wave. These clouds may
be separated vertically with several thousand feet between each cloud or may
form so close together they resemble a “stack of plates.” When air flows
through the crest it is often laminar, making the cloud smooth in appearance.
On occasion, when the shear results in turbulence, the lenticular cloud will take
on a ragged and wind torn appearance.
(c) Rotor cloud
A rotor cloud may form in association with the rotor. It will appear as a long
line of stratocumulus, a few miles downwind and parallel to the ridge. Its base
will be normally below the peak of the ridge, but its top can extend above it.
The turbulence associated with a rotor cloud is severe within and near the rotor
cloud.
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Fig. 2-23 - Characteristic clouds formed by lee waves

Fronts
A front is the transition or mixing zone between two air masses. While only the
surface front is shown on a weather map, it is important to realize that an air mass
is three-dimensional and resembles a “wedge”. If the colder air mass is advancing,
then the leading edge of the transition zone is described as being a cold front. If the
colder air mass is retreating, then the trailing edge of the transition zone is described
as being a warm front.

Fig. 2-24 - Cross-section of a cold front

The movement of a front is dependent on the motion of the cold air nearly per-
pendicular to the front, both at the surface and aloft. When the winds blow across a
front, it tends to move with the wind. When winds blow parallel to a front, the front
moves slowly or even becomes quasistationary. The motion of the warm air does not
affect the motion of the front.

On surface charts, fronts are usually drawn as relatively straight lines. In reality, this
is seldom so. Cold air flows across the surface like water. When advancing, it readily
moves across level ground but in hilly or mountainous terrain it is held up until it
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32 CHAPTER TWO

either finds a gap or deepens to the point where it can flow over the barrier. Cold air
also readily accelerates downhill resulting in rapid motion along valleys. When
retreating, cold air moves slowly and leaves pools of cold air in low-lying areas that
take time to modify out of existence.

Frontal Weather

When two different air masses encounter each other across a front, the cooler,
denser air will lift the warm air. When this happens, the weather at a front can vary
from clear skies to widespread cloud and rain with embedded thunderstorms. The
weather occurring at a front depends on:

(a) amount of moisture available

Sufficient moisture must be present for clouds to form. Insufficient moisture
results in “dry” or “inactive” fronts that may be marked by only changes of tem-
perature, pressure and wind. An inactive front can become active quickly if it
encounters an area of moisture.
(b) stability of the air being lifted
The degree of stability influences the type of clouds being formed. Unstable air
will produce cumuliform clouds accompanied by showery weather and more
turbulent conditions. Stable air will produce stratiform cloud accompanied by
steady precipitation and little or no turbulence.
(c) slope of the front
A shallow frontal surface such as a warm front produces widespread cloud and
steady precipitation. Such areas are susceptible to the formation of low stratus
cloud and fog and may have an area of freezing precipitation. Passage of such a
front is usually noted by the end of the steady precipitation, followed by a slow
reduction in the cloud cover.
A steep frontal surface, such as is seen in cold fronts, tends to produce a narrow
band of convective weather. Although blustery, the period of bad weather is
short-lived and the improvement behind the front is dramatic.
(d) speed of the front
A fast-moving cold front enhances the vertical motion along the front, which,
in turn, causes the instability to be accentuated. The result is more vigorous
convective-type weather and the potential for the development of squall lines
and severe weather.
Frontal Waves and Occlusions

Small-scale changes in pressure along a front can create localized alterations in the
wind field resulting in a bending of the front. This bending takes on a wave-like
appearance as part of the front begins to move as a warm front and another part
moves as a cold front. Such a structure is known as a frontal wave. There are two types
of frontal waves:
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LAKP-Prairies 33

(a) Stable Waves

The wave structure moves along the front but does not develop beyond the
wave appearance. Such features, known as stable waves, tend to move rapidly
(25 to 60 knots) along the front and are accompanied by a localized area of
heavier cloud and precipitation. The air mass stability around the wave deter-
mines the cloud and precipitation type. Since the wave moves rapidly, the asso-
ciated weather duration tends to be short.

Wave
Crest

(b) Unstable (Occluding) Waves

Given additional support for development, such as an upper trough, the surface
pressure will continue to fall near the frontal wave, causing the formation of a
low pressure centre and strengthening winds. The wind behind the cold front
increases causing the cold front to accelerate and begin to wrap around the low.
Eventually, it catches up with the warm front and the two fronts occlude or
“close together.” At this point, the low is at maximum intensity.

Trowal
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34 CHAPTER TWO

Occlusions occur because the air behind the cold front is colder and denser than the
cool air mass ahead of the warm front. Thus, it undercuts not only the warm sector of
the original wave but also the warm front, forcing both features aloft. As the warm
sector is lifted higher and higher, the surface portion becomes smaller and smaller.
Along the occlusion, the weather is a combination of a warm front and a cold front;
that is, a mix of layer clouds with steady precipitation and embedded convective
clouds with enhanced showery precipitation. Such a cloud mass should be approached
with caution as both icing and turbulence can be quite variable. Eventually, the frontal
wave and occlusion both move away from the low, leaving only an upper frontal band
curling back towards the low. This upper structure continues to weaken as it moves
farther and farther away from the low that initially formed it .

WARM AIR WARM AIR WARM AIR

COLD COOL COLD COOL COLD COOL

AIR AIR AIR AIR AIR AIR
A D E F

Fig. 2-27 - Frontal cross-sections

Thunderstorms
No other weather encountered by a pilot can be as violent or threatening as a thun-
derstorm. Thunderstorms produce many hazards to the aviation community, and,
since they are so common on the prairies in summer time, it is important that pilots
understand their nature and how to deal with them. To produce a thunderstorm,
there are several ingredients which must be in place. These include:
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LAKP-Prairies 35

• an unstable airmass
• moisture in the low levels
• something to trigger them, e.g. daytime heating, upper level cooling
• for severe thunderstorms, wind shear.
The Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm
The thunderstorm, which may cover an area ranging from 5 miles in diameter
to, in the extreme case, as much as 50 miles, usually consists of two or more cells in
different stages of their life cycle. The stages of life of individual cells are:

Fig. 2-28 -Top-down view of a thunderstorm "family" containing

cells in different stages of development
(a) Cumulus Stage
The cumulus stage is marked by updrafts only. These updrafts can reach values
of up to 3,000 feet per minute and cause the cloud to build rapidly upwards,
carrying supercooled water droplets well above the freezing level. Near the end
of this stage, the cloud may well have a base more than 5 miles across and a
vertical extent in excess of 20,000 feet. The average life of this stage is about 20
minutes.
(b) Mature Stage
The appearance of precipitation beneath the base of the cell and the develop-
ment of the downdraft mark the transition to this stage. The downdraft is
caused by water drops which have become too heavy for the updraft to support
and now begin to fall. At the same time, the drops begin to evaporate as they
draw in dry air from the edge of the cloud, and then fall through the drier air
beneath the base of the cloud. This evaporation causes the air to cool and
become denser, resulting in a downwash of accelerating cold air. Typical down-
draft speeds can reach values of 2,500 feet per minute.
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36 CHAPTER TWO

Fig. 2-29 - Cumulus stage Fig. 2-30 - Mature stage Fig. 2-31 - Dissipating Stage

The downdraft, when it hits the ground, spreads out in all directions but travels
fastest in the direction that the storm is moving. The leading edge of this cold
air is called the “gust front” and can extend ten to fifteen miles, or even farther,
when channelled along mountain valleys in front of the storm. A rapid drop in
temperature and a sharp rise in pressure characterize this horizontal flow of
gusty surface winds.
At the same time, the updrafts continue to strengthen until they reach maxi-
mum speeds, possibly exceeding 6,000 feet per minute. The cloud reaches the
tropopause which blocks the updraft, forcing the stream of air to spread out hor-
izontally. Strong upper winds at the tropopause level assist in the spreading out
of this flow in the downwind direction, producing the traditional anvil-shaped
top. This is classically what is referred to as a cumulonimbus cloud (CB).
The thunderstorm may have a base measuring from 5 miles to more than 15
miles in diameter and a top ranging from as low as 20,000 to more than 50,000
feet. The mature stage is the most violent stage in the life a thunderstorm and
usually lasts for 20 to 30 minutes.
Near the end of the mature stage, the downdraft has increased in size so that
the updraft is almost completely “choked off,” stopping the development of the
cell. However, at times, the upper winds increase strongly with height causing
the cell to tilt. In such a case, the precipitation falls through only a portion of
the cell, allowing the updraft to persist and reach values of 10,000 feet per
minute. Such cells are referred to as “steady state storms” that can last for sever-
al hours and produce the most severe weather, including tornadoes.
(c) Dissipating Stage
The dissipating stage of a cell is marked by the presence of downdrafts only.
With no additional flow of moisture into the cloud from an updraft, the rain
gradually tapers off and the downdrafts weaken. The cell may dissipate com-
pletely in 15 to 30 minutes, leaving clear skies or patchy cloud layers. At this
stage the anvil, which is formed almost exclusively of ice crystals, often detach-
es and drifts off downwind.
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LAKP-Prairies 37

Types of Thunderstorms
(a) Air Mass Thunderstorms
These thunderstorms form within a warm, moist air mass and are non-frontal
in nature. They are usually a product of diurnal heating, tend to be isolated,
reach maximum strength in the late afternoon, are seldom violent, and usually
dissipate quickly after the setting of the sun. There is also a second form of air
mass thunderstorm that is created by cold advection. In this case, cold air
moves across warm land or water and becomes unstable. Of these two, it is
the movement of cold air over warm water that results in the most frequent
occurrence of this type of thunderstorm. Since the heating is constant, these
thunderstorms can form at any time of day or night.

Fig. 2-32 - Air heated by warm land Fig. 2-33 - Cool air heated by warm
water
(b) Frontal Thunderstorms
These thunderstorms form either as the result of a frontal surface lifting an
unstable air mass or a stable air mass becoming unstable, as a result of the lift-
ing. Frontal thunderstorms can be found along cold fronts, warm fronts and
trowals. These thunderstorms tend to be numerous in the area, often form in
lines, are frequently embedded in other cloud layers, and tend to be active dur-
ing the afternoon and well into the evening. Cold frontal thunderstorms are
normally more severe than warm frontal thunderstorms.
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38 CHAPTER TWO

CI
CS

Fig. 2-34 - Warm frontal thunderstorms

(c) Squall Line Thunderstorms

A squall line (or line squall) is a line of thunderstorms. Squall lines can be sev-
eral hundred miles long and have lower bases and higher tops than the average
thunderstorm. Violent combinations of strong winds, hail, rain and lightning
make them an extreme hazard not only to aircraft in the air, but also to those
parked uncovered on the ground.
Squall line thunderstorms are most often found 50 to 300 miles ahead of a
fast-moving cold front but can also be found in accompanying low pressure
troughs, in areas of convergence, along mountain ranges and even along sea
breeze fronts.
(d) Orographic Thunderstorms
Orographic thunderstorms occur when moist, unstable air is forced up a moun-
tain slope. These are common in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where,
on a typical summer day, they form due to a combination of upslope flow and
daytime heating. When they get high enough, the prevailing west-southwest
flow aloft carries them eastwards. If conditions are favourable, they can persist
for several hours, otherwise they dissipate fairly rapidly. Typically, they will
begin to develop in mid-morning and can continue to form well into the after-
noon. In such situations, these storms frequently produce copious amounts of
hail across central Alberta.

Fig. 2-35 - Orographic thunderstorms form on the foothills of the Rocky Mountains
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LAKP-Prairies 39

(e) Nocturnal Thunderstorms

Nocturnal thunderstorms are those that develop during or persist all night.
Usually, they are associated with an upper level weather feature moving through
the area, are generally isolated, and tend to produce considerable lightning.
Severe Thunderstorms

The discussion of the life cycle of a thunderstorm does not fit the case of those that
seem to last for extended periods of time and are most prolific in producing torna-
does and large hail. A particular type of severe thunderstorm is known as a
“Supercell”.

The Supercell storm typically begins as a multi-cellular thunderstorm. However,

because the upper winds increase strongly with height, the cell begins to tilt. This
causes the descending precipitation to fall through only a portion of the cell, allow-
ing the updraft to persist.

The second stage of the supercell life cycle is clearly defined by the weather. At this
stage, the largest hail fall generally occurs and funnel clouds are often observed.

The third and final stage of supercell evolution is the collapse phase. The storm’s
downdrafts increase in magnitude, and extend horizontally, while the updrafts are
decreasing. It is at this time that the strongest tornadoes and straight-line winds
occur.

While Supercells do occur over the Southern Prairies, Southern Ontario and
Southwestern Quebec, they are rare elsewhere in Canada.

Thunderstorm Hazards

The environment in and around a thunderstorm can be the most hazardous

encountered by an aircraft. In addition to the usual risks such as severe turbulence,
severe clear icing, large hail, heavy precipitation, low visibility and electrical dis-
charges within and near the cell, there are other hazards that occur in the surround-
ing environment.

(a) The Gust Front

The gust front is the leading edge of any downburst and can run many miles
ahead of the storm. This may occur under relatively clear skies and, hence, can
be particularly nasty for the unwary pilot. Aircraft taking off, landing, or oper-
ating at low levels can find themselves in rapidly changing wind fields that
quickly threaten the aircraft’s ability to remain airborne. In a matter of seconds,
the wind direction can change by as much 180°, while at the same time the
wind speed can approach 100 knots in the gusts. Extremely strong gust fronts
can do considerable damage on the ground and are sometimes referred to as
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40 CHAPTER TWO

“plow winds.” All of this will likely be accompanied by considerable mechanical

turbulence and induced shear on the frontal boundary up to 6,500 feet above
the ground.
(b) Downburst, Macroburst and Microburst
A downburst is a concentrated, severe downdraft which accompanies a
descending column of precipitation underneath the cell. When it hits the
ground, it induces an outward, horizontal burst of damaging winds. There are
two types of downburst, the “macroburst” and the “microburst”.
A macroburst is a downdraft of air with an outflow diameter of 2.2 nautical
miles, or greater, with damaging winds that last from 5 to 20 minutes. Such
occurrences are common in the summer but only rarely hit towns or airports.
On occasion, embedded within the downburst, is a violent column of descend-
ing air known as a “microburst”. Microbursts have an outflow diameter of less
than 2.2 nautical miles and peak winds lasting from 2 to 5 minutes. Such winds
can literally force an aircraft into the ground.

Cloud

External Downdraft Direction of travel

due to evaporation
cooling Inflow to storm

Cool air

Outflow from storm Gust front

Fig. 2-36 - “Steady state” tilted thunderstorm Fig. 2-37 - The gust front

(c) Funnel Cloud, Tornado and Waterspout

The most violent thunderstorms draw air into their base with great vigor. The
incoming air tends to have some rotating motion and, if it should become con-
centrated in a small area, forms a rotating vortex in the cloud base in which
wind speeds can exceed 200 knots. If the vortex becomes strong enough, it will
begin to extend a funnel-shaped cloud downwards from the base. If the cloud
does not reach the ground, it is called a funnel cloud. If it reaches the ground,
it is refered to as a tornado and if it touches water, it is a waterspout.
Any severe thunderstorm should be avoided by a wide margin as all are extremely
hazardous to aircraft.
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Photo 2-3 - Severe thunderstorm credit: Alister Ling

F-Scale Intensity Phrase Wind Speed Type of Damage Done

Number (kts)

Weak 35-62 Some damage to chimneys; breaks branches off trees;

FO Tornado pushes over shallow-rooted trees; damages sign boards.

The lower limit is the beginning of hurricane wind speed;

Moderate peels surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed off foundations
F1 63-97
Tornado or overturned; moving autos pushed off the roads; attached
garages may be destroyed.

Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses;

Strong
F2 Tornado
98-136 mobile homes demolished; boxcars pushed over; large trees
snapped or uprooted; light-object missiles generated.

Severe 137-179 Roof and some walls torn off well constructed houses;
F3 Tornado trains overturned; most trees in forest uprooted

Devastating Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak

180-226
F4 Tornado foundations blown off some distance; cars thrown and
large-object missiles generated.

Strong frame houses lifted off foundations and carried

Incredible
F5 227-285 considerable distances to disintegrate; automobile-sized
Tornado
missiles fly through the air in excess of 100 meters; trees
debarked; steel re-inforced concrete structures badly damaged.

Table 2-1 - The Fujita Scale

Waterspouts can occur over large lakes but are rare. The first sign that a waterspout
may form is the cloud sagging down in one area. If this bulge continues downward to
the sea surface, forming a vortex beneath it, water will be carried aloft in the lower 60
to 100 feet.
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42 CHAPTER TWO

Cold Weather Operations

Operating an aircraft in extremely cold weather conditions can bring on a unique
set of potential problems.

Temperature Inversion and Cold Air Outbreaks

Low level inversions are common in most areas during the fall and winter due to
very cold outbreaks and strong radiation cooling. When cold air moves out over the
open water, it becomes very unstable. Cloud can be seen to almost be “boiling” off the
waters surface and forming vortices that rotate upwards. Such a condition can be very
turbulent and there is a significant risk of serious icing. At the same time, the con-
vection enhances any snowfall resulting in areas of extremely poor visibility.

Looming

Another interesting effect in cold air is the bending of low angle light rays as
they pass through an inversion. This bending creates an effect known as “looming,” a
form of mirage that causes objects normally beyond the horizon to appear above the
horizon.

Ice Fog and Ice Crystals

Ice fog occurs when water vapour sublimates directly to ice crystals. In conditions
of light winds and temperatures colder than -30°C or so, such as those that might be
found in Cold Lake, water vapour from anthropogenic sources (man-made) can form
widespread and persistent ice fog or ice crystals. In light winds, the visibility can be
reduced to near zero, closing an airport for hours.

Blowing Snow

Blowing snow can occur almost anywhere where dry snow can be picked up by
strong winds but poses the greatest risk away from the forested areas of the Prairies.
As winds increase, blowing snow can, in extreme conditions, reduce horizontal visi-
bility at runway level to less than 100 feet.

Whiteout
“Whiteout” is a phenomena that can occur when a layer of cloud of uniform
thickness overlays a snow or ice-covered surface, such as a large frozen lake. Light rays
are diffused when they pass through the cloud layer so that they strike the surface
from all angles. This light is then reflected back and forth between the surface and
cloud, eliminating all shadows. The result is a loss of depth perception, the horizon
becoming impossible to discern, and dark objects seeming to float in a field of white.
Disastrous accidents have occurred under such conditions where pilots have flown
into the surface, unaware that they were descending and confident that they could see
the ground.
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LAKP-Prairies 43

Altimetry Errors

The basic barometric altimeter in an aircraft assumes a standard change of temper-

ature with height in the atmosphere and, using this fact, certain pressure readings by
the altimeter have been defined as being at certain altitudes. For example, a baromet-
ric altimeter set at 30.00" would indicate an altitude of 10,000 feet ASL when it sens-
es the outside pressure of 20.00".

Cold air is much more dense than the assumed value used in the standard ICAO
atmosphere. For this reason, any aircraft that is flying along a constant pressure sur-
face will actually be descending as it moves into areas of colder air, although the indi-
cated altitude will remain unchanged. Interestingly enough, a new altimeter setting
obtained from a site in the cold air will not necessarily correct this problem and may
increase the error.

Consider:

A pilot obtained an altimeter setting of 29.85" and plans to maintain a flight level
of 10,000 feet enroute. As the aircraft moves into an area with a strong low-level
inversion and very cold surface temperatures, the plane descends gradually as it
follows the constant pressure surface corresponding to an indicated altitude of 10,000
feet. A new altimeter setting, say 30.85 inches, is obtained from an airport located in
the bottom of a valley, deep in the cold air. This new setting is higher than the
original setting and, when it is entered, the altimeter will show an increase in altitude
(in this case the change is one inch and so the altimeter will show an increase from
10,000 to 11,000 feet). Unaware of what is happening, the pilot descends even
further to reach the desired enroute altitude, compounding the height error.

If the aircraft were operating in cloud-shrouded mountains, an extremely haz-

ardous situation can develop. There is no simple solution to this problem, other than
to be aware of it and allow for additional altitude to clear obstacles.

Volcanic Ash
A major, but fortunately infrequent, threat to aviation is volcanic ash. When a
volcano erupts, a large amount of rock is pulverized into dust and blasted upwards.
The altitude is determined by the severity of the blast and, at times, the ash plume
will extend into the stratosphere. This ash is then spread downwind by the winds aloft
in the troposphere and the stratosphere.

The dust in the troposphere settles fairly rapidly and can limit visibility over a large
area. For example, when Mt. St. Helens, Washington, erupted, there was ash fallout
and limited visibility across southern Alberta and Saskatchewan.

Of greater concern is the volcanic ash that is ingested by aircraft engines at flight
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:10 PM Page 44

44 CHAPTER TWO

level. Piston-driven engines have failed due to plugged air filters while turbine
engines have “flamed out.”

The volcanic dust also contains considerable pumice material. Leading edges such
as wings, struts, and turbine blades can all be abraded to the point where replacement
becomes necessary. Windscreens have been abraded until they become opaque.

Deformation Zone
A deformation zone is defined as “an area in the atmosphere where winds converge
along one axis and diverge along another. Deformation zones (or axis of deformation
as they are sometimes referred to) can produce clouds and precipitation.” More sim-
ply put, we are referring to areas in the atmosphere where the winds flow together
(converge) or apart (diverge), resulting in areas where air parcels undergo stretching
along one axis and contraction along another axis. Meteorologically, this is an area
where significant cloud amounts, precipitation, icing and turbulence can occur to in
the induced vertical currents.

For meteorologists, the most common form of deformation zones are the ones asso-
ciated with upper lows. Northeast of the upper low,, a deformation zone usually forms
in which the air is ascending. In this area, thick cloud layers form giving widespread
precipitation. Depending on the temperatures aloft, this cloud may also
contain significant icing. During the summer, the edges of this cloud area will often
support thunderstorms in the afternoon. If this area of cloud is slow moving, or should
it interact with terrain, then the upslope areas can see prolonged precipitation. Winds
shear in the ascending air will often give turbulence in the middle and higher-levels.

A second deformation zone exists to the west and northwest of these lows. In this
case the air is descending, so that widespread higher clouds usually only consist of
whatever cloud is wrapped around the low. Precipitation here tends to be more inter-
mittent or showery. Wind shear can also cause turbulence but most often it is con-
fined to the low-levels.
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LAKP-Prairies 45

Fig. 2-38 - Deformation zones

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46
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LAKP-Prairies 47

Chapter 3

Weather Patterns of the Prairies

Introduction

"Weather is what you get; climate is what you expect" - (anon.)

Weather is what is happening at any given time; it is transitory and subject to con-
stant change. Climate speaks of the history and long term averages of weather and
can tell a great deal about a specific location. It will show how the weather, on aver-
age, is both similar and different from what could be expected and this imparts valu-
able information about a site. Significant deviations from the mean suggest the influ-
ence of factors such as topography, vegetation, or land use, and understanding these
factors is crucial to forecasting the weather. Meteorologists must consider both
weather and climate when writing a forecast; there is a constant conflict between
“what you expect” and “what you get.” The objective of this chapter is to explain some
of the large-scale influences on climate and weather in the Prairies. Chapter four is
a more detailed account of weather influences on a local scale.

Geography of the Prairies

Map 3-1 - Topography of GFACN 32 Domain

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48 CHAPTER THREE

The three provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba are referred to as the
Prairie Provinces. They cover a total of 196 million hectares and, of this about 20 mil-
lion hectares, or 10 percent, is surface water.

Province Land Area Water Area Total Area

Alberta 64.4 1.7 66.1
Saskatchewan 57.0 8.2 65.2
Manitoba 54.8 10.2 65.0
Total 176.2 20.1 196.3
Table 3-1 - Surface area of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba (millions of hectares)

All three provinces have the 49th parallel as their southern border and the 60th par-
allel as their northern border. The western boundary of the prairies extends north-
ward along the continental divide to 53ºN and then along the 120ºW meridian. The
eastern boundary follows the 95ºW meridian to 52º 50ºN and then takes a north-
easterly course to Hudson Bay.

Land elevations are highest in southwestern Alberta and gradually decrease to sea
level in northeastern Manitoba, along the Hudson Bay coast. Prominent ranges of
hills that influence the weather can be found in all three provinces. These include the
Cypress Hills, Swan Hills and Caribou Mountains in Alberta, the Cypress, Pasquia,
and Mostoos Hills in Saskatchewan, and the Riding and Duck Mountains in
Manitoba.

In Alberta the major river systems are the North and South Saskatchewan, and the
Slave. The Slave River comprises 90 percent of the province’s water outflow and has
the Athabasca and Peace Rivers as its major tributaries. In southern Saskatchewan,
the two Saskatchewan Rivers join together to form one, which flows eastward into
Lake Winnipeg. The Churchill River, interlaced with numerous tributaries, provides
the main drainage system in the northern part of the Province, as well as much of
northern Manitoba, before flowing into Hudson Bay. Manitoba’s other major river
systems include the Assiniboine, Red, Nelson, and Seal.

Ancient glacial passages have left their mark on the surface of the Prairie Provinces
in the form of abundant, and generally shallow, lakes. This is especially evident over
northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba. These lakes can have a significant impact on
local weather including greater leeward cloudiness, a longer but cooler growing sea-
son, lake-induced snowsqualls in the fall season, and a complex local wind regime.

There are three principal topographical areas on the Prairies: the Rocky Mountains
and Foothills to the west, the Prairie Region covering most of the southern portions
of the provinces, and the Canadian Shield to the northeast.
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LAKP-Prairies 49

The Rocky Mountains and Foothills

YELLOWHEAD JASPER
PASS

RED DEER
KICKING HORSE
PASS

BANFF

CALGARY

Map 3-2 - The Rocky Mountains and Foothills

The Rocky Mountains and Foothills area follows the British Columbia - Alberta
boundary from 49ºN to 55ºN latitude. The eastern extent of this area is not well
marked as the foothills gradually blend into the Prairie Region to the east. However,
if the 3,500-foot contour is used as the eastern edge, the width of the area varies from
less than 40 nautical miles near the Crowsnest Pass to over 100 miles in the district
north of Jasper.

Within this area are many glaciers and snow capped peaks that rise over 10,000
feet. Melt water from the glaciers forms the source for many of the eastward flowing
rivers that provide moisture to the plains. Over time, many deep and narrow valleys
have been cut into the mountains. Since most of these valleys generally open to the
east and northeast over Alberta, they tend to funnel and intensify easterly upslope
flows. Therefore, they are typically locations of enhanced cloud and precipitation
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50 CHAPTER THREE

when under the influence of such a wind regime. Conversely, when the flow is west-
erly, these valleys are sites of enhanced subsidence drying. Either way, winds funnelled
through these narrow channels are usually strengthened and quite turbulent. Valleys
that run between and parallel to the ranges of mountains, such as the one between
Jasper and Banff, are comparatively sheltered from most strong and moisture-laden
flows.

Some mountain passes, such as the Crowsnest Pass, are important meteorological-
ly as they provide an opening through the Rocky Mountain barrier, allowing air to be
exchanged fairly easily from one side to the other. Moist air originating over the
Pacific can make its way into Alberta though these passes with less modification than
air that has been forced up and over the divide. The open passes are also notorious
locations for strong winds and turbulence. It should also be noted that a relative
decrease in the height of the Rockies to the north of Jasper provides an easier entrance
into Alberta for moist pacific air masses. As a result, when the flow is westerly, the
country around Peace River and Grande Prairie receives a greater amount of precip-
itation than it otherwise would if the barrier were higher.

The Prairie Region

HIGH LEVEL

PEACE RIVER

FORT McMURRAY

EDMONTON

PRINCE ALBERT THE PAS

RED DEER
NORTH BATTLEFORD

CALGARY SASKATOON

LETHBRIDGE
DAUPHIN
SWIFT MOOSE REGINA
CURRENT JAW
WINNIPEG
BRANDON
ESTEVAN

Map 3-3 - The Prairie Region

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LAKP-Prairies 51

The Prairie Region is the largest topographic area of the Prairie provinces and
lies between the Rockies on the west and the Canadian Shield to the northeast. The
eastern boundary runs from the southeastern corner of Manitoba through Lake
Winnipeg, then northwestward to the Alberta - Saskatchewan boundary at 57ºN.
From there the boundary passes through the western end of Lake Athabasca and then
north to the 60ºN parallel.

Most of the population and almost all of the agriculture of the Prairie provinces lies
within this region. The bulk of the agriculture is south of a line that extends from the
southern tip of Lake Winnipeg northwestward to the region that is between the Hay
and Peace Rivers on the British Columbia - Alberta border. North of this line, the
land cover changes from open plains to mixed boreal forest, and agricultural activity
rapidly diminishes.

Although the Prairies are famous for flatness, the terrain is far from uniform and
this has a significant impact on the weather. Generally the area can be described as a
wedge, with the thinnest edge over eastern Manitoba, and a gradual upward slope
towards the Rocky Mountain foothills. Glaciation is responsible for most of the land-
forms, including the numerous shallow lakes and occasional ranges of hills. The river
valleys change in nature from province to province. In Alberta they are very deep and
sharp sided, cut by the fast flowing and plentiful water supply from the Rockies. In
Saskatchewan, they tend to become broader and shallower, and this tendency increas-
es in Manitoba. Here the rivers are in gently sloping valleys, and flow just slightly
below the level of the surrounding land.
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52 CHAPTER THREE

The Canadian Shield

URANIUM CITY
STONY RAPIDS
HUDSON BAY

CHURCHILL

THOMPSON

FLIN FLON

Map 3-4 - The Canadian Shield

Northeast of the Prairie Region lies the heavily glaciated expanse of rock known as
the Canadian Shield. The elevation slopes gradually from near 2,000 feet in north
central Saskatchewan to 700 feet north of Lake Athabasca and down to sea level
along the Hudson Bay coast. This area is more than half covered by numerous lakes,
of which Lakes Athabasca and Winnipeg are the largest.

The Canadian Shield region includes the extreme northeastern part of Manitoba,
which is strongly influenced by Hudson Bay. During the summer months, Churchill
and other coastal communities are beset by frequent sea breezes from the cold, and
sometimes ice covered bay, resulting in cooler temperatures and greater cloud cover
than for stations farther inland. In winter, the influence of the bay diminishes as the
ice cover becomes established, but outbreaks of cold Arctic air often surge across this
vegetation-sparse area. Strong northwesterly winds, which typically accompany such
outbreaks, cause dangerous windchills and restricted visibilities in blowing snow.
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LAKP-Prairies 53

Mean Upper Atmospheric Circulation

L
5500

5600

5700

500 hPa
5800 approx. 18,000 feet

Fig. 3-1 - Mean summer upper winds

5150
5200

5300
L

5400

5500

5600 500 hPa

approx. 18,000 feet

Fig. 3-2 - Mean winter upper winds

The prairies lie in a broad band of global circumpolar westerly winds. This mean
westerly flow is much stronger in winter than summer In general, there is a low over
the Arctic Islands with a broad trough extending southward across the eastern por-
tions of Hudson Bay or Northern Quebec. In winter, the mean upper flow across
most of the Prairies is strong northwesterly. The Polar jet stream extends southeast-
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54 CHAPTER THREE

wards from the Mackenzie Valley into the northern Prairies. This means that many
of the weather features that affect the Prairies during winter have an Arctic origin.
During winter, frigid air masses, which form in the Arctic source region, flow south-
ward across the Prairies. Such outbreaks occur in the wake of migratory disturbances
and frequently produce blowing snow.

As the year progresses, the upper flow becomes weaker with the polar vortex shift-
ing closer to the pole and winds becoming more westerly. In summer, the mean flow
across the Prairies is from the west or southwest indicating that many of the weather
features that affect the Prairies have a pacific origin and are usually mild and moist.
The position of the jet stream is across the northern parts of the U.S. just to the south
of the Canadian border.

If it were not for the Rocky Mountains over the western portion of the continent,
these mild and moist winds would flow eastward across North America, much as they
do in Europe. However, the Rockies has a pronounced effect on the climate of the
Prairies. These mountain ranges deflect, block and greatly modify the incoming air
masses from the Pacific. Air masses that do cross the Rockies lose much of their
moisture and undergo adiabatic warming as they flow onto the plains. Throughout
the year, warm and moist air from the U.S. Midwest affects the southern Prairies and
occasionally leads to large precipitation events.

Upper Troughs and Upper Ridges

UPPER RIDGE

UPPER TROUGH

H
added
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LAKP-Prairies 55

While the mean upper flow is northwesterly, there frequently are upper troughs and
ridges embedded in this flow. The upper troughs, which tend to be cold, produce areas
of cloud and precipitation because of the induced vertical lift. They also tend to be
strongest in the winter and often have broad cloud shields and widespread precipita-
tion, particularly in upslope areas along the windward slopes of the mountain ranges.
During the summer months, the cloud shields associated with upper troughs are nar-
rower, usually quite convective and produce mainly showers and thundershowers.
Upper troughs may have a surface low-pressure system or a frontal system associated
with them, further enhancing the cloud and precipitation. Clearing behind an upper
trough can be gradual in winter but tends to be quite rapid in the summer.

500 hPa
H approx. 18,000 feet

Fig. 3-4 - Upper ridge over BC giving northwest flow to the Prairies

Frequently, there is a north-south upper ridge over BC which can remain station-
ary for many days. The flow to the west of this ridge is from the west or southwest.
The flow to the east is from the northwest. This occurs very frequently in summer and
winter, and usually means fine weather for the Prairies. Naturally, in winter,
skies will be clear but the temperatures will be frigid. One notable exception to this
generalized statement occurs when an Arctic front is lying along the foothills. In such
a situation, impulses moving along the front will give widespread cloudiness along
with periods of snow.
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56 CHAPTER THREE

Semi-Permanent Surface Features

1016 1014 1012 1010 10081006 1004 1004

H
1002
1002
L 1000
ICELANDIC
1004
L LOW
ALEUTIAN
1006
LOW
1008
1010

1012

1014

1016

H
PACIFIC
HIGH H BASIN
HIGH

1016 BERMUDA
1016 HIGH

Fig. 3-5 - January mean sea level pressure

1010 1008
L
1012
H
1014

1016
1008
1018

1020
L

H
PACIFIC
HIGH
1020

1018
L
1016 THERMAL
BERMUDA
1014 1010 1006 1006 1010 1014 HIGH

Fig. 3-6 - July mean sea level pressure

The mean January pressure chart shows the Aleutian low well out in the Pacific
Ocean and the Icelandic Low southeast of Greenland. A ridge of high pressure
extends from the Beaufort Sea, southeastward across the Mackenzie Valley into
northern Alberta, to southern Saskatchewan. This means that there is a northerly
flow across the Prairies through the winter period, allowing frequent incursions of
polar air across the Prairies.
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LAKP-Prairies 57

As the year goes on, the Aleutian low weakens a little and drifts southward while
the Icelandic low dissipates. A thermal low develops in the southwestern US as the
result of the extreme heat in this area. A weak low forms over the northern Quebec/
Baffin Island area leaving the Prairies in a climatological weak flow for the summer.
This hints at the likelihood of lows from the Pacific, the Arctic and the U.S. south-
west as having about the same probability of invading the Prairies.

Migratory Surface Weather Systems

MACKENZIE
LOW

ALBERTA
LOW

COLORADO
LOW

Fig. 3-7 - Major Prairie storm tracks

The Prairie provinces are affected by a number of migratory weather systems that
can be loosely categorized depending on the region and circumstances of their
formation. All these storms can occur at any time of year, but it is the winter storms
that tend to be more intense due to the greater temperature difference between the
northern and southern latitudes.
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58 CHAPTER THREE

Gulf of Alaska Low

UPPER TROUGH

500 hPa
approx. 18,000 feet

Fig.3-8 - Upper trough moving across BC

1004
1004
1008

L
997

1008

L 1008

998

1004

1008 1004

Fig. 3-9 - Surface Analysis

Low pressure systems can move across BC into Alberta and give lots of precipita-
tion in the process. A fairly typical scenario will have an upper low anchored in the
Gulf of Alaska. A series of upper troughs rotates around the southern portion of this
upper centre and then move eastward across BC. At the surface, a low and frontal
wave tracks across BC into Alberta, just ahead of the upper trough. When the low
and wave crosses BC, the system weakens because of the interfering effect of the
mountains in the low levels. At this point, there is only cloud and perhaps a small
amount of precipitation in Alberta. As the low and frontal wave move out of the
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LAKP-Prairies 59

mountains and onto the plains, the system are rejuvenated as "Alberta" or "lee" lows
and track eastwards. As they do so, the precipitation intensifies in its vicinity. To the
north of the surface low, the flow is easterly and, hence, upslope into the foothills and
mountains of Alberta. These are the areas which are particularly hard-hit by these
events. Precipitation in excess of 50 mm a day are fairly common from these systems.
This pattern can occur at any time of the year but are more common in winter, when
there are stronger temperature gradients involved.

Colorado Low

Colorado Lows form by much the same process as the Alberta Low, except that
they originate farther south, generally in the vicinity of Colorado as the name implies.
Often the upper flow will direct these lows along a trajectory that pushes them
towards the Canadian border. The extreme southern portion of Manitoba receives an
extra measure of annual precipitation as it is often clipped by these systems as they
head into Ontario.

Mackenzie Low

Mackenzie Lows tend to develop in the Mackenzie River Valley of the Northwest
Territories. Once developed, they follow a southeastward track but usually stay north
of the Prairie provinces. On occasion, they will affect the northernmost parts of
Saskatchewan and Manitoba during the winter.

Winter Weather
Blizzards
Blizzards are the most destructive winter storms encountered on the Prairies. The
occurrence of blizzards varies greatly over the Prairies. They rarely occur in the
forested areas of Northern Saskatchewan, Manitoba or Alberta. In contrast, the max-
imum number of blizzards occur over barren southwestern Saskatchewan, with 1.6
episodes a year at Swift Current. The evolution of storms which will create a blizzard
is much like what has been described above for Migratory Systems. The differences
in migratory systems that will produce blizzards is mostly to do with the origins of
these lows rather than their development or movement. There are three main sources
for these blizzards are Colorado Lows, Gulf of Alaska Lows, and the Mackenzie
Valley Lows.

The Mackenzie Valley Lows tend to have stronger winds and colder temperatures
while the Colorado Lows, due to milder temperatures, are more likely to have large
snowfall amounts. All these systems will produce widespread poor flying conditions
that will persist for many hours and even days. Low ceilings, poor visibilities and
severe turbulence associated with the strong winds are common to all types. With
blizzards from the Colorado source region, temperatures are likely to be somewhat
milder and so heavy icing can also be a concern
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60 CHAPTER THREE

Arctic Outbreaks
During winter, a strong area of high pressure can form in the cold air over Alaska,
the Yukon and the Mackenzie Valley. In the tight pressure gradient to the east of this
high, the cold arctic air is pushed southeastward onto the Prairies. Generally, along
the leading edge of this cold air, flurries will occur and flying conditions will be mar-
ginal for a short time. Of greater concern to aviation are the gusty northwest winds
that will likely produce significant mechanical turbulence in the low levels. One of the
methods that Mother Nature uses to end these cold outbreaks is described next.

Cold Air Damming

UPPER RIDGE
UPPER TROUGH

500 hPa
approx. 18,000 feet

Fig. 3-10 - Upper air pattern for Cold Air Damming

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LAKP-Prairies 61

MSL SFC
CHART

H
Fig. 3-11 - Surface map for Cold Air Damming

A type of storm, which can produce a lot of precipitation over Alberta, has a sur-
face area of high pressure over the Yukon or Southern Mackenzie Valley with a ridge
into Saskatchewan. Very cold air covers the Prairies and a strong southeasterly gra-
dient to the west of the ridge over Alberta pushes this cold air up against the moun-
tains. This is a process called "cold-air damming". This cold air acts as a "dam" to
milder air from a different source region. In this case, a deep low over the west coast
of British Columbia generates a push of much milder and moister Maritime air which
moves eastward and is forced to rise over the "dam" of cold air in Alberta.

Chinooks

Chinook is a Blackfoot word that translates to "snow eater", referring to, its ability
to make winter snow packs vanish over a short time. The Chinook is a foehn wind;
a generic term for all winds that have been warmed and dried by descent off a slope.
The Chinook occurs over the front range of the Rocky Mountains and western plains
of North America. They usually blow from the southwest to west and are quite
strong, often 25-40 knots with gusts as high as 80 knots. Their effects are most
strongly felt in southwestern Alberta where they funnel through the Crowsnest Pass
before fanning out across southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. They are frequent all
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62 CHAPTER THREE

along the foothills, from Beaverlodge (west of Grande Prairie) to Rocky Mountain
House. On average, there are 30 Chinook days each winter in the Crowsnest Pass,
25 in Calgary, 20 in Medicine Hat and only 10 at Swift Current.

To understand any foehn phenomena, consider an air parcel embedded in a flow of

air forced over a topographical barrier. As it ascends the barrier, water vapour in the
parcel condenses and falls as rain or snow releasing heat into the atmosphere. This
release of heat limits the cooling rate to about 1°C for every 650 feet of rise. Once
over the barrier, the subsiding parcel is warmed and dried by compression, but at a
rate that is twice that of the cooling rate on the windward (ascent) side of the moun-
tains. In the case of the Chinook, moist Pacific air driven over the mountain ranges
of western North America is warmed as much as 8-10°C by the time it reaches the
foothills of Alberta, and is much drier.

UPPER RIDGE

700 hPa
H approx. 10,000 feet

Fig. 3-12 - Upper level Chinook flow

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LAKP-Prairies 63

LEE TROUGH

SURFACE
H ANALYSIS

Fig. 3-13 - Basin high surface Chinook flow

A typical upper air pattern is shown, with a “Basin High” over the northwestern
United States and a westerly flow across central British Columbia. The corresponding
surface pattern is also shown with a high over the northwestern United States are
created. The strong northwesterly flow between these two features produces
chinook conditions as the winds blow into the lee trough that lies to the east of, and
parallel to, the mountains. The lee trough marks a boundary between subsiding air to
the west and ascending air to the east. High level cloud, often present in such
situations, is dissipated on the subsident side, forming a clear area that parallels the
barrier. The edge of the cloud, usually well defined, appears as an arch to an observer on
the ground. This is known as a “Chinook Arch.”

During Chinook events, a light southeasterly flow of cool air east of the lee trough
can produce generally poor flying weather. Conditions tend to be much better west of
the Chinook arch but turbulence can be problematic in the strong winds.

Photo 3-1 - Chinook Arch credit: Patrick Spencer

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64 CHAPTER THREE

Summer Weather

In the summer, the frequency and severity of storms is reduced. The main source
of adverse weather is the cold lows mentioned below. Apart from these, the main
concern in the summer on the Prairies is convection.

The convective weather season coincides with the summer season and this runs
from May through to early September. During this time, the main area of activity is
centred along an axis which extends from the Peace Country through Rocky
Mountain House, to just northwest of Calgary. The following graph is based on the
output of the Canadian lightning detection network. The most active month for con-
vection is July. June and August are equally as active but less so than July. The most
active time of day for convection is near 5:00 PM local time. The average convective
weather day in Alberta starts with clear skies in the morning and a band of low level
moisture over the foothills. With daytime heating, cumulus and towering cumulus
develops during the morning and are seen easily on satellite imagery and weather
radars in the area. As the morning progresses, the convection continues and thun-
derstorms form and move off to the northeast, in the southwesterly upper flow seen
earlier. Unless there is some significant upper level dynamics to support the thun-
derstorms, they dissipate before moving too far to the northeast.

Over the U.S. Midwest at this time of year, there frequently is a southerly low level
flow that brings very moist air northwards across the United States and into the
southern portions of the Prairies. This band of moisture frequently extends from
southeastern Saskatchewan, northwestwards across the southern portions of
Saskatchewan, to Edmonton. When this very warm and moist air in the low levels
is combined with a mean westerly flow aloft over western Canada, it produces a fair-
ly unstable air mass. This is how the maxima over southern Saskatchewan and
extending to the Edmonton area occurs.
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LAKP-Prairies 65

Fig. 3-14 - Lightning strike data for 1998-2000 (lightning strikes per square km)

Cold Lows

A cold low is a large, nearly circular area of the atmosphere in which temperatures
get colder towards the centre, both at the surface and aloft. While a surface low pres-
sure centre is usually present beneath the cold low, its true character is most evident
on upper charts. The significance of cold lows is that they produce large areas of cloud
and precipitation, tend to persist in one location for prolonged periods of time and
are difficult to predict. Typically, slow moving upper lows, together with a surface
reflection, move from the Pacific across BC and onto the Prairies. Rain is primarily
associated with the northeast quadrant of the 500 hPa closed low. Rain is of lighter
intensity in the northwest and southwest quadrants of the low. These systems can
produce days of very poor conditions over large areas of the Prairies. When the low
is close to the mountains, it sets up upslope effects to the north of the low. This is
where the most intense precipitation and lowest flying conditions will occur. As it
moves away from the mountains, the winds to the north of the low back into the west,
which is downslope and subsident, allowing precipitation to end and conditions to
improve quickly.

Cold lows can occur at any time of the year but the most frequent occurrence, "cold
low season," is from the end of May to mid-July. At this time, pools of cold air break
away from the Aleutian Low and move eastwards across British Columbia or
Washington.
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66 CHAPTER THREE

Surface Analysis

H H

L
L

850 hPa Analysis (about 5,000 feet) 700 hPa Analysis (about 10,000 feet)

H H

L L

500 hPa Analysis (about 18,000 feet) 250 hPa Analysis (about 34,000 feet)
Fig. 3-15 - Typical surface and upper level pattern for a cold low event

The overall effect is to produce a widespread area of cool, unstable air in which
bands of cloud, showers and thundershowers occur. Along the deformation zone to
the northeast of the cold low, the enhanced vertical lift will thicken the cloud cover
and produce widespread steady precipitation. In many cases, the deformation zone is
where widespread and prolonged thunderstorm activity occurs. Frequently, with this
situation, cold air funnels and even tornadoes can form.
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A favorite track is across southern British Columbia and northeastward, along

a line from southwestern BC to Fort St. John, where it becomes very slow moving.
As it crosses Alberta, widespread rain and thundershowers can occur for a period of
24 to 48 hours.
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68

Table 3: Symbols Used in this Manual

Fog Symbol (3 horizontal lines)

This standard symbol for fog indicates areas where fog is frequently observed.

Cloud areas and cloud edges

Scalloped lines show areas where low cloud (preventing VFR flying) is known to
occur frequently. In many cases, this hazard may not be detected at any
nearby airports.

Icing symbol (2 vertical lines through a half circle)

This standard symbol for icing indicate areas where significant icing is relatively
common.

Choppy water symbol (symbol with two wavelike points)

For float plane operation, this symbol is used to denote areas where winds and
significant waves can make landings and takeoffs dangerous or impossible.

Turbulence symbol
This standard symbol for turbulence is also used to indicate areas known for
significant windshear, as well as potentially hazardous downdrafts.

Strong wind symbol (straight arrow)

This arrow is used to show areas prone to very strong winds and also indicates the
typical direction of these winds. Where these winds encounter changing topography
(hills, valley bends, coastlines, islands) turbulence, although not always indicated,
can be expected.

Funnelling / Channelling symbol (narrowing arrow)

This symbol is similar to the strong wind symbol except that the winds are constricted
or channeled by topography. In this case, winds in the narrow portion could be very
strong while surrounding locations receive much lighter winds.

Snow symbol (asterisk)

This standard symbol for snow shows areas prone to very heavy snowfall.

Thunderstorm symbol (half circle with anvil top)

This standard symbol for cumulonimbus (CB) cloud is used to denote areas
prone to thunderstorm activity.

Mill symbol (smokestack)

This symbol shows areas where major industrial activity can impact on aviation
weather. The industrial activity usually results in more frequent low cloud and fog.

Mountain pass symbol (side-by-side arcs)

This symbol is used on aviation charts to indicate mountain passes, the highest point
along a route. Although not a weather phenomenon, many passes are shown as they
are often prone to hazardous aviation weather.
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Chapter 4
Seasonal Weather and Local Effects
Introduction

Map 4-1 - GFACN 32 Domain

This chapter is devoted to local weather hazards and effects observed in the
GFACN32 area of responsibility. After extensive discussions with weather forecasters,
FSS personnel, pilots and dispatchers, the most common and verifiable hazards are
listed.

Most weather hazards are described in symbols on the many maps along with a
brief textual description located beneath it. In other cases, the weather phenomena are
better described in words. Table 3 provides a legend for the various symbols used
throughout the local weather sections.
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70 CHAPTER FOUR

Weather of Alberta

STEEN RIVER

RAINBOW LAKE HIGH LEVEL

FORT
CHIPEWYAN

FORT
MCMURRAY
PEACE RIVER

GRANDE PRAIRIE SLAVE LAKE

COLD LAKE
WHITECOURT

EDSON
HINTON EDMONTON

JASPER

RED DEER

BANFF

CALGARY

MEDICINE
PINCHER CREEK HAT
LETHBRIDGE

Map 4-2 - Topographical overview of Alberta

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The climatic regimes of the Prairie province are classified as either cold-temperate
or sub-arctic and range from dry continental type conditions, in the southwest, to
sub-arctic conditions in the northeast along the Hudson Bay coastline. The western
mountain ranges have a pronounced effect on the precipitation patterns across the
region and on winter temperatures. This is one reason why most areas of the Prairie
provinces receive their heaviest precipitation from storms that are fed by moisture
flowing northward from the US mid-west. With no east-west mountain range to act
as a barrier for air masses, such as the Alps do in Europe, cold dry Arctic air and warm
moist air from the American southwest collide here on a regular basis.

The Rocky Mountains, however, are an effective barrier to the maritime influences
of the Pacific Ocean and the air is greatly modified by the time it makes its way
into Alberta. Cool, north pacific air loses considerable moisture coming over the
mountains and is then warmed as it descends the eastern slopes of the Rockies before
arriving on the “rain-shaded” Prairies. However, this air is still associated with rather
cloudy, mild and windy weather for Alberta. Precipitation can be relatively heavy in
the foothills and in the Peace District, where the altitude decreases and precipitation-
bearing air masses enter the province more freely from the west. Nowhere, however,
is the yearly total precipitation excessive. In fact, Montreal’s annual average total of
1,070 mm exceeds that of any Alberta station.

(a) Summer

Summers in Alberta are fairly short, warm and usually quite dry. There are some
main precipitation producing patterns. Cold lows bring prolonged precipitation and
poor flying conditions and extensive thunderstorm activity on hot unstable days make
severe weather a concern. Summer in Alberta is generally considered to be from late
April, or early May, to late August and perhaps into September. During this time the
weather is normally pleasant as it requires a well-developed weather system with
plenty of moisture and significant upper dynamics to generate widespread low
ceilings and visibility.

The principal situation that will produce a prolonged period of low flying weather
(two or more days) is the passage of a cold low. These systems usher in very moist
unstable air and are typically slow moving, if not stationary. Poor weather conditions
are usually found north of the low’s center where a persistent east to northeasterly
flow, which is upslope in Alberta, has plenty of time to build up a large area of low
level moisture. The lowest ceilings and visibilities generally occur within 60 to 100
nautical miles north of the center. Cold low scenarios are most prevalent in June and
July, during which two or three such passages typically occur each month.

Similar conditions can develop in an easterly flow to the west of a high pressure
system over the central prairies. If the flow persists long enough, stratus, drizzle and
fog will eventually develop in the upslope areas and over the foothills.
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72 CHAPTER FOUR

Throughout the warm summer days, thunderstorms are common. While air mass
thunderstorms occur most frequently, the passage of a cold front can also initiate the
development of a thunderstorm. In fact, the most severe thunderstorms are those
associated with cold fronts. This is exemplified by the Edmonton tornado in 1987 and
again by the Holden tornado in 1993, both of which were the result of a cold frontal
passage. Typically, in the summer, convective activity commences during the morning
in the foothills and moves off to the east (includes northeast, east and southeast
directions) during the remainder of the day. Most of these convective clouds dissipate
as they move away from the foothills. However, if a source of low-level moisture is
located further east or a means of initiating or maintaining convection is present, then
the activity will persist late into the afternoon or evening. Nocturnal thunderstorms
can also occur during Alberta summers but are much rarer than over the rest of the
prairies. The normal thunderstorm season coincides with the summer period with the
maximum activity occurring in July.

Another phenomenon typical to Alberta is the low-level nocturnal jet, most com-
mon during the spring and summer months. This feature forms on clear nights after
there have been strong, gusty winds in the late afternoon. As the sun sets, a low-level
temperature inversion (created by radiation cooling) develops near the ground
causing the surface wind to diminish. The area of stronger winds has not disappeared.
Rather, it has been effectively decoupled from the surface by the inversion and
remains in the warmer layer aloft. In some cases, the winds at the top of the inversion
can be stronger than the gusts observed the previous afternoon. The depth of the
cold layer increases to as much as 1,000 feet during the night before it is destroyed by
daytime heating the following morning.

Low level turbulence is a common occurrence during Alberta summers. Thermal

updrafts are always present on sunny days and can become quite noticeable near lakes,
where they are contrasted with downdrafts over the cooler water. These paired
updrafts and downdrafts can even create a lake breeze circulation over larger bodies
of water. In southwest flows of 30 knots or greater over the mountains, severe turbu-
lence will occur in any of the valleys located on the east side of the Rockies. Grande
Cache is a prime location for such turbulence events.

(b) Winter

Winter in Alberta is generally considered to be from late November to late March,

or early April. During this period, good flying weather is common but it is possible
to identify two patterns that produce generally poor conditions. The first of these is a
cold trough scenario. These troughs are not as frequent in the winter as they are
during the summer months and tend to be drier but, when associated with a frontal
area or jet stream, can still bring prolonged periods of very low flying conditions and
significant snowfalls when they pass.
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The other situation producing poor weather is the phenomenon referred to as a

“dirty ridge.” It occurs when a north to south upper ridge builds over BC, an Arctic
surface front lies along the foothills, and a maritime frontal wave has developed along
the BC coast. Since the cold air is dammed up against the mountains with no where
to go, the warmer, moister air associated with the maritime system overruns the cold
as it moves into Alberta. Depending on the temperatures aloft and the depth of the
cold air, this pattern can result in large amounts of snow for Alberta and extended
periods of poor flying conditions. Freezing rain can occur if the temperatures in the
maritime air are conducive to producing liquid precipitation.

UPPER TROUGH

H 500 hPa
approx. 18,000 feet

Fig. 4-1 - Upper pattern showing a typical “Dirty Ridge”

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74 CHAPTER FOUR

L H

Fig. 4-2 - Surface analysis under a “Dirty Ridge”

During the winter, a strong area of high pressure can form in the very cold air found
over Alaska and the Yukon. This frigid air mass will often spread southeastwards onto
the Prairies with an Arctic front marking its leading edge. Depending on the strength
of this front, winds can shift abruptly into the northwest with its passage and be gusty
for several hours. Coupled with local snowfalls ahead of the front, these winds can
produce short lived blizzard-like conditions. Once the ridge of high pressure is estab-
lished over the area, widespread clear, cold weather dominates.

As mentioned in Chapter 3, Southern Alberta is noted for its winter Chinooks.

Chinooks occur most often from November to January, and have been known to per-
sist for up to 10 days. The position of the lee trough at any given time determines the
weather at a specific site. To the east of the trough, a light southeast flow pushing up
continually rising terrain will result in cool temperatures and generally low ceilings
and visibilities, whereas to the west of the trough, the moderate to strong westerly
Chinook flow quickly clears the skies and significantly warms the temperatures. This
strong westerly flow is, however, notorious for producing significant turbulence.
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LEE TROUGH

SURFACE
H ANALYSIS

Fig. 4-3 - Basin high surface chinook flow

Within about 50 miles east of the Continental Divide, moderate to severe lee waves
are common below 18,000 feet when there is a strong flow from the southwest
(i.e. nearly perpendicular to the Rocky Mountain range). The favoured levels for
waves to develop are between 8,000 and 15,000 feet. In strong westerly flows (greater
than 60 knots above 25,000 feet), clear air turbulence will form near the mountains
followed downwind by a relative lull and a secondary turbulence area. Sometimes
these areas are marked by the presence of lenticular clouds forming on the upslope
side of the wave but, when the air is very dry, there can be little or no indication
of their presence. A westerly flow of 20 knots or greater at 9,000 feet can produce a
similar effect in the lower levels. Lee waves are most common in the winter when the
upper flow is strongest, but can also occur in the summer.

Transition Periods

Occurrences of stratus and fog constitute the primary aviation hazard during the
transition seasons of spring and fall, when poor flying weather is fairly common.
Spring across the prairies is generally short and includes the period from when the
snow begins to melt in earnest to when it has completely disappeared, and the lakes
have thawed. During this time, good flying conditions occur more often as the days
get longer and warmer, allowing the moisture from the melting snow to dissipate
easily into the air. However, on nights relatively free of cloud, nocturnal inversions
develop and effectively trap the moisture near the surface, often resulting in early
morning fog and stratus which lingers until insolation is strong enough to break down
the inversion.

The springtime “cold lows” can often be a problem. Moving normally across the
northern U.S., the easterly upslope flow to the north of the low can produce heavy,
wet snow across southern Alberta.
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76 CHAPTER FOUR

The fall, on the other hand, is a time of lengthening nights, falling temperatures,
and plentiful moisture supplied by the still-open lakes. The passage of cold air
over the relatively warm water frequently produces low level cloud and instability
downwind that can continue for as long as the cold flow persists. Conditions begin to
improve as lakes freeze up, generally by mid to late November, for most prairie
sloughs. Cold lows also make an appearance during this time of year producing heavy
showers.

Local Effects
Edmonton and Area

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

EDMONTON

RED DEER

Map 4-3 - Edmonton and area

The area around Edmonton is generally flat with a gradual slope upwards towards
the southwest. The local weather is affected by the North Saskatchewan River,
flowing through Edmonton from the southwest to the northeast, and by a number of
small lakes in the vicinity. The West Practice Area, 30 miles west of Edmonton just
to the southeast of Lac St. Anne, is a student pilot training area and its weather is very
similar to that of Edmonton.
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In an upslope east to northeasterly flow, fog and stratus can form in the area at
any time of the year, although it is much more likely in the fall months due to the
plentiful moisture supplied by open water. After freeze-up, fog and stratus become
much less common.

Lake Wabamun lies about 40 miles west of Edmonton and has three large power
plants situated around it. These plants release heated water back into the lake
throughout the year, keeping it open during much of the winter. This leads to fre-
quent and localized stratus development in the area, especially when the temperatures
are cold and the surface flow is light, as is common in the winter.

In a northeasterly flow, fog and stratus can form and linger in the North
Saskatchewan River Valley. Normally in this flow, conditions will be slightly lower
and winds somewhat stronger at Namao than at the City Centre Airport, likely due
to urban effects.

A light northerly flow in the spring typically yields a band of stratus and low
ceilings south of the Edmonton, between Wetaskawin and Ponoka. Observations
from Red Deer and Edmonton International will not provide any hint of this cloud.

A depression in the land, extending southeast of Edmonton to Lake Miquelon,

forms a shallow valley. In a northwesterly flow, stratus can form in this valley and
linger well into the afternoon.

In a moderate to strong surface flow, independent of direction, there will be signif-

icant mechanical turbulence over the city of Edmonton. A 30-knot wind will produce
severe turbulence for aircraft flying into the City Centre Airport. An updraft over the
adjacent Kingsway Garden Mall, just to the south of the airport, frequently extends
the turbulence up to 4,000 feet.

In a moderate or stronger west to northwesterly flow, low level turbulence occurs

over the long narrow lakes to the southeast of Edmonton (e.g. Driedmeat Lake and
Coal Lake). Similarly, the northwest flow off Big Lake, northwest of the city, can be
quite turbulent.

In temperatures colder than -30º C, ice fog develops over eastern sections of
the city due to the warm output from the refineries situated there. With a very light
easterly flow, the City Centre Airport will be engulfed by this fog. When the flow is
slightly stronger and more northeasterly, all of Edmonton, as well as the International
Airport to the south, can be affected. These reduced visibilities can be very persistent,
often taking until mid afternoon to clear.
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78 CHAPTER FOUR

Edmonton to Jasper

10,000 FT

7000 FT

5000 FT WHITECOURT
3000 FT

2000 FT

1500 FT

1000 FT
HINTON
600 FT EDSON
300 FT

0 SEA LEVEL

JASPER
EDMONTON

LEE
Map 4-4 - Edmonton to Jasper

From Edmonton heading westward to Jasper, the terrain rises gradually to about
3,000 feet above sea level in the vicinity of Edson. To the west of this line, there is a
more abrupt increase in elevation due to an escarpment that exists west of a line from
Edson to Drayton Valley and southeastwards along the Battle River towards the
Ponoka area (note: the location of the 3,000 foot mean sea level contour is an impor-
tant marker for low cloud development). In an east to southeasterly flow over Alberta,
a band of stratus forms along and west of this escarpment and will persist for some
length of time. This stratus thickens westward and typically extends in this direction
as far as the Continental Divide. Weather observations taken at Edson, located in a
small valley, and Drayton Valley, just to the east of this escarpment, are not represen-
tative of the weather in this area, and if marginal conditions are occurring at these two
towns, worse weather can be expected further west. These low conditions are rare in
the summer, but in the fall this stratus can persist all day. Some diurnal improvement
will occur during the afternoon but conditions will lower once again in the evening.
Any PIREP from the Rocky Mountain House area is usually quite indicative of the
weather. The Obed Hills to the west of Edson will have cloud right down to the
ground in such a situation, and Jasper’s weather cannot be used as a reliable planning
tool since it also is located in a valley where conditions can be quite different.

In the summertime, convective cells form in the foothills west of Edson due to
enhanced warming by the sun along the slopes. These clouds build during the day to
a height of about 18,000 feet and then begin to move eastward. Unless there is some
other factor to support their development, they will usually dissipate before reaching
Edmonton. If the mean flow is northwesterly, thunderstorms can also form on the
windward side of the Swan Hills and move towards Edmonton. Again, these cells
usually dissipate before reaching the city due to subsidence on the lee side of the hills.
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LAKP-Prairies 79

There have been cases where these weakened cells have passed over Edmonton to
once again rebuild to the southwest over the higher ground around Lake Miquelon.

Whitecourt, Edson, and the Swan Hills Area to Grande Prairie

GRANDE PRAIRIE

SWAN HILLS

WHITECOURT

10,000 FT
7000 FT EDSON
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Map 4-5 - Whitecourt, Edson, and the Swan Hills area

The Swan Hills extend from the Rocky Mountains near Hinton, northeastward
through the Whitecourt area to the east end of Lesser Slave Lake. These hills are
topped at around 3,500 to 4,000 feet and contribute greatly to the weather along this
route. In an upslope southeasterly flow, the foothills of the Rockies, on the west, com-
bine with the Swan Hills, to the northwest, and the Pelican hills, to the northeast, to
form a C-shaped barrier to the winds. This can produce stratus that will persist in the
area for days, sometimes requiring a complete change of flow to dissipate. While the
band shown on the map is hugging only the upslope areas, it is quite possible for the
entire C-shaped area to be obscured by cloud in a persistent southeast flow. This
cloud will then scatter out to the northwest of the Swan Hills, as the flow becomes
subsident. In a northwesterly flow, often associated with the passage of a cold front,
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80 CHAPTER FOUR

the pattern is reversed. The stratus and fog associated with the front will be thick to
the northwest of the hills, but will scatter out on the southeast side.

About 40 miles northwest of Whitecourt lies Fox Creek, which is situated in a

sheltered depression in the land. This is an area where stratus can easily form in an
east to northeasterly flow and be very slow to leave, since it is protected from light
flows from most directions. A strong flow from some direction, usually from the
northwest, is required to clear it out.

In the summertime, the ridge of the Swan Hills supplies enough orographic lift to
produce a great number of thunderstorms. Their development is further enhanced
by the sun’s heating action on the higher terrain on top of the hills but these cells are
frequently dissipated by subsidence as they move away from their source. In a north-
westerly flow, the convection tends to originate in the Chetwynd area, build to
approximately 18,000 feet, and then dissipate due to subsidence as it moves away
from the hills. These cells will quickly redevelop if there are any other factors present
to support convection. The ridge of the Swan Hills also supplies enough lift to
produce moderate turbulence up to about 7,000 feet.

The route from Whitecourt to Grande Prairie is, for the most part, over a basin
formed by the Smoky and Little Smoky drainage systems. It has a tendency to
fill with low cloud in moist northeasterly flows, especially those associated with low
pressure systems moving eastward south of the area. The terrain rises between Fox
Creek and Whitecourt due to a ridge of hills connecting the foothills near Obed, with
the Swan Hills to the northeast. This ridge is usually shrouded in cloud whenever
Grande Prairie and Whitecourt report ceilings less than 1,600 feet above ground
level. It can also be an area of enhanced convection on unstable days and mechanical
turbulence on windy days.
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Grande Prairie and Southward

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
SADDLE HILLS

BEAR LAKE
GRANDE PRAIRIE

GRANDE CACHE

Map 4-6 - Grande Prairie and southward

The Grande Prairie airport is in natural bowl with the foothills of the Rocky
Mountains to the south and west, the Saddle and Birch Hills to the north, and minor
rises to the east. The fairly deep valleys of the Wapiti and Smoky Rivers lie south and
east of the airport. Upslope flows from the north and east tend to fill the area south
of the Saddle Hills, up to the foothills west and south of Grande Prairie, with stra-
tus. This cloud will often remain until it is cleared by a change in the wind. It can be
enhanced, especially in winter, by exhaust emissions from the city, which lies just east
of the airport, and from a plywood plant and pulp mill to the southeast.
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82 CHAPTER FOUR

The surrounding soils tend to be quite moist due to a high water table, with a fairly
large body of water, Bear Lake, just northwest of the site. Shallow inversions,
bolstered by light easterly surface winds, are frequent year round and trap moisture in
the low levels. As a result, overnight fog tends to persist here longer than other sites
in the region, especially from late fall to early spring.

Freezing rain is fairly common in the Grande Prairie area because of frequent shal-
low inversions during the winter which are intensified by the passage of low pressure
systems just to the south. When an inversion is in place, even strong southwest to
west winds aloft do not erode it quickly and significant wind shears and associated
turbulence tend to occur within a few hundred feet above ground level.

Lenticular cloud is common with strong southwest to west wind flows aloft and
can be a good indication of the existence of hazardous low level wind shears when the
station is reporting variable, or light easterly winds, at the surface. These winds have
likely surfaced over higher terrain, especially to the south and west, and mechanical
turbulence also can be a problem for low flying aircraft over these areas. Furthermore,
during strong southwest to west wind events, subsiding air off the Rocky Mountains
can make it difficult for helicopters and small fixed wing aircraft operating in the area
to maintain altitude. The turbulence associated with these winds tends to be worse
over the eastern slopes and the foothills area but is generally not as severe among the
mountain ranges themselves.

Convective cells that develop in the foothills to the west and southwest of Grande
Prairie and approach the town are usually dissipated by subsidence as they approach.
They will often show some redevelopment in the vicinity or east of Grand Prairie as
the land begins to level.

Birds in flight have been noted as a problem near the airport, especially during
migratory seasons.

Routes southward from Grande Prairie encounter rising terrain and mountain
weather. Mechanical turbulence can be expected within 5,000 feet or more of the sur-
face with gusty winds from any direction over this area. However, winds flowing per-
pendicular to mountain ridges tend to be somewhat broken up and are not as strong
in the low levels as winds which flow parallel to the openings in mountain barriers.
In a typical southwest to westerly flow, funneling in southwest to northeast valleys
increases the wind speed which can result in locally severe mechanical turbulence.
The valleys of the Kakwa, Smoky, Athabasca, Brazeau and North Saskatchewan
Rivers are prime locations for this phenomena, and it has also been noted in lesser
valleys like that of the Embarras River. Light fixed wing aircraft can expect difficul-
ties at aerodromes situated in such valleys (e.g. Grande Cache), especially with winds
20 knots or greater from the southwest.
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LAKP-Prairies 83

Orographic mechanisms causing enhanced convergence and lift make the foothills
a prime area for the onset of convective activity in unstable airmass situations. Cells
tend to form along ridges and then move downwind. Heading south from Grande
Prairie, the forest changes from a largely mixed deciduous canopy to a predominantly
coniferous one, roughly along 54.5° N latitude. Differences in albedo and evapotran-
spiration can account for enhanced convection south of this line. This is particularly
true in spring and fall when snow is covering the ground and deciduous trees are
without leaves. The lower albedos of the coniferous forest can create pockets of
enhanced daytime heating, which in turn can create convective currents and height-
ened snow flurry activity in unstable situations. Visibility can fluctuate greatly when
these snow flurries occur.

Grande Prairie - Peace River and Area Westward

10,000 FT
7000 FT
FORT ST. JOHN HAWK 5000 FT
CLEAR HILLS HILLS 3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
WHITEMUD
600 FT
HILLS 300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

PEACE RIVER

SADDLE HILLS

GRANDE PRAIRIE

Map 4-7 - Grande Prairie - Peace River and area westward

The elevation of the land gradually decreases heading north from Grande Prairie,
and the Smoky and Peace River Valleys are the dominant topographic features. These
valleys are quite sharp and the terrain tends to fall off with sudden drops up to
1,000 feet from the top of the valley to the level of the river. In strong wind situations,
turbulent eddies and funneled currents are common along these trenches, which can
cause problems for low flying aircraft.

Flows of moist air from the north through to the east are responsible for widespread
upslope stratus which is bounded by the Clear Hills to the northwest of Peace River.
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84 CHAPTER FOUR

The Saddle and Birch Hills form a minor east to west barrier north of Grande Prairie
but are high enough to create local effects of their own. Ceilings are usually lower on
the windward (upslope) side, and markedly better on the lee (downslope) side, with
winds out of the north or south.

It has been noted that the Peace River Valley, west of the town of Peace River, is
where many cold fronts advancing from the north, behind an eastward moving low
pressure system, tend to slow or stall. When this happens, poorer weather conditions
can be anticipated at the north end of the route between Grande Prairie and Peace
River, especially in winter.

The Peace River Airport is located about 5 miles west of the town, which is situated
in the Peace River Valley. The immediate valley is deep, and a climb of roughly 800
feet is necessary when traveling from the town to the airport, most of which is in the
first mile and a half. Because of this, striking differences in weather conditions can be
expected between the two places. For example, a cloud ceiling of 1,500 feet above
ground in town would constitute a ceiling of 700 feet at the airport, everything else
considered equal. As well, the deep part of the valley near the river is often completely
filled in with stratus and fog, while the airport is clear. Due to cold air drainage into
the valley, the temperature at the town is usually lower than that at the airport and,
of course, winds in the town would be biased to the north and south by the orienta-
tion of the river, whereas the airport is more exposed to other directions.

The Peace River and its valley and, to a lesser extent its tributaries the Smoky and
Heart Rivers, are responsible for most of the local effects peculiar to the airport
at Peace River. When stratus or fog (typically formed by radiational cooling
overnight, especially in the fall) has filled the valley, it can “spill out” and spread across
the aerodrome, especially when winds are light and variable, or light southeasterly.
This condition can be fairly persistent but, since the terrain is well sloped overall, day-
time heating will usually dissipate the moisture, even if it lingers for longer periods in
the valley. A good rule of thumb is to expect improvement to begin at the airport
roughly two hours after sunrise, maybe a little longer in winter.

The Peace River is wide and fairly fast moving in the vicinity of the town of Peace
River. As a consequence, stretches of water can remain unfrozen well into the winter,
and sometimes they don’t freeze at all. If conditions are clear and cold, stratus and fog
can be expected along and downwind of these stretches. A large pulp mill near the
river, and about 8 miles north-northeast of town, can further enhance the low cloud
and lower the visibility if winds are from that direction.

Another local source of low level moisture is Lake Cardinal, about 12 miles west of
the airport. Cool flows out of the west to north in the fall can create low cloud and
fog, over and downwind of the lake. West winds can occasionally advect this moisture
as far as the airport, but this is rare.
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LAKP-Prairies 85

On the larger scale, the Peace River area is susceptible to widespread poor weather
conditions in easterly (upslope) flows of moist air associated with organized low pres-
sure systems passing to the south. However, conditions tend to be slightly better here
than at other centers in northwestern Alberta under such a situation, and this is due
to the slope of the land. A study of the terrain within a 60 mile radius of the airport
shows the only true upslope direction into the airport is from the north, heading
upstream along the Peace River. The Buffalo Head Hills and Utikima Uplands to the
east of the airport would introduce a slight downslope component to winds from that
direction, thus allowing some measure of drying in the low levels. That said, northerly
winds tend to bring the worst weather into Peace River. This is especially true in the
fall, when the cool northerly flow passes over still open water, and in the winter, when
a northerly flow often brings cloud and snow from arctic outbreaks. Flows with a
westerly component subside off the Rocky Mountains and, more locally, the Clear,
Whitemud, Saddle and Birch Hills provide drier conditions and typically good flying
weather. Although lenticular cloud and short-lived “Chinook” conditions are com-
mon, severe turbulence in these flows is a rarity.

Birds can be a problem near the airport during migratory seasons. Also, local agri-
cultural practices such as tilling can attract large numbers of seagulls to the airport
area.

The route between Peace River and Fort St. John is along the Alaska Highway and
is dominated by the Peace River Valley. There is a gradual rise in the elevation of the
valley westbound, with higher terrain on either side; to the south, the Birch and
Saddle Hills and, to the north, the Whitemud and Clear Hills. This area tends to fill
with low cloud and fog when there is a moist, upslope easterly flow, while subsident
west winds are dry and give typically good conditions. Moist air moving from
the north or south can give variable conditions due to the alternating upslope and
downslope circulations produced by the terrain. There can be marked differences in
weather from one side of the valley to the other in such situations. Winter cold fronts
moving southward behind an eastward moving low pressure system often slow or stall
through this valley, with poorer conditions in low cloud and snow to the north of
the front.

Deep trenches formed by the Peace and its main tributaries, the Montagneuse,
Eureka, Clear and Pouce Coupe Rivers, can produce local turbulence and wind
changes in the low levels. Mechanical turbulence can be a problem within a few thou-
sand feet of the ground over more rugged sections of the Clear Hills, especially with
strong northwest to northerly winds.
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86 CHAPTER FOUR
CAMERON
HILLS

Peace River - High Level and Area

STEEN RIVER 10,000 FT

7000 FT

5000 FT

3000 FT

2000 FT

1500 FT

1000 FT

600 FT

RAINBOW 300 FT

0 SEA LEVEL
LAKE
CARIBOU
MOUNTAINS

HIGH LEVEL

FORT VERMILION

BUFFALO
HEAD HILLS
HAWK HILLS

BIRCH
MOUNTAINS
MANNING
WHITEMUD
HILLS

PEACE RIVER

Map 4-8 - Peace River - High Level

The Peace River Valley connects these two towns and is the main navigational
landmark. The valley is flanked by the Clear, Whitemud, Hawk and Naylor Hills
on the west side and by the Buffalo Head Hills on the East. A gradual decrease in
elevation is encountered in the northbound direction. The valley broadens northeast
of Manning, where the surface cover is predominantly muskeg, and, on a synoptic
scale, north to northeast circulations of moist air can create widespread low cloud and
fog over the gradually rising terrain. In recent years, beavers have dammed many
of the minor tributaries flowing into the Peace River in this area, creating much
standing water. This provides plenty of low level moisture to aid the formation of
radiation fog in the summer and advection fog with cool northerly flows in the fall.
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LAKP-Prairies 87

There can be stretches of open water on the Peace River well into the winter, allowing
stratus to form. Exhaust from a lumber mill north of Hotchkiss can enhance fog
formation in that area. The Peace River “trench” decreases in depth as the river flows
northward, but can still cause turbulent eddies resulting in variations in wind direction
and speed horizontally and vertically at low levels.

As with many of the ranges of hills in northern Alberta, those flanking the valley
tend to develop “weather of their own.” In situations where ceilings are 1,000 to 1,500
feet in Peace River and/or High Level, the cloud can be “down to the trees” over these
hills. One particularly hazardous location is where Highway 35 crosses the eastern
reaches of the Hawk Hills. The highway is used by many pilots, especially novices, as
a landmark to follow between Peace River and High Level. Unfortunately, the high-
way rises over 500 feet within a distance of about 20 miles north of the Meikle River,
with even higher terrain (and communication towers) to the east and west. These
hills, like others in the area, can be shrouded by cloud when conditions at Peace River
and High Level are marginal or better. They are also susceptible to local obscuration
on the upslope side under moist flows from practically any direction. Seasoned pilots
usually opt for a route following the Peace River itself to avoid sharp changes in
elevation.

Easterly winds are not necessarily “upslope” winds everywhere in northwestern

Alberta. Local topography must be taken into account when resolving areas of
upslope from downslope areas. Dramatic changes in weather conditions can occur
across a river valley, on opposite sides of a range of hills, or from one valley to the next.
One particularly good example occurs to the northwest and southeast of the
Halverson Ridge, a rise of land extending northeast of the Clear Hills. When the
winds are from the east or southeast, conditions can be poor over the rising terrain of
the Notikewin River valley west of Manning, but can be wide open to the northwest
of the ridge into the valley of the Chinchaga River. Conversely, the weather is
typically, but less dramatically, better to the southeast of the ridge, especially in the
fall and winter when the winds are north or northwesterly. These same phenomena
can occur, to a lesser degree, over the smaller Milligan Hills to the northwest of the
Chinchaga Valley, so conditions can change across the valley itself, as the general flow
changes from subsident to ascending.

When the air mass over the region is unstable, the hills are a favoured region for
convective initiation. There are three main mechanisms responsible for this:
orographic lift, stronger sensible (daytime) heating of sunward slopes, and earlier
realization of convective temperatures at higher elevations (especially when inversions
are present at lower elevations early in the day). If winds are relatively strong, then
orographic ascent is the main mechanism for cell formation, with convective currents
being initiated on the windward side of the hill. In a weaker flow, local heating is the
dominant trigger.
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88 CHAPTER FOUR

Finally, the hills can be expected to produce, or intensify, mechanical turbulence

when winds are strong in the low levels. Some ridge lines can even generate local lee
wave activity when the flow across their tops is close to perpendicular.

High Level is situated in a wide, shallow depression within an area of fairly flat
terrain, with the Hay River drainage system to the west and north, the Peace River
valley to the south and east, the Caribou Mountains to the northeast, and a gradual
slope up into the Hawk, Naylor and eastern Milligan Hills to the southwest. This
“bowl” has a tendency to trap cold air beneath shallow inversions and to hold it there
for prolonged periods, earning High Level a reputation for low cloud, fog and freezing
precipitation.

When cold arctic air floods the area behind one of a family of easterly migrating
low pressure systems, it has a tendency to pool into the low lying land. When
a warmer east to southeasterly flow develops ahead of the next low in the series, it
does not clear out this cold air but instead rides over it. If the air temperature below
is subzero, and rain is falling from the overrunning warm air, then freezing rain and
severe clear icing are the result. This is most common in the spring and fall when it
is likely that the overrunning warm air is supporting liquid precipitation. During the
winter, these same cold fronts push well south of High Level during an arctic
outbreak, and then they stall or begin a slow retreat. As a result, the town endures
more frontal weather with low cloud, snow and gusty northerly winds than do places
further south.

Mount Watt is a dominant topographic feature disrupting the otherwise smooth

terrain near High Level. It is seven miles west of the airport, rising more that 1,000
feet above it, and has several communication towers situated on top. Mount Watt is
blamed for many local effects, including the generation of upslope cloud from winds
out of the northwest or southeast, and turbulent eddies downwind, especially when
the flow is from the northwest.

Most of the poor weather in High Level occurs when the synoptic flow is out of
the northeast quadrant. However, these winds are effectively blocked by the Caribou
Mountains and are forced to stream in from the north up the Hay River Valley, or
from the east up the Peace River Valley. In both cases, persistent upslope conditions
usually result. The best weather can be expected with winds from the south through
to west, and even from the southeast, with the Buffalo Head Hills providing some
protection.

There are two local mill operations, a saw mill in town and a plywood plant just to
the south. Both can accentuate fog conditions, especially under an inversion, with
their addition of moisture and particulate into the lower atmosphere.

There are two small lakes near the airport. Hutch Lake lies about 6 miles north and
Footner Lake, the local water aerodrome, is just to the west. Both act as moisture
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LAKP-Prairies 89

sources and can generate fog, especially in the fall. As well, much of the surrounding
terrain is muskeg and beaver ponds. After major rainfall events, the water table can
remain quite high for several weeks, leading to an increase in standing water and a
similar increase in the chance of low ceilings and poor visibilities.

Northwestern Alberta
including Rainbow Lake, Fort Vermilion and Steen River

10,000 FT

7000 FT

5000 FT

3000 FT

2000 FT
CAMERON
HILLS
1500 FT

1000 FT

600 FT
BISTCHO
LAKE
300 FT

0 SEA LEVEL STEEN RIVER

ZAMA LAKE
“THE RIDGE”
CARIBOU
RAINBOW LAKE MOUNTAINS

HIGH LEVEL

FORT VERMILION

BUFFALO
HEAD HILLS
HAWK HILLS

Map 4-9 - The main routes northwestward from High Level

This
WHITEroute
MUDfollows the Hay River Valley and gradually increases in elevation
westbound.
HILLSThe valley is flanked to the south by the Naylor and eastern Milligan
Hills, and to the north by the Cameron Hills, and easily fills with stratus and fog
under moist easterly flows. The surface is typically quite wet when not frozen, as it is
PEACE RIVER
dominated by muskeg and beaver ponds. Because of the fluctuations in the water
table depth, Zama Lake varies greatly in size and, when the table is high, it can rival
Bistcho Lake in the Cameron Hills for surface area. All of these moisture sources
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:10 PM Page 90

90 CHAPTER FOUR

contribute to the formation of widespread radiation and advection fogs, especially in

fall and late spring.

A landform, known locally as “The Ridge”, rises over 1,000 feet from the valley
floor and separates Rainbow Lake from Zama Lake. It is over 40 miles long and ori-
ented east to west, similar to Mount Watt near High Level. It is also a generator of
turbulence and upslope cloud and is a prime location for the early onset of convective
activity on sunny, unstable summer days.

Weather from northeastern British Columbia moves fairly easily through this
corridor when the controlling flow is westerly. When this is the case, the rule of
thumb is “Fort Nelson today, High Level tomorrow.”

The Cameron Hills are situated in extreme northwestern Alberta and stretch into
the North West Territories. They are similar in many respects to the Caribou
Mountains but on a smaller scale. Elevations rise abruptly about 800 to 1,000 feet
into a ridge on the southeast side and then gradually diminish northwestward with
the terrain wrapping around Bistcho Lake. The wind direction that produces the
most upslope stratus in this area is from the northwest, simply because of the broader,
more gentle incline from that direction, and the moisture that is added from Bistcho
Lake. The lake is also a frequent generator of fog and stratus in the fall when the air
is generally cooler than the water. Upslope stratus can occur from the southeast as well
but is usually confined to a narrower area between the Hay River and the summit of
the southeast ridge. There can be significant turbulence to the lee of the southeastern
ridge, especially with strong northwest winds.

The Peace River turns eastward to the southeast of High Level and flows past Fort
Vermilion. The river’s “trench” is basically nonexistent east of Fort Vermilion as the
drainage basin becomes broad and uniformly flat. It is bounded on the north by the
Caribou Mountains and to the south by the Buffalo Head Hills, as far as the Wabasca
River Valley, and then the Birch Mountains further east. The surface is again domi-
nated by muskeg and is ordinarily moist when not frozen. Rainfall does not run off
quickly. Shallow radiation fog can form over these moisture sources on clear nights
and advection fog is common in the fall when cool west to northwesterly winds are
present (north winds are typically weak and not very common in this area as they are
effectively blocked by the Caribou Mountains). Effluent from a sawmill plant near
La Crete can add to the problem locally. Moist east and southeasterly winds tend to
funnel up the slope through this area and pick up additional moisture from the
surface, thus generating widespread stratus and fog. Flows from the west, however,
usually have the opposite effect and are associated with good flying weather.

The Caribou Mountains make up one of the largest upland regions in Alberta away
from the Rocky Mountains. The “mountains” are actually a nearly circular plateau
that rises more than 2,000 feet above the surrounding terrain. There is a ring of
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LAKP-Prairies 91

higher, terraced hills in the center of the plateau that form a bowl containing several
lakes, the largest of which is Margaret Lake. The rest of the plateau is mostly muskeg,
described by some to be “the wettest place in Alberta.” Strong inversions, and thus
radiation fog, are a rarity over the plateau and are quite short lived when they do
occur, due to cold air drainage katabatic down the slopes into the surrounding valleys.
Because the crest of the plateau is usually situated well above the top of any inversion,
below (nocturnal, arctic), temperatures can be considerably warmer there, sometimes
as much as 25 to 30 Celsius degrees in the winter. This is one of the reasons that con-
vection commences much earlier over the Caribou Mountains on unstable summer
days; less heating is required to reach the temperature where upward convective
currents are generated. Slope heating and orographic lift around the perimeter can
also speed up this process.

The worst weather over the Caribou Mountains occurs when the entire plateau is
obscured by widespread low cloud, usually associated with the passage of an organized
low pressure system. Local upslope and downslope flows around the perimeter can
further augment or dissipate this cloud. Turbulence can be a problem when strong
winds from any direction encounter the steep perimeter. Winds can swirl over the
edge in both ascending and descending currents, generating rolling circulations and
violent eddies that can be very dangerous to low flying aircraft. Wind directions can
fluctuate radically over short distances.

The route northward from High Level follows the Hay River downstream, flanked
on the east by the Caribou Mountains and on the west by the Cameron Hills. The
valley is broad and flat with few obstructions; very similar to the Peace River Valley
east of Fort Vermilion. It is the preferred northern route in and out of Alberta as it
has good visual references, including Highway 35. Moist north to northeasterly winds
are upslope and can produce lower conditions. In the winter, outbreaks of arctic air
can progress rapidly southward, unimpeded by any terrain barriers, bringing an
onrush of cloud, snow and wind to points south. Widespread low cloud associated
with passing low pressure systems can shroud the higher terrain to the east and west.
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92 CHAPTER FOUR

Edmonton - Slave Lake and Area

LESSER
SLAVE LAKE
10,000 FT
SLAVE LAKE
7000 FT

5000 FT

3000 FT

2000 FT SWAN HILLS

1500 FT

1000 FT

600 FT

300 FT

0 SEA LEVEL WHITECOURT

EDSON

EDMONTON

Map 4-10 - Slave Lake and area

Flying from Edmonton to Slave Lake, the terrain is relatively flat until it begins to
rise over the Swan Hills to the southwest of Lesser Slave Lake. These hills, combined
with the Pelican Hills to the northeast, act to funnel the winds through the eastern
end of Lesser Slave Lake in either a west/northwest, or east/southeast direction. The
town and airport of Slave Lake are situated between these hills and are the recipient
of these strong funneled flows. This creates significant mechanical turbulence near
the end of the lake, often reaching to approximately 5,000 feet above sea level.

In the spring and fall, a west or northwesterly onshore flow over the east end
of Lesser Slave Lake will produce a layer of stratus up to 1,000 feet thick. This will
typically extend down the valley of the Lesser Slave River, almost as far as Smith, and
frequently engulfs the town of Slave Lake.
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LAKP-Prairies 93

Edmonton to Ft. McMurray and Northward

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT NW
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

MILDRED LAKE
SE

FORT MCMURRAY

WANDERING RIVER

PRIMROSE
LAKE
COLD
COLD LAKE LAKE
EDMONTON

Map 4-11 - Edmonton to Fort McMurray and northward

The region between Edmonton and Fort McMurray is known for its high
frequency of poor flying conditions. This is because a ridge of slightly higher terrain
existing between the two points provides uplope conditions for almost all wind
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94 CHAPTER FOUR

directions. Also present is an abundant moisture supply in the form of swamps and
small lakes throughout the area. The region between the Marianna Lakes and the
Wandering River is most notorious for low conditions. Ceilings are often down to the
trees and precipitation is enhanced in this area, particularly in a northwesterly flow.
The highway between Edmonton and Fort McMurray runs along this ridge, but
because of its generally poor conditions, pilots often choose the Athabasca River to
the west, or the railway clearing to the east, for visual navigation. As a general rule of
thumb, when Fort McMurray is reporting a ceiling in the 1,000 to 1,500 range, expect
low ceilings from Fort McMurray to the Lac la Biche area.

Another point of danger is Stony Mountain. It is 18 miles to the south of Fort

Mcmurray and rises abruptly some 1,350 feet above the surrounding terrain. Pilots
flying under low ceilings will generally avoid this area completely as the top of the hill
is frequently obscured.

The town of Fort McMurray is situated at the junction of two rivers, the
Clearwater and the Athabasca. The Athabasca River pours in from the west-southwest
and turns north at the point it meets the Clearwater, flowing from the east. The Fort
McMurray airport is situated on the south side of the Clearwater River, and its
weather is influenced by the Clearwater Valley. The surrounding land is generally flat
muskeg except for Stony Mountain, which lies to the south.

The two rivers can create localized fog and stratus between the months of May
through October when the water is open. During the overnight period, cooler air
tends to pool in the valley which can lead to fog and stratus formation, especially in
the fall. These conditions usually improve during the day but will often spill over the
sides of the valley into the airport, especially in the morning hours. However, in the
absence of this localized phenomena, the river valleys are preferred routes.

Within the airport boundaries there are a few local effects created by specific
conditions. The first is the frequent occurrence of turbulence during a strong westerly
flow of 20 knots or greater, causing higher than normal sink rates on a final approach.
It is speculated that this is created by the difference in albedo between the surrounding
forest and the cleared area of the airport, combined with the influence of the westerly
flow making a transition from the treetops down to the aerodrome.

Another local phenomena is restricted to winter months only and is the result of
snowmaking at a ski hill 3 miles east-northeast of the airport. If the surface flow is
towards the airport, visibility is often reduced to half a mile or less by ice crystals. This
persists until the snow making is ended.

The airport can also experience locally reduced conditions in a northerly flow. Such
a flow, coming along the Athabasca River Valley, is funneled as the valley becomes
progressively more narrow. When this strengthened flow meets the southern slope of
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LAKP-Prairies 95

the Clearwater Valley, it is forced abruptly upslope and can give low conditions at the
airport sitting at the top of the valley. This situation can also produce significant low
level turbulence.

There is a landing strip at Mildred Lake, about 28 miles to the north of the Fort
McMurray Airport, that is used to service the oilsands activity in the area. Because of
the emissions from local plants, as well as the warmer effluent emitted into the tailing
ponds, this strip will often be fogged in when conditions elsewhere are fine. Although
this localized fog never reaches as far as the Fort McMurray Airport, it is often
possible to see distant plumes of steam to the north.

There is a great deal of flight activity to points north of Fort McMurray due to the
oilsands activity and the abundance of fishing and hunting lodges in the area. The
local topography is the result of ancient glacial activity and consists of relatively flat
land dotted by numerous small lakes, many low-lying hills and acres of swampland
and muskeg. This area, with its abundant low level moisture, can often be blanketed
in stratus and stratocumulus, regardless of wind direction and especially in the tran-
sition seasons of spring and fall. There is a definite lack of weather reports to aid flight
planning. Experienced local pilots use their familiarity with the terrain to avoid higher
ground that most likely will be obscured by low cloud.

Other features that stand out from the surrounding level terrain are the Birch
Mountains, 50 miles to the northwest of Fort McMurray, and Trout Mountain,
80 miles to the west. Together these two form a physical barrier, with just a narrow
pass in between, that effectively blocks flows from both the east to southeast and from
the north to northwest. The terrain in this area also has sufficient elevation to initiate
convective cloud on warm summer days.
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FORT MCMURRAY
96 CHAPTER FOUR

Edmonton to Cold Lake

10,000 FT WANDERING RIVER

7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT PRIMROSE
1500 FT LAKE
1000 FT
600 FT
COLD LAKE COLD
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
LAKE

EDMONTON

Map 4-12 - Edmonton to Cold LakeLLOYDMINSTER

The flight path from Edmonton to Cold Lake takes a pilot over mainly agricultural
lands with many small shallow lakes and gently rolling hills. Otherwise, there are no
significant geographical features. The land slopes gradually downhill from west to
east, losing about 500 feet of elevation between the two, and in the absence of any
major synoptic weather feature there is very little to affect the enroute weather until
Cold Lake. The Cold Lake region is a continuation of the gently rolling topography
that extends off the north-northwest and sits on the dividing line between mainly
farm and grasslands to the south and Boreal Forest to the north. The major influences
on the weather in the Cold Lake region are two large lakes to the northeast (Cold
Lake and Primrose Lake) and the Beaver River Valley running through the town.

The Beaver River is a fairly small waterway with an east-west orientation that flows
just south of the military base and airport. It has carved out a very broad and shallow
valley in which the airport is situated. This valley, despite its shallowness, has a
significant influence on the weather. Winds are frequently channelled by the valley
into either an easterly or westerly flow. Indeed, a wind rose of the area shows these
two directions to be predominant, with westerly having a slighter greater frequency
than easterly. Winds channelled from the west are almost invariably associated with
good flying weather as they have been dried in the lower levels by the continual
down-slope progression from the mountains. The one exception to this is when the
westerly wind is due to the wrap-around flow from a cold low to the east or northeast
of Cold Lake. In this case, there is an abundant supply of moisture and instability. A
persistent easterly flow is gradually forced upslope and is more likely to give lower
stratus or fog, but even this is mitigated to a great extent by the presence of a small
sharp ridge rising 200 feet just to the east of the military base. This ridge acts as a
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LAKP-Prairies 97

block and can often keep the stratus scattered at the airport, or at least raise it up a
bit, before reaching the observing site. So, in essence, the Beaver River Valley helps to
keep the weather at Cold Lake suitable for low-level operations in the absence of
other weather influences.

Cold Lake, the nearer of the two lakes, is about 5 miles northeast of the airport site.
It acquired its name because an unusual depth, nearly 300 feet at maximum, keeps the
water temperature much colder than that of surrounding lakes. Primrose Lake is a
further 20 miles to the northeast and is much shallower. These lakes create an abun-
dant moisture supply for stratus and fog formation, especially when the wind flow is
from the northeast quadrant and, conversely, the lowest occurrence is when the wind
flow is from the southeast. Fortunately, a northeasterly flow is one of the least com-
mon wind directions for this site.

The greatest influence from Cold Lake, and to a much lesser extent Primrose Lake,
is felt in the fall and early winter. At this time, the lake water is still retaining a great
deal of warmth from summer heating while the air above it is becoming progressively
cooler. Any northeasterly flow will become saturated in the low levels bringing
stratus, fog, drizzle, freezing drizzle, or even snow to the airport. This is further
enhanced by the slight upslope component of this flow. If the northeasterly flow is
particularly cold, the relatively warm water can create low level instability leading to
the formation of cumulus and towering cumulus that can give localized heavy snow
squalls over the airport. Poor flying conditions tend to peak in November and then
come to a halt in December, when Cold Lake completely freezes over. Primrose Lake
freezes over much earlier.

The area around Cold Lake, being part of a Prairie climatic regime, is susceptible
to summertime convection, but there are two effects that tend to lessen the number
of storms that pass over the airport itself. First, there is a preference for convection
to be initiated over the higher and warmer terrain on either side of the valley, where
there also tends to be abundant moisture from small lakes and evapotranspiration
from vegetation. However, once the cells start to move over the river valley, they
are often weakened, or dissipated, by the downslope flow and the relatively cooler air
that is pooled in the valley. Second, the waters of Cold Lake also act as a dampening
force on local convection. The cooling effect of the water on the lowest level of the
atmosphere almost completely inhibits convective processes on warm summer days
and a clear hole can be seen over, and downwind, of the lake. The Mostoos Hills, just
northeast of the lake, form another preferred region of convective development due
to their elevation and many small moisture sources. However, the dampening effects
of Cold Lake stand as a barrier between this convection and the town, proving to be
particularly beneficial for the town and airport. Note that this effect is reversed in the
cooler fall months when the open lake acts to heat the air above it.
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98 CHAPTER FOUR

There are a couple of man-made weather influences that can affect Cold Lake and
its surroundings under the right conditions. A large oil refinery is situated 13 miles to
the north-northwest of the airport and injects a great quantity of heated water vapour
into the air. In the winter months, this is favourable for the formation of stratus and
FORT MCMURRAY
ice fog. However, this phenomena does not often reach the airport as a northeasterly
flow is rare. More common at the airport on extremely cold winter days is the
formation of ice fog, due to water vapour emissions that result from frequent jet activity,
and a steam plant situated on the Canadian Forces Base.

Edmonton to Lloydminster

10,000 FT WANDERING RIVER

7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT PRIMROSE
1500 FT LAKE
1000 FT
600 FT
COLD LAKE COLD
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
LAKE

EDMONTON

LLOYDMINSTER

Map 4-13 - Edmonton to Lloydminster

The terrain from Edmonton to Lloydminster slopes gradually downwards which

means that, as with many areas in Alberta, the lowest flying conditions are often
produced with a persistent upslope easterly flow. This will occur when a low passes
though the southern portion of the province, or when there is a well developed and
stationary ridge over the eastern Prairies. These conditions can occur at any time of
the year but are most frequent in the fall, with the greatest amount of fog occurring
in October, November and early December, when lakes are generally open. When the
prevailing winds are west to northwesterly, which is the most frequently occurring
wind direction for this area, flying conditions are generally good.

The town and airport of Lloydminster are situated on relatively high ground
between the North Saskatchewan River, to the north, and the Battle River, to the
south. These rivers can supply sufficient moisture for fog and stratus to form in their
valleys, especially in the spring and fall, but this tends to stay confined within the
valleys and does not often reach as far as Lloydminster. Most of the lakes in the vicinity
are too small to have an effect but the Big Gully Lakes, 10 miles east of Loydminster,
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LAKP-Prairies 99

provide an extra boost of moisture to stratus that is heading towards the airport in an
already upslope easterly flow. Some purification ponds are situated two to three miles
to the northeast of the airport, and these can create fog and stratus over the runway
in a northeasterly flow.

There is a north-south ridgeline through Kitscoty, about 16 miles west of

Lloydminster. In a westerly flow, fog and stratus will stay to the west of this ridge
allowing Lloydminster to be clear while Vermilion, 35 miles west of Lloydminster, is
immersed in fog. The reverse is true in an easterly flow where Lloydminster will be
in fog, while Vermillion is clear. This effect is most apparent during the fall.

There are three industrial plants in and around Lloydminster: an oil refinery, a
heavy oil upgrader and a canola oil refinery. All three of these contribute condensation
nuclei to the atmosphere and enhance the development of low cloud, especially in the
fall and winter.

Edmonton to Calgary via Red Deer

JASPER
EDMONTON

LEE
ROCKY
PONOKA LLOYDMINSTER
MOUNTAIN
HOUSE RED DEER

10,000 FT
SUNDRE 7000 FT
5000 FT
BANFF 3000 FT
LEE
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
SPRINGBANK 600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
CALGARY

Map 4-14 - Edmonton to Calgary via Red Deer

CROWSNEST
Flying southward from Edmonton to Calgary, there is a continual increase in
PASS MEDICINE HATin Calgary. There is
elevation from 2,300 feet ASL in Edmonton to 3,700 feet ASL
PINCHER CREEK
LETHBRIDGE
also higher land on the west side of this flight path as the elevation increases towards
the foothills, so any flow from the north through to the east has an uslope component.
Synoptic features such as cold lows or lee troughs, which usually produce an easterly
surface flow across this route, can result in poor conditions at any time of the year,
particularly during the fall and winter. Also, a flow from the north to northeast
produces a band of stratus that will typically extend from the foothills to the Ponoka
area and southeastward. November is the worst month for flying between Edmonton
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:10 PM Page 100

100 CHAPTER FOUR

and Calgary, as there is a high frequency of events of fog, snow flurries and icing from
freezing rain. The output from automatic weather stations at Rocky Mountain House
and Sundre can be used to fill in extra information for conditions along this route, but
since Rocky Mountain House is situated up against the foothills, it is not always
a good indicatpr of what is happening further east. The observation from Sundre,
however, can be quite indicative of the weather conditions along the southern portion
of this route.

The city of Red Deer and the Penhold Airport are in the valley formed by the Red
Deer River and are further situated in a bowl-like depression within this valley.
Because of this, the airport is sheltered from most wind directions and often reports
much lighter winds than would otherwise be expected. It also means that low cloud
will tend to linger at the airport, sitting in the sheltered depression, long after the rest
of the area has cleared. The Red Deer River flows from south to north, just to the
west of the airport. Both the river and the small Dickson Reservoir to the southwest
are open (at least partially) throughout the year. Cool weather in the fall and early
spring, combined with moisture from these two sources, can produce fog which then
drifts across the field to the runways. This phenomena is often associated with a
northwesterly flow which gains an extra dose of moisture from Sylvan Lake. The fog
starts overnight and generally persist till mid-morning.

If conditions are poor in Red Deer, then they generally worsen southwards towards
the Olds-Didsbury area due to the increase in elevation. This area is also quite open
and prone to drifting and blowing snow in the winter. Because of Red Deer’s
sheltered position in a valley, it is advisable to use all other sources of information,
such as the Sundre auto weather station, when flying southward to Calgary.

Chinooks are common in the Red Deer/Calgary region. Thorough discussions of

this phenomenon can be found in Chapter 3 and at the beginning of this chapter.

The foothills, stretching along the west side of the flight path between Edmonton
and Calgary, are a favoured region for convective initiation on summer mornings.
These cells move away from the foothills during the afternoon and affect points along
the flight path. The region between Red Deer and Edmonton generates a great deal
of activity, particularly in the Lacombe/Ponoka area and the Innisfail/Crossfield area.
Because of its closer proximity to the foothills, Red Deer is more likely to experience
thunderstorms than Edmonton. In a northwesterly flow, the cells moving towards
Red Deer will often stick to the higher ground to the west and head south towards
Innisfail. However, the cells that do track across Red Deer eventually move over the
higher terrain of the Wild Rose Ridge, southeast of the town, which provides a further
impetus for their development. Sometimes in a northwesterly flow, thunderstorms
that move into the Alder Flats/Rimbey area, to the northwest of Red Deer, are slow
to leave and produce low ceilings and heavy rainfalls over the area.
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LAKP-Prairies 101

Foothills thunderstorms are frequent producers of hail, squall lines and, occasionally,
tornadoes. Altocumulus Castellanus (ACC) observed early in the morning is a good
indication that convection will develop later in the day. Two weather radars, one at
Strathmore and the other at Carvel, are used to monitor this development. Red Deer
is situated at the halfway point between the two installations but, unfortunately, near
the limit of coverage of both. Because of this, the information over the Red Deer area
is less detailed.

Lee wave turbulence is frequent in this region up to 8,000 to 10,000 feet when a
moderate or stronger westerly flow exists across the mountains. Occasionally, this
turbulence can be identified by the presence of lenticular clouds, but this is not a
necessary condition for its existence.
JASPER
From Didsbury southward, the climate becomes drier and the amount of agricul-
EDMONTON
tural land increases. Dust storms are possible, especially in the spring and fall when
the winds are stronger and crops do not protect the land. These storms can begin
anywhere beyond 30 milesROCKY
east of the mountains.
LLOYDMINSTER
MOUNTAIN PONOKA
HOUSE
Calgary, Springbank Area and Westward
RED DEER

10,000 FT
SUNDRE 7000 FT
5000 FT
BANFF 3000 FT
LEE
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
SPRINGBANK 600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
CALGARY
LEE

CROWSNEST
PASS MECH
MEDICINE HAT
PINCHER CREEK
LETHBRIDGE

Map 4-15 - Calgary, Springbank and westward

This is yet another area in Alberta where any flow with an easterly component has
the potential to produce fog, stratus, and drizzle, especially in the spring and fall. This
easterly flow, common when there is a low pressure area sitting near the US/Alberta
border, will create a region of stratus extending 50 to 110 miles east
of the Continental Divide, sometimes as far east as Beiseker, 30 miles east of Calgary.
A few occasions have been noted when the stratus edge will sit between Calgary and
Springbank but, as a rule of thumb, whenever there are low ceilings in Calgary, even
lower conditions will exist in Springbank, due to the rise in elevation to the west. The
higher terrain of Scottlake Hill, located about 10 miles west of Calgary, opens up first
in these stratus situations.
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102 CHAPTER FOUR

Sometimes the Calgary Airport will report stratus when Springbank and other
surrounding areas have none. This is most likely due to the moisture and large quan-
tities of particulate matter released into the atmosphere by the industry in and around
the city. Conversely, unexpected stratus sometimes occurs at Springbank when there
is a northerly flow coming off Cochrane Hill.

The “Okotoks Hole”, an anomalous and puzzling area of clearing within 10 to 15

miles of the town of Okotoks, just south of Calgary, is often observed when Calgary
and Springbank are both immersed in stratus. Since this normally happens with an
easterly flow, there may be a local subsidence circulation off a small range of hills that
is responsible for this phenomenon.

In the summertime, convection can be initiated anywhere in the foothills to the

west of Calgary. One common source region is the Cochrane/Ghost Lake/Water
Valley area. Cells that form here move southeastward in the Bow River Valley and
from there will move either along the Cochrane Ridge into northwest Calgary, or
along the Elbow River into southwest Calgary. Other source areas can be the Lake
Minnewanka Valley or the Banff/Canmore region, and thunderstorm cells that form
as far south as the Livingstone Range can still move northeastward towards Calgary.
Convection that forms in the foothills 50 to 60 miles to the southwest of Calgary will
frequently dissipate before reaching the city unless some upper support is present and,
even in this case, it will generally remain south of Calgary, moving into the Bow River
valley and following it eastward.

A strong west or southwesterly flow aloft brings the likelihood of lee or mountain
waves over this region. Downdrafts of up to 3,000 feet /minute through Kootenay,
Jasper, Bow Valley and Banff park areas are common, producing moderate or severe
turbulence up to 14,000 feet in a zone which can extend 60 to 110 miles east of the
Continental Divide. This flow is also associated with strong wind shears at the
Calgary and Springbank airports. Mountain waves can often be identified by the
presence of Altocumulus Standing Lenticular clouds (ACSL), cap clouds, rotor
clouds or the "arch" phenomena generated by the common Chinook winds. The
strong winds associated with the Chinook first appear in the Bow Valley and then
generally take two to three hours to reach Springbank. About an hour later, they reach
Calgary. Although the Chinook will improve ceilings and visibilities, severe wind
shear and turbulence are always a hazard.

Flying westward into the Bow Valley, Mount Yamnoska is the first mountain
encountered where moderate to severe turbulence is frequently reported. Significant
turbulence reports are also common flying at 9,500 feet near Rundle Mountain. At
low levels, the ride can be equally dramatic with strong surface winds giving low-level
turbulence that is often moderate or greater. This turbulence tends to begin just to the
east of Canmore between Morley and Exshaw.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 103
JASPER
EDMONTON

LAKP-Prairies 103
ROCKY
LLOYDMINSTER
MOUNTAIN PONOKA
South of Calgary HOUSE RED DEER

10,000 FT
SUNDRE 7000 FT
5000 FT
BANFF 3000 FT
LEE
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
SPRINGBANK 600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
CALGARY
LEE

CROWSNEST
PASS MECH
MEDICINE HAT
PINCHER CREEK
LETHBRIDGE

Map 4-16 - South of Calgary

The weather along the flight path from Calgary to Lethbridge is susceptible to
many of the same influences as Calgary and areas north. Again, any prolonged east-
erly flow will eventually blanket the entire area in stratus due to the westward increase
in elevation. This flow is most frequently created by a low over the northwestern US.
It can happen at any time of the year but is less common in the summer. In the
winter, this pattern will often bring snow which appears first in an east to west line
over the Milk River Ridge and then progresses northward into Lethbridge.

The airport in Lethbridge is located south of the city to the southeast of the
Oldman River, which is fed by a number of tributaries in the area. By far, the most
frequent wind directions at this location are west and southwest. These are downslope
winds and, when they are blowing, Lethbridge generally enjoys fine weather with
clear skies. However, mechanical turbulence is a genuine concern for pilots flying in
this area. The predominantly westerly flow is usually quite brisk and, if it attains
speeds of 25 to 30 knots, moderate to severe mechanical turbulence can occur up to
4,000 feet above ground level. Even with a westerly flow of less than 20 knots, mod-
erate turbulence can also be experienced directly at the edge of the Oldman River
Valley and over the coulees to the west, although these effects will only be felt in the
lowest levels.

Chinooks are very common between Lethbridge and Calgary. The weather at
any location will change abruptly as the Chinook passes eastward, going from cold
temperatures and low overcast skies to warm, sunny and windy conditions. As always,
severe turbulence is cause for concern with a Chinook.
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104 CHAPTER FOUR

In the summer, most convective cells in the Lethbridge area form in the foothills
to the west or southwest and move northeastward during the day. Because this region
is generally very dry, thunderstorms will often generate microbursts which produce
strong surface gusts. Indeed, the entire southern section of Alberta is a favoured
region for microburst activity.

Strong northerly winds will usually only occur in Lethbridge in association with a
cold frontal passage. In these cases, there is little to no weather, and the passage is
mostly marked by a few hours of very gusty north to northwest winds.

Ice fog occurs several times during the winter in Lethbridge. It requires light winds
or calm conditions, a stable atmosphere and temperatures colder than -25º C. Events
have been known to last for two to three days. During these episodes, diurnal
improvements are minimal and a pronounced reduction in visibility is usually experi-
enced during the evening hours.

Although Pincher Creek is known for its high frequency of good flying weather,
wind is often a big concern. As with Lethbridge, the most frequent wind direction is
from the west, and this direction also brings the highest wind speeds. Pincher Creek
is situated at the east end of the Crowsnest Pass, which is famous for strong flows that
channel through it. For a pilot looking to fly this route, there are a few observations
that can help determine the strength of the flow at any time. Pincher Creek, at the
east end of the pass, can be quite indicative of the pass winds, as well as the Crowsnest
auto station half way through, and Sparwood, British Columbia at the west end of
the pass. Winds are frequently very strong all the way through the Crowsnest Pass
and into Pincher Creek, weakening somewhat by the time they reach Claresholm,
Fort McLeod and Lethbridge. With these strong west winds, turbulence is often
experienced in the pass up to 10,000 feet.

The severity of turbulence at Pincher Creek is not always directly correlated to the
wind speed. Because the terrain is so irregular, there have been occasions of little tur-
bulence with very high wind speeds and excessive turbulence with relatively weak
winds. One phenomena that Pincher Creek is susceptible to, and one that increases
the likelihood of turbulence, is the formation of a “rotor” circulation at the base of the
hills. This type of flow occurs when the wind coming down off the mountains is
strong enough that a portion of it bounces off the land and returns back up the lower
part of the hill. This intense rotation of air is occasionally made evident by the exis-
tence of a rotor cloud at the base of the hill but, since the air in the Pincher Creek
area is often extremely dry, it is rare that such a cloud will form.

Thunderstorms tend to form from enhanced heating along the slopes of the ridges
to the west of Pincher Creek, but they frequently dissipate as they move eastward.
Because of this, Pincher Creek and Lethbridge have a relatively low number of thun-
derstorm occurrences annually when compared to many other Alberta stations. Due
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 105

LAKP-Prairies 105

to the dryness of the region, whenever thunderstorms do occur, they are typically
high-based and precipitation often evaporates before it reaches the ground (virga).
This is the primary mechanism that produces dry microbursts and their associated
strong winds.

There have been occasions where the stations at Sparwood and Pincher Creek, on
either side of the Crowsnest Pass, are reporting clear skies whereas, in the pass itself,
severe thunderstorms will force pilots to turn back.

The area from Lethbridge to Medicine Hat does not differ much from the rest of
southern Alberta. The land slopes upwards to the west, so any feature producing an
easterly flow has the potential to generate low ceilings over the upward sloping
terrain. Such a flow usually comes from low pressure systems moving northeastward
over the northwestern US or stay just to the south of the US/Alberta border. The
resulting stratus band will often begin just to the east of Medicine Hat. Here, the
nature of the flow changes from downslope (off the Cypress Hills) to upslope. The
climate in this area, much like the rest of southern Alberta, is extremely dry, so it is
only during the fall or spring that such a flow can create widespread low ceilings.

All of southern Alberta is susceptible to the effects of the Chinook, but its potency
diminishes as the winds spread further east. Usually, the lee trough that forms in
advance of the Chinook will be somewhere near Lethbridge, leaving areas to the east
in a cool, moist, southeasterly flow. The Chinook and lee trough almost always
progress eastward but only rarely reach Medicine Hat, and even then they are
generally quite weak, having been displaced that far from the mountains.

The Medicine Hat Airport is situated southwest of the town, just south of the
valley formed by the South Saskatchewan River. The predominant wind direction for
this site is from the southwest with many flows deflected around the Cypress Hills
and down the valley formed by Seven Persons Creek. The area is relatively sheltered
and winds are rarely as strong as at Lethbridge. Often, though, when winds are
reported from the southwest at about 10 knots at the airport, they can quickly increase
to westerly 25 knots, or more, just a short distance above the surface. It is also possi-
ble to have lee wave turbulence as far eastward as Medicine Hat.

When a migratory low passes eastward through the Medicine Hat area, the winds
will shift to northwest as the associated cold front sweeps southward in its wake. A
northwesterly wind is a cross wind at the airport, and any northwest flow 30 knots or
greater makes it difficult to use the main runway.

The South Saskatchewan River, as well as Murray and Rattlesnake Lakes, are local
sources of moisture for the formation of stratus and fog. In general, however, it is just
too dry in this part of Alberta to see these conditions at any time other than during
the fall season and occasionally in the spring. There are also two local industrial
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 106

106 CHAPTER FOUR

concerns, a rubber plant and a fertilizer plant, that produce particulate matter and
heat which affect conditions in the winter. They can, under a cold winter inversion,
produce ceilings of 500 to 1,000 feet, but the visibility is generally good. This cloud
is highly localized and may only cover one to two square miles and be 200 to 300 feet
thick. When ceilings are below 2,500 feet, the Cypress Hills to the southeast are not
visible.

Medicine Hat does not have a great frequency of thunderstorms, but some can be
generated on the flat terrain to the west on hot unstable days. Sometimes thunder-
storms will cross the border from Montana, and these are usually quite intense.
Large and slow moving thunderstorm cells are one of the few phenomena that will
generate conditions with low ceilings and poor visibility in the area around
Lethbridge and Medicine Hat during the summer, and even this situation tends to be
short lived. The typical summertime air mass is just so dry that copious amounts of
moisture are necessary to saturate the lower levels.
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LAKP-Prairies 107

Weather of Saskatchewan

URANIUM CITY
STONY RAPIDS

BUFFALO
NARROWS

LA RONGE

MEADOW LAKE

PRINCE ALBERT

NORTH
BATTLEFORD

SASKATOON

YORKTON

SWIFT
MOOSE JAW
CURRENT
REGINA

ROCKGLEN
ESTEVAN

Map 4-17 - Topographical overview of Saskatchewan

PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 108

108 CHAPTER FOUR

Saskatchewan’s distinction as the sunniest and driest of all the Canadian provinces
makes it the most truly continental as well. There are no mountains, large bodies of
water or climatic irregularities to moderate the extremes allowing for hot summers,
cold winters and large diurnal temperature differentials. The land is one vast, glacially
carved plain sloping gently to higher elevations in the west. The most southern third
of the province is classified as true prairies with open grassy plains, rolling hills and
broad river valleys. It is a highly agriculturalized region owing its productivity to the
deep layer of glacially deposited fertile soil. This gives way to the mixed forest of the
boreal plain of central Saskatchewan, where substantial deposits of sandy soil over top
of the Precambrian Shield support vigorous forest growth. The forest becomes mainly
coniferous further north, as the soil cover becomes progressively thinner and coarser
and barely covers the rock below. Eventually the boreal plain transforms to boreal
forest, which is characterized by sparser and more stunted coniferous growth, muskeg,
frequent bare rock outcroppings and numerous shallow lakes and streams.

AVERAGE ANNUAL
PRECIPITATION (mm)
350 400 450

400
400

450

500

500

400
350

500

350 Regina A
400
450
350
350400
400
450

Fig. 4-4 - Annual Precipitation (mm)

The climate across Saskatchewan does not vary greatly. The south is classified as
cold temperate meaning it has cold winters and short warm summers, while the
northern section is sub-arctic, with the main difference being slightly longer winters
and even shorter summers. Annual precipitation is not great in any area and varies
from a low of just over 300 mm in the southwest to a high of just over 500 mm in the
east/central portion. Most remaining locations receive around 400 to 450 mm per
year. Again, this unvaried moisture regime is explained by Saskatchewan’s land
locked position in the middle of the continent and its relatively uniform topography.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 109

LAKP-Prairies 109

It is the Cypress Hills in the extreme southwest that boast the highest elevations in
Saskatchewan at near 4,600 feet, but this is just a rather modest 2,000 feet above the
surrounding terrain.

Saskatchewan, as with the rest of the prairies, lies under the zone of mean westerly
winds, and weather disturbances generally move from west to east. However, because
it is physically open in all directions, it can be the recipient of any number of air mass-
es; cold dry Arctic air from the north, cool and modified Pacific air from the west and
southwest, and warm, somewhat moist air from the American south. These air mass-
es will meet and clash over the province frequently generating storms along their
frontal boundaries, especially in the spring. This provides a benefit to Saskatchewan
agriculture as the maximum precipitation generally falls in the month of June giving
a boost to crops during the early part of the growing season. But these storms are not
frequent enough to rescue Saskatchewan from being the driest of all the provinces,
and even when a moister flow makes its way eastward from the Pacific it has dried
considerably by the time it arrives in Saskatchewan.

The heart of the dry country is found over the southwest in the South
Saskatchewan River basin, an area sometimes referred to as “Palliser’s Triangle” after
the man who first settled and explored the region. A climatological study of the area
reveals that its dryness can be explained by a combination of characteristics of the
mean upper atmospheric and surface circulations that all work together to limit the
available moisture. This region is frequented by fewer low pressure systems and more
highs than areas to the north and south. In the summer, a time when the rest of
Saskatchewan reliably receives the bulk of its annual precipitation, the mean upper
flow over the dry belt of Palliser’s Triangle acts to deflect the pacific storms well to
the north.

ALTA.
SASK.
MAN.
M AN.
AN.
DRY
BELT

PA
ALLISER'S TRIANGLE
A
0 50 100
Miles

Fig. 4-5 - Palliser's Triangle

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110 CHAPTER FOUR

(a) Summer

Saskatchewan summers have several characteristics to distinguish them from those

of the other Canadian provinces; they are the sunniest; they are the hottest and driest;
and they have the greatest diurnal temperature variation, averaging 14 degrees a day.
The records for the highest temperature, 45°C, and the most hours of bright
sunshine, 2,537 annually, both belong to southern Saskatchewan. Although there is
on average little precipitation, the bulk of it is received during the period from May
to August, with the wettest month generally being June. This is useful for southern
agricultural areas, especially since the harvest months of September and October are
noticeably drier.

The generally sunny conditions are occasionally disrupted by the presence of a cold
low, the only significant pattern producing large scale, long lived poor flying weather
in the summer months. The frequency of these cold lows peaks during the summer,
contributing to the monthly precipitation maximum in June. Also, as with Alberta,
the worst flying conditions are found over the north quadrant of the low where north
to northeasterly winds are forced upslope, producing lower ceilings and visibilities.

Saskatchewan is also noted for violent summer thunderstorms, with the month of
July being the most convectively active of the season. There is seldom a summer day
without a thundershower somewhere over the province, especially in the southeast
where there is an average of 25 thunderstorm days a year. The rain accompanying
these storms is usually intense and brief. One particularly violent storm dumped 250
mm of rain in one hour over Buffalo Gap in southern Saskatchewan setting a new
Canadian record. Small hail is frequent, and each summer there are about 10 to 15
severe hailstorms that inflict considerable damage. They can occur anywhere but are
most frequent over the southwestern dry belt.

Convection in Saskatchewan is most frequently of the airmass variety which is

initiated by daytime heating. In this wide-open area, visibility is excellent and
convective buildups can be seen at great distances. It is possible to get nocturnal
thunderstorms throughout the province, but they generally require some large-scale
upper atmospheric support to keep them alive. Sometimes, the early morning period
can produce a “surprise storm” over areas that were convectively active the previous
day. This happens when residual mid level moisture from a previous thunderstorm
lingers overnight and becomes destabilized by morning by radiation cooling at
the cloud top. The presence of Altocumulus Castellanus (ACC) cloud is a definite
indication of this process.

Convective currents provide an environment for significant turbulence, up to

9 to 10 thousand feet on warm sunny summer days, even when the air is clear. These
currents are accentuated along the preferentially heated slopes of hills and valleys and
over freshly tilled and summer-fallow fields.
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LAKP-Prairies 111

Evapotranspiration from crops is a significant source of low level moisture to feed

cell development during the convective season. It peaks during the growing season of
June and July and then diminishes as the crops mature in August. The amount and
severity of convective activity correlates well with this trend.

Aside from the obvious risks of lightning and hail, violent and damaging winds are
a constant concern for aviation interests during the convective season. Tornadoes are,
of course, the most violent of these wind events with an average of seven confirmed
sightings in the province each year, but these episodes are usually localized and
generally last less than an hour. Full-fledged tornadoes are associated with large violent
thunderstorms, or supercells, and because of their many hazards are completely avoided
by pilots. However, a much more common occurrence, and one that is harder to avoid,
is the “cold core funnel” which comes with its own set of dangers. These funnels
are usually associated with the cold lows when the cold air moves over the warm land.
These funnels rarely touch ground, and are certainly less dangerous than a full
tornado, but they do indicate the existence of considerable turbulence. They are often
associated with large areas of broken to overcast cumulus and stratocumulus clouds
with ragged bases and producing scattered showers. Within this area, a particularly
strong updraft can produce a small vortex that appears as a funnel. Cold core funnels
are most common in spring and fall.

It must be noted that strong gusty winds and severe turbulence can be associated
with any convective cell, even the seemingly innocuous. Downdrafts from cells
supporting precipitation also produce a great deal of surface gustiness as they spread
out upon impact with the ground and, if cells are large enough or organized into an
area, gusts fronts can result. Microbursts are of special concern in Saskatchewan
because of the unusual dryness of the atmosphere. In a dry environment, cell bases
are invariably quite high. Precipitation from these cells usually evaporates before it
reaches the surface but still entrains air, drawing it downwards. Evaporative cooling
accelerates this downward motion until the air impacts with the earth, forcing it to
spread out horizontally.

Although the Canadian coastlines are certainly windier than Saskatchewan, this
province is still famous for its “Prairie Blows.” The lack of any topographic features
to impede the flow and create sheltered areas in part explains this reputation. In
the winter, the mean flow is northwesterly, but this changes to southeasterly in the
spring with April and May usually recorded as the windiest months. During the
spring and summer period, it is not uncommon to get a very hot and dry southerly
flow from the American southwest. These winds dry up the surface moisture over
southern agricultural lands and produce reduced visibility in blowing sand and dust
an average of 15 hours a year, but these events diminish after May when the planted
crops act to stabilize the soil.
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112 CHAPTER FOUR

(b) Winter

Winter in Saskatchewan is bitterly cold and long with less than half of the year
being free from freezing temperatures. Snowfall amounts are not great, varying from
an annual average of 100 cm in the south to 175 cm in the north, but it is an important
moisture source for groundwater reserves. Good flying conditions are the
standard with periods of clear, cold and very dry weather often lasting for days on end.
The prevalent wind direction, both at the surface and aloft, is from the northwest and
is associated with frigid continental arctic air that supports little moisture making low
ceilings and visibility unlikely. These northwesterlies are, however, generally stronger
in the south than the north, and this coupled with the wide-open terrain can produce
locally reduced visibility in blowing snow.

The transition period when cold arctic air moves in from the north to replace a
more temperate airmass over the Prairies is known as an “arctic outbreak.” Generally,
along the leading edge of this cold air, flurries will occur and flying conditions will be
marginal for a short time. Of equal concern to aviation are the gusty northwest winds
on the cold side of the outbreak which will likely produce significant mechanical
turbulence in the low levels, as well as giving blowing snow, especially in areas where
there has been recent snowfall.

Blizzards are the most perilous of all winter storms in Saskatchewan. Snowfall is
not necessarily great, but visibility is reduced to near zero due to a combination of
snow and blowing snow. To qualify as a Saskatchewan blizzard, the visibility must be
reduced to less than 5/8 of a mile for at least four hours. January is the most likely
month for these storms to occur, and they occur most frequently over the southwest
where there is an average of two full-fledged blizzards a year.

(c) Transition Periods

Early springtime brings an increase in the frequency of poor flying conditions

to many areas of Saskatchewan. This is a period when the mean surface flow starts to
turn towards the southeast, and any flow with an easterly component is upslope over
large parts of the province. Stratus formation is aided by abundant low level moisture
supplied by melting snow and lakes that are just starting to open. Once the long warm
days of summer set in, poor flying conditions are quite rare as all levels of the atmos-
phere become progressively drier. The main exception to this is the occasional passage
of a cold low which can give low flying weather in the easterly flow to the north of
its centre.

Spring is quite a windy season and mechanical turbulence is usually present in the
lower two to three hundred feet of the atmosphere if winds attain speeds of more than
15 knots. This turbulence is seldom severe but is often enough to make flight rough
for smaller aircraft.
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LAKP-Prairies 113

Fall, at least in the southern part of the province, is quite dry and pleasant especially
in the first half. In the north, there is an increased likelihood of stratus as there are
numerous glacially formed lakes to provide low level moisture. A few of the larger
lakes in the northern half of Saskatchewan have enough surface area to generate snow
streamers if the air flowing across their open waters is cold enough. This usually
requires winds from the north or northwest.

Local Effects for Southern Saskatchewan

This area of the province is, for the most part, a large expanse of gently rolling
agricultural land interrupted by a few ranges of larger hills, and by sharp river valleys,
sometimes falling several hundred feet below the surrounding terrain, such as with
the Qu’Appelle Valley. The main exception to this is the more rugged terrain over the
southwestern corner of the province, south of the Trans-Canada Highway. This area’s
principal features includes the Missouri Coteau south of the South Saskatchewan
River, the Wood Mountain Hills shared with the U.S., and the eastern Cypress Hills.
However, it must be noted that Saskatchewan’s topographic features, that at first seem
insignificant, can be quite influential when considering weather in the very low levels.
They induce small changes in the surface airflow that can create areas of turbulence
and wind shear or create regions of frequent inversions, such as with the Souris Basin.
Most ranges are high enough to give local very low flying conditions when ceiling
heights in the area are marginal. They are also favoured sites for early day convective
initiation as updrafts can be induced or enhanced by differential heating, orographic
lift, and surface convergence.

The motion of synoptic scale systems, such as cold fronts, tend to be fairly
predictable as they approach and cross the area, as there are no large topographical
features acting on them. Simple airmass convection can also be fairly predictable.
A visual assessment of the strength of early morning cumulus and towering cumulus
development will often speak for the rest of the day.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 114

114 CHAPTER FOUR

Regina to Saskatoon

10,000 FT
SASKATOON 7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
QUILL LAKES
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
TOUCHWOOD
HILLS

YORKTON

MOOSE JAW REGINA

OLD WIVES
LAKE

Map 4-18 - Regina to Saskatoon

A broad, level basin formed by the Souris and Moose Jaw Rivers and Wascana
Creek, is the primary topographic feature influencing the weather in Regina; more
accurately for the entire corridor from Minot through Estevan, Weyburn, Regina,
Lumsden and, at times, areas further northwest. Southeasterly flows channelling
through this valley frequently advect areas of stratus and fog, which have developed
upstream, into the Regina area. Although this phenomena can occur at any time of TURTLE
the year, it is most common from late fall to early spring. It is normally associated MOUNTAINS
with the eastward advance of a low pressure system over Montana and the Dakotas
or southern or central Saskatchewan, or with a building ridge of high pressure over
Manitoba. Either of these synoptic set-ups provides the persistent upslope southeast-
erly flow needed to generate stratus.

Weather in Regina is estimated to be good about 90 to 95 percent of the time. The

most common time of year for extended periods of poor flying conditions is during
the late fall transition period (mid October to early November) when lakes are still
open. During this time, cold air advancing from the north or northwest picks up
moisture as it crosses open lakes. Much of the area can be covered with low cloud.
Even if the flow changes to the southeast, the Souris/Wascana effect mentioned
above can prolong the problem.
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LAKP-Prairies 115

Thunderstorms are common in the area, but those moving toward Regina from the
west or southwest have a tendency to split upstream from the city, “following” or
developing along the Qu’Appelle Valley to the north and along the western side of
the basin southeast of Moose Jaw.

Regina is considered a very windy place by local pilots and is viewed by many to
have the most problematic weather, particularly in summer. There are seldom
days when winds are calm and most days have gusty winds predominantly from the
southeast or northwest. Mechanical turbulence is common up to about 5,000 feet
ASL but is seldom severe.

When cold fronts advance from the northwest, Saskatoon and Elbow are good
upstream sites to look for signals (changes in pressure, temperature and wind) of a
frontal passage. These two sites can be used to anticipate the arrival and severity of
the front in Regina.

The path between Regina and Saskatoon covers the open flat agricultural territory
of the Souris Basin and the West Central Plains, with Regina situated a mere 240 feet
higher in elevation than Saskatoon. Between the two, and closer to Saskatoon than
Regina, are the Allan Hills. They are gently sloped and average only 300 to 500 feet
above the surrounding terrain, but with an east to northeasterly upslope flow and
sufficient low level moisture, stratus can blanket the area with ceilings being lower
over the hills than at either the Regina or Saskatoon airport. The fall and early win-
ter months are the periods when this most frequently occurs. When flying between
the two points, if conditions are good in Saskatoon but poor in Regina, then the
beginning of the stratus is often in the region of the Allan Hills. In fact, weather sys-
tems that are passing over the southern prairies will often spread low cloud to the
north as far as a line running from around Rosetown to Hanley at the edge of the
Allan Hills. Beyond this line, the upslope component of the terrain becomes barely
perceptible.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 116

116 CHAPTER FOUR

Regina to Yorkton and Eastward

10,000 FT
7000 FT
DUCK
5000 FT
3000 FT
TOUCHWOOD MOUNTAINS
2000 FT HILLS
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
YORKTON

MOOSE JAW REGINA

Map 4-19 - Regina to Yorkton

Overall, the terrain is fairly smooth along this route, with a rise in elevation
between the Souris/Wascana Basin and the Qu’Appelle River Valley. Once north of
the Qu’Appelle, there are regions of higher terrain both to the northwest (the Beaver
Hills) and to the southeast (the Pheasant Hills). Ceilings over these hills can be very
low when marginal conditions are reported at either Regina or Yorkton, but it is easy
to avoid the higher terrain by sticking close to Highway 10, situated in a slight valley
between the two ranges. The Qu’Appelle River provides the only distinct relief along
the flight path, as it flows in a sharp trench that is roughly 400 feet below the
surrounding land surface. Like those formed by most rivers and creeks in the area, the
Qu’Appelle Valley trench is contained within a broader drainage system, and turbu-
lence can be present in the low levels when not a problem elsewhere. Winds can shift
direction across the valley, forcing pilots to adjust aircraft attitude to stay on course.
Convective cloud can be accentuated along the valley as well, and cells tend to follow
the lower terrain eastward south of Yorkton.

Yorkton lies in an area of flat land between the Beaver Hills to the west and the
Duck and Riding Mountains to the east, near the Manitoba border. Pilots consider
the locale to be one of few surprises, topographically and meteorologically.

Yorkton is less windy than Regina, and mechanical turbulence is seldom a signifi-
cant problem in the area. The flow is predominantly from either the northwest or
south-southeast. Flows from the northeast quadrant are quite rare. In the fall months,
north to northwesterly winds frequently bring low cloud and fog which is accentuated
by the moisture input from Good Spirit Lake to the northwest of the town.
Precipitation amounts are also higher on average over southeastern Saskatchewan, as
this area is closer to the path of moisture laden synoptic systems moving northeastward
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 117

LAKP-Prairies 117

from the central and southern U.S. As a consequence, the period when large amounts
of low-level moisture are made available due to snowmelt is extended in the spring.

Convective currents are present in clear air on sunny days in the spring, summer
and fall, especially over tilled fields, and this causes rough flying conditions in the low
levels. In the spring, the snow melts off plowed fields first and the differences in
surface heating, due to abrupt variations of albedo, accentuate the updrafts and down-
drafts.

Yorkton Eastward

The roughly north-south valley of the Assiniboine River lies just east of Yorkton.
Low cloud can pool in the valley especially around the Lake of the Prairies, a long
man-made lake that extends north of a dam near Shellmouth. This area is also a
common site for enhanced convection in summer.

East of the Assiniboine River, the terrain rises over a series of hills and ranges. Well
north of Yorkton, straddling the Manitoba/Saskatchewan border, are the Porcupine
Hills, and further south and mostly contained within Manitoba, are the Duck and
Riding Mountains. There are several lakes in the area and the surface tends to be
moist. Flows from the west are pushed upslope so there can be some deterioration in
ceiling and visibility, even if conditions at Yorkton are good. The higher terrain is
often shrouded in cloud if marginal values are reported at Yorkton or Dauphin,
Manitoba.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 118

118 CHAPTER FOUR

Yorkton to Estevan

DUCK
MOUNTAINS

YORKTON

MOOSE JAW RIDING

REGINA
MOUNTAINS

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
SO

MOOSE
UR

2000 FT
MOUNTAINS
IS

1500 FT
/W

1000 FT
AS
CA

600 FT
NA

300 FT
BA

0 SEA LEVEL
SI
N

ESTEVAN TURTLE
MOUNTAINS

Map 4-20 - Yorkton to Estevan

As with the path between Yorkton and Regina, the Qu’Appelle River Valley is the
main topographical feature enroute. The valley trench is still quite deep at this point,
as is that of Pipestone Creek, which joins with the Qu’Appelle north of Broadview.
The terrain in this area is fairly complex and susceptible to low level turbulent eddies
in gusty wind situations. About 40 miles south of Broadview, the land rises abruptly,
about 700 feet, over Moose Mountain and then falls off again into the Souris Basin
on the other side. The tops of Moose Mountain are often obscured when low cloud
is in the area and there are plenty of small lakes in the region to support and main-
tain its longevity. Mechanical turbulence is often encountered below 5,000 feet ASL
over this higher terrain in strong wind situations, especially those from the northeast.

Annual precipitation amounts are higher over this region than any other area
of southern Saskatchewan, the bulk of which arrives in summer when low pressure
systems move up from the south carrying warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico.
Higher levels of low level moisture lead to a greater chance of severe convective
weather and, indeed, the highest number of thunderstorm days, occur over this corner
of the province.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 119

LAKP-Prairies 119

The Estevan Airport is situated about 4 miles north of the town of Estevan which,
in turn, lies in an active coal mining area. The provincial electrical utility uses the coal
to fuel two large power generating plants in the area. The more modern “Shand” plant
lies approximately 8 miles southeast of the airport. The older, larger “Boundary” plant
lies about the same distance to the southwest. Both plants are fitted with precipitators
which reduce the amount of pollution resulting from coal combustion. However, a
huge quantity of water vapour is injected into the atmosphere by these installations
each day.

Depending on local atmospheric conditions, this added moisture can cause marked
changes in weather conditions across the area surrounding the town and airport.
Inversions at any time of the year, but particularly in winter, can trap the moisture
near the surface causing local marginal or even lower flying conditions. Reduced
visibility in ice crystals is common downwind from the plants on cold winter days
and nights, but can also occur when temperatures are higher than those normally
associated with the phenomena (usually below -16°C). Southeasterly flows, often
already laden with moisture and associated with the poorest weather in the area, are
further saturated by the plant discharge, accentuating low cloud and fog conditions.

The most common wind direction is from the northwest, and cross winds often
occur over the main runway which is oriented west to east. These flows are also
known to bring low cloud and fog to Estevan, particularly in the spring and fall, with
a ridge of high pressure building from the north or northwest.

Otherwise, Estevan enjoys a high percentage of good flying days. Winds are
the most prevalent concern to aviators, and mechanical turbulence, rarely severe, is
common up to about 4,000 feet ASL. Standing lenticular cloud is often present,
sometimes at fairly low levels, with strong southwesterly flows aloft over the Missouri
Coteau. Convective cloud tends to form upstream in unstable southwesterly flows.
Large cells are visible at great distances so severe weather "surprises" are unusual.
Convective currents are also responsible for bumpy low level flying conditions in
summer, especially over tilled fields.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 120

DUCK
MOUNTAINS
120 CHAPTER FOUR

Estevan - Regina (Souris/Wascana Basin)

YORKTON

RIDING
REGINA
MOUNTAINS
M

SO
UR MOOSE 10,000 FT
7000 FT
MOUNTAINS
MI

IS
SS

5000 FT
/W
OU

3000 FT
AS
R

CA

2000 FT
IC

NA
OT

1500 FT
BA
E

1000 FT
AU

SI

600 FT
N

ESTEVAN 300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Map 4-21 - Estevan - Regina (Souris/Wascana Basin)

The Souris/Wascana Basin is one of the more subtle surface features in southern
Saskatchewan but, no doubt because of its overall size, is one of the most important
topographical influences on weather conditions in the area. As mentioned earlier, the
basin extends from the southeast through Estevan to the Lumsden/Elbow area. It is
wider in the south than it is to the north, so southeasterly flows are channelled and
accelerated.

The basin is quite shallow, with depths averaging 300 feet below the terrain to the
southwest (Missouri Coteau) and northeast (Touchwood Hills - Indian Head -
Moose Mountain areas). However, persistent inversions, up to 800 feet deep, are
common over the area, especially from late fall to early spring. When an inversion is
present, the cold layer is usually moist and stagnant or is being fed by a moist south-
easterly low level flow. This causes, sustains, or advects stratus and fog into the area.
As a general rule, locations on the southwestern side of the basin enjoy better weath-
er conditions than those sites in central and northeastern areas. When this is the case,
winds above the inversion are usually stronger, warmer, drier and from the southwest
or west. The inversion is eroded or broken down earlier and rather easily along the
southwestern side of the basin by the warm winds subsiding off the Missouri Coteau,
thus improving conditions there. However, the shallow cold layer, with its inherent
poorer weather, can be quite stubborn over central and eastern sections. Significant
directional wind shear is possible near the top of the inversion in this situation, espe-
cially when there are reasonably strong southeasterly winds in the cold layer.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 121

LAKP-Prairies 121

With the passage of a synoptic scale low pressure system, there can be locally
enhanced precipitation along the “sides” of the basin where winds have an upslope
trajectory. This is especially true when systems pass to the south, producing an east-
erly flow across the basin that is forced to rise up the eastern slopes of the Missouri
Coteau. In winter, this can lead to significant snowfalls that, when combined with
gusty winds, can produce local blizzard conditions with visibility near zero in snow
and blowing snow.

COOL SOUTHWESTERLY FLOW

WARM WESTERLY FLOW

INDIAN HEAD

MOOSE JAW REGINA

SOURIS/WASCANA BASIN

COLD AIR IS ERODED ON THE

SOUTHWEST SLOPE MORE RAPIDLY

Fig. 4-6 - Pooling cold air in Souris/Wascana Basin

PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 122

122 CHAPTER FOUR

The Missouri Coteau

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

COTEAU TO
HILLS

SWIFT CURRENT

MOOSE JAW
RE
OLD WIVES
LAKE SO
UR
S I
/W
AS
MI

ROCKGLEN
CA
SS

NA
OU

BA
RI

SI
CO

N
TE
AU

Map 4-22 - The Missouri Coteau

The Missouri Coteau is a large region of relatively rugged terrain made up of sev-
eral ridges of hills, criss-crossed by deep valleys and coulees. Geologically, it extends
west from the Souris/Wascana Basin to the Cypress Hills and northwestward into
Alberta east of Edmonton, but is most prominent south of Lake Diefenbaker. The
myriad of landforms are a result of glacial movements during several ice ages and the
subsequent melt and runoff. This is especially evident over extreme southern sections
(Big Muddy Lake, Rockglen and Wood Mountain areas) and the Cactus Hills south
of Moose Jaw.

Convective activity in the area tends to initiate earliest along ridges of the Missouri
Coteau and drift eastward across the Souris/Wascana basin as it continues to develop.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 123

LAKP-Prairies 123

The Coteau itself is typically an area of enhanced convection when the airmass is
unstable. Severe weather is most likely in June and July when daytime heating is most
intense, and low level moisture is at its peak. Because of the complex nature of the
terrain of the Coteau, winds can be funnelled in an almost random way. Mechanical
turbulence below 6,000 feet ASL is common over the area.

Strong southwesterly flows can produce widespread standing wave activity and
mechanical turbulence over and to the lee of the Coteau. Lenticular cloud is often
present at low and mid levels and indicates the presence of lee waves.

The land can be described as semi-arid so widespread radiation fog in summer is

not very common. It can happen where cool air pools in the lower valleys and near
lakes. There is a coal-fired power plant, similar to the Shand Plant near Estevan,
located on the Poplar River east of Rockglen. This generator can be responsible for
locally poor conditions, as its emissions also include a large amount of water vapour.

The Cypress Hills rise, on average, about 1,400 feet above the surrounding territory
and include one of the few forested areas in southern Saskatchewan. The highest ele-
vations in the province are here, exceeding 4,500 feet ASL near the Alberta border.
As one would expect, the area is susceptible to mechanical turbulence up to several
thousand feet above the terrain in windy conditions, and in enhanced convective
weather when the airmass is sufficiently unstable. Small-scale upslope and downslope
effects can produce varying deterioration and improvement in weather conditions
over short distances, depending on the amount of low level moisture and wind direction.
The northern slopes of the Cypress Hills are particularly vulnerable to upslope
stratus when cool moist air is invading from a northwest, north or northeasterly direc-
tion. When surrounding stations are reporting marginal ceilings, the higher terrain is
likely enshrouded or, at least, the ceilings are considerably lower there.

Precipitation amounts tend to be greater over the Cypress Hills than the surround-
ing area and snowfall accumulation can be significant over the higher elevations in
winter. In fall, when freezing levels are dropping, precipitation phase can often change
from liquid to solid, and back again, as one traverses the Cypress Hills. This phase
transition can result in serious icing conditions when temperatures are sufficiently
cold.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 124

124 CHAPTER FOUR

Swift Current to Moose Jaw

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT COTEAU
3000 FT HILLS
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
SWIFT CURRENT
0 SEA LEVEL

MOOSE JAW

CYPRESS HILLS OLD WIVES

LAKE

MI
SS
Map 4-23 - Swift Current - Moose Jaw ROCKGLEN

Swift Current is situated north of the more rugged sections of the Missouri Coteau
and Cypress Hills, but much of the local weather is still caused by the influence of
that terrain. Southwest to westerly flows are forced over and around the Cypress Hills
resulting in occasional “Chinook-like” conditions in the winter, as well as some accel-
eration in winds from those directions at any time of the year. Lee wave and/or
mechanical turbulence up to 6,000 feet ASL can be expected with these winds. The
local land surface is somewhat smoother, but there are several ranges of hills in the
area, as well as rivers that have carved deep trenches. The South Saskatchewan River
and Lake Diefenbaker, just north of Swift Current, twist through a trench that falls
as much as 500 feet below the surrounding area. Terrain around these features is ideal
for enhanced mechanical turbulence and erratic wind shifts.

Low cloud events at Swift Current are usually the result of one of two situations.
During the fall months, cool, moist northwest or northerly flows are forced up the
slope out of the South Saskatchewan River Valley and encounter the rising terrain to
the south of the town. Sometimes stratus invades from the west, but this is usually
cloud that has been formed in the northerly upslope flow and deflected eastward by
the Cypress Hills. In the second case, low cloud can also advect from the southeast
with a flow from that direction. This is common in the fall but can happen in the
winter and spring as well, especially during or after a period of snow melt.

Several sewage lagoons lie just to the northwest of the Swift Current airport. In an
effort to reduce the water volume in the lagoons in winter, local authorities use what
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LAKP-Prairies 125

is best described as a type of snow making machine. When temperatures are below
-10ºC, the machines are turned on and inject the fluid into the air, with the hope that
it will be evaporated or sublimated and carried away by the wind. This process has a
tendency to create local stratus and fog that can directly affect the airport when the
winds are northwesterly.

The route from Swift Current to Moose Jaw follows the Trans-Canada highway,
which crosses several shallow valleys separated by ridges or lines of hills, most of
which are aligned roughly northwest to southeast. Although these features are not as
prominent as those further south, they can produce some mechanical turbulence in
the low levels when winds blow across them.

There are several shallow alkaline lakes in the area. The largest of them are
Reed Lake and Chaplin Lake, near the highway, and Old Wives Lake, southwest
of Moose Jaw. The size of these lakes can vary greatly depending on the amount of
precipitation or evaporation that takes place in a given year. These lakes can be
responsible for several local effects: local fog on cool, clear summer nights; enhanced
convection due to the extra availability of low level moisture; fog and stratus with cold
west to northwesterly flows in the fall; and, occasionally, some enhanced early winter
snowfalls. Also, like other alkaline lakes, these do not always freeze completely and
can continue to inject a small amount of heat and moisture into the lower atmosphere
throughout the winter and early spring.

There is a sodium sulphate processing plant near the highway at the north end of
Chaplin Lake. When the plant is operating, its discharge can enhance (or locally
cause) low flying conditions in fog and low cloud. The combined effects of the
sodium sulphate plant and the lake could be the reason for a local rule of thumb: when
ceilings are poor or marginal in Swift Current and Moose Jaw, they can be as much
as 400 feet lower near Chaplin Lake.
 PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 126

126 CHAPTER FOUR

Moose Jaw to Regina

COTEAU TOUCHWOOD
HILLS HILLS

SWIFT CURRENT
MOOSE JAW REGINA

OLD WIVES 10,000 FT

LAKE 7000 FT
SO

5000 FT
UR

3000 FT
IS

2000 FT
/W
AS

1500 FT
C
MI

1000 FT
AN

ROCKGLEN
SS

600 FT
A
OU

BA

300 FT
RI

SI

0 SEA LEVEL
CO

N
TE
AU

Map 4-24 - Moose Jaw and area

Moose Jaw lies on the western side of the Souris/Wascana Basin on the eastern
slopes of some high terrain that is part of the Missouri Coteau. This location is
beneficial, especially in winter, because subsiding westerly winds (Moose Jaw
“Chinooks”) erode the shallow inversions that frequently form in the basin, much ear-
lier here than at points further east. Since the winds at Moose Jaw are predominantly
westerly, temperatures are usually several degrees warmer and the weather is typically
better, or at least, isn’t poor for as long, in Moose Jaw than in Regina.

Easterly flows are upslope here and are responsible for the majority of cases of poor
weather, especially from fall to spring. The synoptic pattern is usually that of a high
pressure area to the north and lower pressure to the south. In the winter, strong east
to southeasterly upslope winds will accentuate snowfalls and in turn combine with the
fresh precipitation to produce poor conditions in blowing snow. Westerly winds will
also bring blowing snow to Moose Jaw. However, this condition gradually makes its
way into the aerodrome area only after it has already obscured the higher terrain to
the west, so there is some advance notice of impending deterioration.

As mentioned, the Missouri Coteau is noted for enhanced convection during the
summer. Old Wives Lake, southwest of Moose Jaw, is another feature in the area that
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 127

LAKP-Prairies 127

can intensify convective activity by providing extra low level moisture. As a result,
thunderstorms are common at Moose Jaw during the summer season.

Strong southwesterly winds traversing the Coteau can cause significant mechanical
and/or low-level lee wave turbulence over Moose Jaw.

Railway lines run through the area and there are several sidings west of Moose Jaw
where locomotives will sit and idle. In the winter, when winds are light and temper-
atures cold, the exhaust from these engines can promote the formation of ice fog that
tends to pool in the Thunder Creek valley, which joins the Moose Jaw River in the
town.

There is a noticeable “transition zone” in weather conditions between Regina and

Moose Jaw, which tend to be quite different between the two places. This is particu-
larly evident in winter when an inversion is present in the Souris/Wascana Basin
(Regina) and drier, warmer westerly winds have scoured out the cold air to the west
(Moose Jaw). Belle Plaine, a town on the highway between the two cities and site of
a large potash plant, commonly marks the boundary between good conditions to the
west and poor conditions to the east. The potash plant probably has something to do
with the predictability of the boundary. If this boundary is farther west, there can be
marked differences from the weather reporting site at the military base south of
Moose Jaw and the Moose Jaw Municipal Airport, 6 to 7 miles northeast of the town.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 128

128 CHAPTER FOUR

Yorkton to Saskatoon

10,000 FT

7000 FT

5000 FT
ON
3000 FT

Q 2000 FT

1500 FT

1000 FT

600 FT

300 FT

0 SEA LEVEL

TON

Map 4-25 - Yorkton to Saskatoon

This path also takes a pilot along fairly flat terrain; there is less that a 20-foot
difference in elevation between the two airports. Major topographic features include
the Beaver and Touchwood Hills to the south on the first half of the route, and the
Allan Hills just southeast of the Blackstrap Reservoir, near Saskatoon. These hills can
be dangerous obstructions when marginal flying conditions exist at reporting sites,
and they are often locations of enhanced convective activity in the summer.

The Quill Lakes are large, shallow alkaline bodies of water located roughly halfway
between Saskatoon and Yorkton, just north of the Touchwood Hills. In fact, Big Quill
Lake is the largest saline lake in Canada. These lakes are responsible for several
marked changes in the weather along the route. If the airmass is sufficiently unstable,
the lakes can provide enough low level moisture to initiate and accentuate convective
activity in the area. In the summer, stratus and fog commonly forms on cool, clear
nights over and around the lakes and is then advected downwind, creating a problem
for flight operations until late in the morning. In the fall and early winter, cold west
to northwesterly flows passing over the warmer water generate large areas of low
cloud that can extend downwind as far as Yorkton. This low cloud is usually embedded
with streamers of convective cells that produce locally enhanced precipitation. When
air temperatures are low enough, poor visibilities in snow showers can be expected.
Since the lakes are high in mineral content, they typically do not freeze readily and
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 129

LAKP-Prairies 129

can have “soft spots” in the ice cover. These spots continue to inject heat and mois-
ture into the lower atmosphere throughout the winter and early spring, although on
a much smaller scale. Finally, the lakes are a breeding area for vast numbers of shore
birds during warm months and bird populations swell further during migratory
season. Pilots should be concerned with bird impacts in the region.

When this area is under the influence of flows with a westerly component, pilots in
Yorkton prefer to use Saskatoon, rather than Regina, as the best upstream indicator
of weather they can expect. The limited information provided by the automatic
reporting site at Wynyard can give some indication of the weather around the Quill
Lakes, but it may not be representative of the general conditions along the route.

Saskatoon is situated in a broad area of open and flat terrain, in central

Saskatchewan. The airport is on the north side of the city and has a relatively uncom-
plicated climatology, with close to the lowest frequency of low flying conditions in
Saskatchewan. The months of November through February bring the greatest likeli-
hood of poor weather. The South Saskatchewan River flows through the center of
town in a south-southwest to north-northeast, but the valley is quite wide and has
gently sloped sides. There is some higher terrain, the Allan Hills, about 25 miles to
the south-southeast of the town, but they rise only 400 to 500 feet above the
surrounding area. Because of the openness of the land, there is no strongly preferred
wind direction in Saskatoon, although there is a slight partiality for winds from
the northwest or the southwest. The strongest winds are almost always from the
northwest.

Saskatoon is frequently cold and clear in the winter, as dry continental arctic air
enters from the north. This allows for frequent low level inversions which does lead
to the occasional period of ice fog fed by condensation nuclei from local industry.
A power plant on the south side of town will sometimes spread smoke as far as the
airport under inversion conditions if there is a light southerly flow, but it will not usu-
ally significantly reduce the visibility.
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130 CHAPTER FOUR

Local Effects for Northern Saskatchewan

For the purposes of describing aviation weather, northern Saskatchewan will be

defined as Prince Albert and all areas to the north. At this point, the land makes a
transition from being mainly agricultural to the much more sparsely populated areas
of the boreal plains and forest of the north. The land between the Saskatchewan River
and the Churchill River (between Prince Albert and La Ronge) is characterized by
small rolling hills, several larger lakes and the vigorous mixed forest. The most
significant topographical feature is the Mostoos Hills, to the north of Meadow Lake.

North of the Churchill River, the land becomes flatter with the lakes becoming
much more numerous and smaller in size. The rock of the Precambrian Shield is very
near the surface in this region and only a scrubby coniferous growth is supported.
Lake Athabasca and its drainage system dominate the farthest northern reach of the
province. Here, outcroppings of bare rock are not infrequent.

In general, convective activity decreases as one progresses northward due to the

mitigating influences of forest cover and numerous lakes. Compared to the south,
thunderstorms are less frequent in northern Saskatchewan, and more importantly, less
severe, with large hail and tornadoes being extremely rare. The north is prone to more
stratus, especially in the transition seasons, as there is abundant low level moisture
supplied by the lakes. As well, the larger lakes in the central region, and Lake
Athabasca in the north, can be prone to streamers in the early spring and the late fall,
especially in a cold north to northwest flow.

Saskatoon - Prince Albert - North Battleford

WASKESIU
HILLS
THICKWOOD
HILLS
PRINCE ALBERT

10,000 FT
NORTH BATTLEFORD 7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
SASKATOON

Map 4-26 - Saskatoon to Prince Albert

QUILL LAKES
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LAKP-Prairies 131

The path between Saskatoon and Prince Albert mainly follows the broad valley of
the South Saskatchewan River. The terrain around Saskatoon is flat prairie but head-
ing towards Prince Albert, land cover shifts to predominantly boreal forest. Prince
Albert issituated on the North Saskatchewan River, just west of the junction where
the two branches of the River meet to form the Saskatchewan River. At this point,
the valley is very wide and gently sloped. Along this route, the terrain slopes gradu-
ally downwards to the northeast, with Prince Albert 250 feet lower than Saskatoon.
Stratus tends to form along this route in the fall and early winter whenever there is a
moist flow coming from the northeast quadrant.

The main topographical feature between Prince Albert and North Battleford is the
southern end of the Thickwood Hills, which are encountered about half way to North
Battleford and rise about 1,000 feet above the surrounding area. If conditions are
marginal at either North Battleford or Prince Albert, then they will certainly be lower
over the Thickwood hills where ceilings are often down to the ground. A moist east
to southeasterly flow will give the lowest conditions over the hills with the stratus pil-
ing up on the east side. Although a westerly flow will still be upslope on the western
half of the hills, it is usually too dry to induce any cloud formation.

North Battleford Airport is situated on the east side of the town. Both are just
north of the North Saskatchewan River. Because of the influence of the northwest
to southeast valley, the winds are almost always oriented along this axis with winds
from any other sector being infrequent and generally light. With the prominent hills
situated on either side of the valley, the Thickwood Hills to the northeast and the
Eagle Hills to the southwest, the only upslope flow comes from the southeast up the
river valley. If a moist southeast flow blankets southern Saskatchewan in stratus, then
there is almost always a progressive deterioration in ceilings with the highest values
occurring in Moose Jaw and Saskatoon, and lower values in North Battleford. Ceiling
heights then continue to deteriorate towards Lloydminster.

In spring and summer, if there is little spread between the temperature and dew
point in the overnight period, a broad band of fog and stratus will often form over the
North Saskatchewan River Valley and spread into the North Battleford Airport. It
will usually start to break up by 8:00 AM local time.

The path between Saskatoon and North Battleford stretches over the much flatter
terrain of the North Saskatchewan River Valley, with the Thickwood Hills on the
north side and the Eagle Hills on the south. If the region is blanketed in stratus due
to an easterly flow, then ceilings will often gradually lower towards North Battleford
due to the slight increase in elevation, but with no significantly lower ceilings enroute.
The southern slopes of the Thickwood Hills are known to generate convective
buildup in the summertime. Cells formed in this area will generally track southeast-
ward along the North Saskatchewan River Valley.
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132 CHAPTER FOUR

MOSTOOS LA RONGE
Prince Albert HILLS
to Meadow Lake

10,000 FT THUNDER
7000 FT HILLS
5000 FT MEADOW LAKE
3000 FT
2000 FT MONTREAL LAKE
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT WASKESIU
0 SEA LEVEL HILLS
THICKWOOD
HILLS

NORTH BATTLEFORD
PRINCE ALBERT

Map 4-27 - Prince Albert and area

Prince Albert airport is located in the east to west valley of the North Saskatchewan
river, nestled into a U-shaped deviation of the river so that it is surrounded on three
sides by water. This means that flows from every direction, except the north, could
potentially advect stratus and fog into the airport from the river valley. However, an
easterly flow is the most likely to do this as it is pushed upslope. As well, it can acquire
significant moisture in the low levels from its long trajectory within the
confines of the east-west valley of the South Saskatchewan and North Saskatchewan
Rivers.

There are two local anomalies in the topography that need to be considered when
low cloud is in the area. About 15 miles southwest of the airport, Red Deer Hill rises
nearly 300 feet above the surrounding terrain, and 16 miles to the north-northwest,
Handson’s Hill rises slightly over 300 feet.

Prince Albert is a prime location for morning radiation fog due to its proximity to
the river. These events are most frequent from April through October, with the peak
being in August and September, when the night becomes longer and radiational cool-
ing is greater. Radiation fog tapers off greatly in the winter months when the river
freezes over, but there are still some occurrences of ice fog due to rapids on the river
just to the north of the airport that are slow to freeze. Occasionally, there is ice fog or
thin stratus coming from the emissions of the local pulp mill if the flow is light north-
easterly, and there is a low level inversion. Another wintertime consideration for the
Prince Albert Airport is the making of snow at a ski hill situated one mile to the west.
If the flow is light westerly, then this will advect some of the low level moisture and
subsequent ice fog over the airport, usually creating low ceiling and low visibility.
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LAKP-Prairies 133

The orientation of the river valley in Prince Albert is from east to west and this
strongly influences the wind, which predominantly blows within the confines of the
valley. However, the strongest winds are generally northwesterlies which develop in
the wake of the passage of a low over the area.

Heading northwestward from Prince Albert towards Meadow Lake, one follows a
path that is in a natural depression in the land with ranges of hills on either side. The
Thickwood Hills stretch most of the distance along the southwestern side, and the
much smaller Waskesiu Hills are on the northeast side on the first part of the flight.
Closer to Meadow Lake the prominent Mostoos Hills rise to the north, but they are
not encountered on either a path from Prince Albert or La Ronge. This course also
tends to delineate agricultural lands to the south from the forests of the boreal plain
to the north. Not surprisingly, flows from the east to southeast are upslope over this
area and are most likely to bring the lowest conditions. However, Meadow Lake is
only 170 feet higher in elevation than Prince Albert, so there is generally not a notable
difference in weather reported at either of the two sites. There are usually no
significantly lower conditions between the two airports if the hills on either side are
avoided.

Meadow Lake, both the airport and the town, are situated in an east-west valley
created by the Beaver River flowing eastward from Cold Lake. The river itself is more
than 10 miles north of the airport so it does not have a great influence on conditions
there, but it does mean that a north wind is upslope for the airport as it makes its way
up the side of the valley. However, winds from either the north or the south are
uncommon in Meadow Lake, and are usually quite light. Meadow Lake is sheltered
from strong wind flows from most directions; southwesterlies are the most common
direction, but it is rare that speeds attain more than 10 knots.

Meadow Lake does not have a high incidence of reduced visibility in fog, but there
is a peak season for morning radiation fog that runs from June through September.
August is the month most likely for this to occur with about 8 percent of the days see-
ing some period of fog in the morning hours. The lake that the town is named after
is about 4 miles to the west and no doubt plays a role in supplying low level moisture
for fog formation.

Flying the lower terrain between Cold Lake, Meadow Lake, Prince Albert, and
even northeastward to La Ronge, provides fairly safe and reliable weather conditions.
The most hazardous regions are directly to the north or south of Meadow Lake.
Heading south towards North Battleford takes a pilot directly over the Thickwood
Hills that rise 1,000 feet between the two airports. When conditions are even close
to marginal at either of these two airports, there is likely to be very low conditions,
even down to the treetops, somewhere over these hills. It is often necessary to divert
around the the eastern side of the Thickwood Hills. Almost every wind direction will
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134 CHAPTER FOUR

provide upslope conditions at some point over the hills, but winds from the northwest
through to southwest are generally the safest as they are typically dry in the low levels,
due to the predominantly downslope conditions to the west in Alberta.

To the north, the Mostoos Hills rise quite sharply, more than 1,500 feet above the
valley of the Beaver River, and are the most prominent geographical feature in the
northern half of Saskatchewan. They are infamous for very low to obscured condi-
tions especially in a moist south to southeasterly flow. The northeastern portion of the
Mostoos Hills is situated inside the boundaries of the Primrose Lake Weapons Range,
which is restricted airspace under the control of the Cold Lake military base. For this
reason, as well as the likelihood of weather hazards over the hills, pilots heading north
from Meadow Lake towards Buffalo Narrows will often stick to the lower ground on
the eastern side of the hills. In the summer, the southern slopes of the Mostoos Hills
are also an area of frequent convective buildups and thunderstorm generation.

Prince Albert to La Ronge

MOSTOOS LA RONGE
HILLS

10,000 FT THUNDER
7000 FT HILLS
5000 FT MEADOW LAKE
3000 FT
2000 FT MONTREAL LAKE
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT WASKESIU
0 SEA LEVEL HILLS
THICKWOOD
HILLS

NORTH BATTLEFORD
PRINCE ALBERT

Map 4-28 - Prince Albert to La Ronge

Flying directly between Prince Albert and La Ronge, the territory is quite flat and
swampy with small ranges of hills on either side. Montreal Lake, a long thin body of
water stretching on the west side of the flight path about half way between the two
sites, is notorious for producing a great deal of stratus, especially in a moist flow from
the east. On the west side of the path there are also two ranges of hills, the Waskesiu
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LAKP-Prairies 135

Hills, just southwest of Montreal Lake and the Thunder Hills, just west of the lake
at its northern end. Naturally, these two areas of higher land, 600 to 800 feet above
the terrain to the east, experience very low ceilings in east to southeasterly flows. The
Thunder Hills can be particularly treacherous, as any flows from the eastern quadrant
will receive an extra injection of low level moisture from Montreal Lake before
ascending to higher elevations. Staying on the east side of Montreal Lake will
generally ensure the best ceilings and visibilities as this keeps a pilot to the lowest
elevations in the area. There is also the additional benefit of a slight downslope off the
small ranges of the Cub and Wapawekka Hills to the east. In general, any flow from
the west is quite favourable in this region. However, in the fall and the spring, a cold
northwesterly flow can become unstable as it crosses the warmer waters of Montreal
Lake. This can produce an area of cumulus and stratocumulus with the potential for
embedded snow streamers.

La Ronge sits on a small peninsula of land, at the border of the Precambrian Shield,
which is surrounded by lakes on most sides. The largest of these is Lac La Ronge, to
the east of the airport, which is quite shallow and dotted with numerous islands. Any
prolonged east to northerly flow can advect quite low conditions into the airport area
due to the long fetch over the lake, but this is most prevalent in the spring and fall;
the late fall shows the greatest likelihood of poor flying conditions. Lac La Ronge
tends to freeze and thaw somewhat later than other lakes in the area, and this does
affect the periods of maximum stratus formation.

La Ronge has the reputation of being a windy airport. It is exposed to winds from
most directions with west to northwesterly flows being the most frequent, followed
closely by east to northeasterlies. Flows with a northerly component must be regarded
with caution when flying in areas to the south of La Ronge, as the Thunder and
Wapawekka Hills do provide enough upslope terrain to generate stratus.

The winds at La Ronge Airport can be influenced by lake breezes during the sum-
mer months causing changes that are completely opposite to the expected flow. One
way of anticipating the onset of the lake breeze is to watch for the signature of these
lake effect winds; ripples in the water close to the shore while the center of the lake
remains mirror-like and smooth.
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136 CHAPTER FOUR

La Ronge and points north

STONY RAPIDS

WOLLASTON LAKE

CREE LAKE

REINDEER LAKE

10,000 FT

7000 FT

5000 FT

3000 FT

2000 FT

1500 FT

1000 FT

600 FT

300 FT
LA RONGE
0 SEA LEVEL

Map 4-29 - La Ronge and points north

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LAKP-Prairies 137

Regions to the north of La Ronge are within the Precambrian Shield and this
greatly effects the topography as well as human activity; settlements are infrequent
and landing strips are widely spaced. At this point, the lakes and rivers become count-
less and most of the land cover is scrubby forest growth and muskeg. The lakes are
generally small and shallow with the exceptions of Cree Lake, Wollaston Lake, and
Reindeer Lake. The hills in this area are few and very small, so upslope conditions are
present only for flows from the northeast to east. Obviously, with these wind directions,
there is copious low level moisture available, outside of the winter season, so stratus
can blanket the entire region if the flow persists long enough. In the fall, before the
lakes freeze, cold northwest or northerly flows are quickly saturated and destabilized
in the low levels as well, causing widespread low cloud and precipitation. Regardless
of the situation, the worst conditions tend to exist to the lee of the larger lakes
mentioned above.

The Churchill River runs roughly west to east, about 40 miles to the north of
La Ronge, joining numerous lakes through the north-central section of the province.
It is frequently observed that the river itself forms a natural weather divide over
northern Saskatchewan, with low cloud staying confined to one side or the other.
Differences in land elevation and topography no doubt play a role in this, but it is not
impossible for well-developed areas of low stratus or stratocumulus to cross the river
and fill the valley completely.
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138 CHAPTER FOUR

Stony Rapids and the Lake Athabasca Drainage Area

URANIUM CITY

STONY RAPIDS
SAND DUNE

10,000 FT CLUFF LAKE

7000 FT

5000 FT

3000 FT

2000 FT

1500 FT

1000 FT CREE LAKE

600 FT

300 FT

0 SEA LEVEL

Map 4-30 - Stony Rapids and the Lake Athabasca drainage area

The Lake Athabasca drainage area comprises the extreme northern part of the
province and shapes the local weather conditions in a number of ways. Lake
Athabasca is situated in a broad east-west basin with numerous small lakes and rivers
and with elevations a mere 600 to 800 feet above sea level. The southern shore of the
quite large Lake Athabasca is a long stretch of sand dunes, and the northern side is a
sharp escarpment rising 1,200 feet above the level of the lake. The eastern end of the
lake constricts into a long channel, the Pine Channel, that joins Fond Du Lac and
Stony Rapids. The Western end of the lake extends southwestwards into Alberta end-
ing at Fort Chipewyan.

Stratus frequently invades from the north into this area, and often has its southern
edge within the confines of the basin lowlands. Ceilings can be very low, or down to
the surface, over the escarpment on the north shore of the lake. This is a consideration
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LAKP-Prairies 139

when flying to, or near, Uranium City which is on the southern edge of this escarp-
ment.

The weather conditions at Stony Rapids are strongly influenced by the Pine
channel. Winds are frequently funnelled through this passage and show a strong pref-
erence for either east or west directions. Winds coming from the west have a long
fetch over open water and can advect stratus down the Pine Channel and into Stony
Rapids. Winds coming from the north or south quadrants occur less than ten percent
of the time and are invariably quite weak.

Lake Athabasca produces snow streamers in the spring and fall when cold flows
develop from the west to northwest. Often these will reach as far as Stony Rapids,
plaguing the airport with low visibilities in flurries. Lake Athabasca is quite shallow
and will usually freeze over by late November or early December, with the spring
thaw happening in late May or the first week of June. However, the Pine Channel has
some relatively fast flowing waters and often stays open most of the winter between
Fond Du Lac and Stony Rapids. This leads to frequent occurrences of ice fog at the
Stony Rapids airport.

Morning radiation fog becomes a problem at Stony Rapids after the spring thaw,
peaking during the months of July, August and September. In fact, Stony Rapids has
the greatest frequency of summer radiation fog in Saskatchewan, with occurrences on
16 percent of the days during the month of August.

Adding all of these factors together, Stony Rapids, as with many sites in the
Athabasca Basin, has a rather high likelihood of poor weather compared with other
spots in Saskatchewan. Low flying conditions peak in the late fall and early winter
when the area is prone to snow streamers, morning fog events, and frequent invasions
of stratus from the north. Around January, conditions start to improve as very cold
and dry arctic air masses frequent the area.
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140 CHAPTER FOUR

Weather of Manitoba

CHURCHILL

BROCHET

LYNN LAKE

GILLAM

THOMPSON

FLIN FLON

THE PAS
NORWAY ISLAND LAKE
HOUSE

DAUPHIN

PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE
BRANDON
WINNIPEG

Map 4-31 - Topographical overview of Manitoba

PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 141

LAKP-Prairies 141

Manitoba’s climate is purely continental; its location in the centre of Canada puts
it a vast distance from any truly moderating coastal influence. It is certainly not a sur-
prise that it possesses the distinction of being the province with the greatest range
between summer and winter temperature averages. Winters are long and hard, while
summers are warm and short. The transition seasons are short and unreliable; there
is a greater than 50 percent chance of having a frost after May 25, and before
September 20, in any given year. A persistent snow cover can usually be expected after
mid November but with sporadic events occurring much earlier.

Manitoba is quite dry as would be expected of a continental climate, but it does

receive a bit more precipitation that the other two Prairie provinces. Totals range from
a low of 400 mm annually in the north, to near 600 mm in the southeast. The
foothills of Alberta are the only other location on the Prairies to exceed 600 mm in a
year. The reason for Manitoba’s higher, and somewhat more reliable, precipitation
amounts has to do with its greater exposure to southerly flows of warm moist air from
the central United States and the Gulf of Mexico. Fortunately, 60 percent of the
annual precipitation falls during the growing season from May to August, with June
being the wettest month.

Even though one sixth of Manitoba’s surface is water, the lakes and rivers do not
exert a major influence on the province’s climate. In actuality, the much more distant
Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico have a much stronger influence than the local
bodies of water. The only exception is the Interlake region, between Lake Winnipeg
to the east and Lakes Winnipegosis and Manitoba in the west. Even the influence
of Hudson Bay is minimal and usually confined within a short distance of its coast.
Churchill’s temperatures are somewhat cooler in the summer, but by mid winter the
bay is completely frozen and becomes almost indistinguishable from the frozen tundra
around it.

Manitoba is at the eastern edge of the vast sloping plain that comprises all of the
Prairie provinces, and it has the lowest and most uniform elevations of the three. For
this reason, terrain does not exert a significant control on the province’s climate, with
the local exception of the Manitoba Escarpment. This topographic feature, shared
along the southwestern boundary with Saskatchewan and the U.S., is the most
recognizable in the province, and is made up of at least four separate sets of hills or
mountains: the Porcupine Hills, Duck Mountain, Riding Mountain and Turtle
Mountain. The Escarpment extends from west central Manitoba, south-southeastward,
to the international border and beyond. Together, these hills present a fairly uniform
north-south barrier and have a significant influence on the local climate.

Manitoba, as with the rest of the Prairies, lies under the zone of mean westerly,
with weather disturbances generally moving from west to east. There are, however, a
great variety of synoptic situations that have the potential to affect this province.
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142 CHAPTER FOUR

Colorado Lows are more likely to bring moisture to southern parts of Manitoba than
elsewhere in the Prairies. When they reach Manitoba, they have generally developed
into full-fledged frontal systems with a plentiful supply of moisture. The Colorado
Low can occur at any time of the year, but peaks during the spring. Cold lows formed
over Alberta also frequent the province, but by the time they make it to Manitoba
they have usually lost their closed circulation in the upper levels, and this gives them
a faster more predictable movement. As is typical with all lows in the Prairies, the
worst flying conditions are found in the moist upslope easterly flow on the north side
of the low’s centre.

In summer, southern portions of Manitoba can be the recipient of sweeps of warm

humid air from the Gulf of Mexico. There is usually a great deal of thunderstorm
activity embedded in these air masses which gives this part of Manitoba an extra dose
of rainfall, making the local agriculture less dependent on irrigation. In the northern
reaches of the province, there are often prolonged periods of low cloud and poor
weather. This is due to the tendency for lows to move into the region of Hudson Bay,
or northwestern Ontario, and then remain nearly stationary for some time, flooding
the region with cool, moist air from the north.

Another synoptic situation that is worthy of mention, although not associated with
precipitation, is the winter phenomenon known as the “Arctic Outbreak”. Strong high
pressure cells, that have developed in extremely cold air masses over the western
Arctic, invade the Prairie provinces, usually in the wake of a migratory low pressure
system. These domes of frigid air spread southeastward, almost unimpeded, and
typically herald long periods of clear, dry, and bitterly cold weather.

(a) Summer

Summers in Manitoba are short and hot by Canadian standards; they begin in late
April or early May and last until the beginning of September. While Saskatchewan
holds the record for the hottest recorded temperature, Manitoba has slightly warmer
summers on average. Both are known for the large summer diurnal temperature
range, averaging 14º Celsius degrees per day. Summers are fairly dry, but 60 percent
of the annual precipitation falls within the growing season of May to August.

During the summer, the typical storm track is pushed northward. Cold lows
formed in Alberta often end up near Hudson Bay and affect northern parts of the
province, whereas Colorado Lows typically follow a path close to the Manitoba/U.S.
border, influencing the weather over southern regions. Regardless of where the low
originates, the lowest flying conditions are generally found within 60 to 100 miles
north of its center where a persistent east to northeast flow, forced to rise up the
sloping terrain, becomes increasingly saturated. However, by the time these storms
have reached Manitoba, they have usually gained some momentum and move
through this province at a faster pace than those to the west. Thunderstorms are
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LAKP-Prairies 143

common over Manitoba throughout the summer and most prevalent over the south.
Typically, Brandon and Winnipeg report thunder 25 to 30 days a year. Air mass thun-
derstorms are the most common, although they do not have a strongly favoured
region of development, due to Manitoba’s flat terrain. Two slightly preferred areas are
the slopes of the Manitoba Escarpment and the Interlake region, but often storms are
initiated elsewhere and enter the province freely from any direction. Manitoba is the
Prairie province that is most susceptible to nocturnal thunderstorms, mainly because
it is the most eastern of the three. Thunderstorms that are formed far to the west and
southwest begin tracking in an easterly direction once they have reached a certain
stage. Most of these will weaken and die after moving away from their source region,
but if they are strong and there are sufficient dynamics to support them, they can
travel a considerable distance. The storms that are able to reach as far as Manitoba
will generally arrive late in the day or overnight. They often seem to dissipate during
the evening hours, but then have a period of regeneration during the overnight hours
when cloud top cooling gives them an extra dose of instability. It is this modified life
cycle that accounts for the higher frequency of overnight and early morning thunder-
storms.

When discussing thunderstorms in Manitoba, it is necessary to consider those that

sometimes invade from the south, embedded in very warm, humid and unstable
streams of air that originate over the Gulf of Mexico. This is a pattern usually only
seen in the summer, as it requires a southerly upper circulation to transport air from
the Gulf all the way to Canada. When such a pattern occurs, southern Manitoba
often receives a significant infusion of rainfall. These air masses can support thun-
derstorm complexes that are large and long-lived. The typical path they follow often
just clips southeastern Manitoba as it turns into Ontario.

Low-level turbulence is a frequent concern during summer, most notably on warm

sunny days. Thermal updrafts are common over the land due to surface heating, and
their effects can be particularly turbulent along boundaries where they are juxtaposed
with downdrafts generated over large bodies of cool water. These paired updrafts and
downdrafts can be strong enough to initiate lake-breeze circulations which are common
in the Interlake region.

(b) Winter

Winter in Manitoba is generally considered to be from mid-November through to

early April. During this period, good flying weather is common, but the migratory
lows that affect the other Prairie provinces also plague Manitoba. These can originate
in Colorado, the western Prairies or Northern Canada, and often bring prolonged
periods of very low flying conditions and significant snowfalls when they visit.

Lows that form in the Colorado or Wyoming region can be particularly messy for
southern Manitoba. The typical trajectory for the center of such a low will keep it
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144 CHAPTER FOUR

south of the province, but there is often a warm front extending from the low that
reaches into southern sections. Precipitation can change from snow through freezing
rain to rain, depending on one’s location with respect to the front. Low ceilings and
visibility, as well as significant icing, are common with this pattern. Ceiling heights
can vary greatly, especially in the southwest where the terrain is irregular. Once the
system has passed, a strong northwesterly flow invariably develops in its wake. The
resulting cold winds cause blowing snow over regions of fresh snow cover and can
quickly freeze warmer surfaces where rain has fallen.

Lake effect snowfalls, such as the “Elie Blizzard” scenario (see Winnipeg to Portage
La Prairie to Brandon section), are most common over southern Manitoba during the
late fall, but can still develop in mid winter. This is usually a small-scale phenomenon
that happens when a northwesterly flow over the large lakes is strong enough to
create large openings (leads) in the ice cover. The resultant injection of heat and
moisture produces snow streamers downwind. Because of the large amount of snow
generated along a narrow swath, localized blizzard conditions are easily achieved
when the wind further lowers the visibility with blowing snow.

Arctic outbreaks plague Manitoba throughout the winter. Generally, along the cold
front which normally marks the leading edge of this cold air, flurries will occur
and flying conditions will be, at best, marginal for a short time. Of equal concern to
aviation are the gusty northwest winds that develop north of the front which often
produce significant mechanical turbulence in the low levels and cause blowing snow,
especially in areas where there is fresh snow cover.

Transitional Seasons

Spring and fall are both short and provide unreliable flying weather in Manitoba.
Often the south is beset by late spring snow storms, and the Red River Valley occa-
sionally floods. Both seasons bring an increased occurrence of fog and stratus,
especially in the north where the abundance of trees and lakes can trap and hold the
low-level moisture for extended periods. In general, there is a more plentiful supply
of low level moisture in the transitional seasons. In the spring, evaporation from snow
melt and a greater frequency of upslope northeasterly winds provides the moisture.
In the fall, it is supplied by Manitoba’s numerous lakes.

Manitoba is a windy province, and spring and fall are its windiest seasons. The
strongest winds are unvaryingly northwesterly, but this is not the most prevalent
direction. In the spring, it is north to northeasterly, and in the fall, westerly winds are
most common. Mechanical turbulence is usually present in the lower two to three
thousand feet of the atmosphere on windy days but is seldom severe. However, it is
often enough to shake smaller aircraft, particularly in the southwest where rough
terrain enhances and deepens the turbulent layer.
 THE PAS

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LAKP-Prairies 145

PORCUPINE
The “Land of 100,000 Lakes” is, of course, susceptible to the development of snow
HILLS
streamers in the fall. This is mitigated somewhat in the north as most of the lakes are
quite small and stretched in a southwest to northeast direction. This orientation limits
the distance, or "fetch", that cold northwesterly winds span over the water surface.
However, there are several larger lakes in the north and, of course, Lakes Winnipeg,
Manitoba, and Winnipegosis in the south, that are particularly well known for
DUCK
streamer development.
MOUNTAINS
Local Area Weather

Winnipeg and Area

MA

NW
NW
NI

RIDING
TO

MOUNTAINS
BA

PORTAGE
ES

LA PRAIRIE
CA

10,000 FT
WINNIPEG 7000 FT
RP

BRANDON 5000 FT
ME

3000 FT
2000 FT
NT

1500 FT
1000 FT
TURTLE 600 FT
MOUNTAINS 300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Map 4-32 - Winnipeg and area

Winnipeg is located in the middle of the wide, shallow, north to south valley of the
Red River. The smaller Assiniboine River also flows into the city from the west,
meeting the Red River in the centre of the downtown area. The combined flow of
the two rivers then heads north-northeastward to Lake Winnipeg. The city of
Winnipeg is about 45 miles southeast of Lake Manitoba and 40 miles south-southwest
of Lake Winnipeg. The area has a decided preference for southerly winds; not
surprising, as any winds from the south tend to be channeled along the Red River
Valley. The valley carved by the Assiniboine River is slight and does not influence the
local flow. Northwest is the second most frequently occurring wind direction for
Winnipeg, most notably in the winter. North to northeasterly winds are also common
as some channeling will occur in the valley north of the city. Winds from other direc-
tions are quite rare and usually light.

Radiation fog is extremely rare in Winnipeg and its few appearances are usually in
the spring, when the snow is melting and there is plentiful low level moisture. There
are more occurrences of ice fog in winter because of the prolonged periods of very
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 146

146 CHAPTER FOUR

cold temperatures, not to mention the usual particulate matter common in large
urban centres. Winnipeg frequently sees large deposits of hoarfrost during these ice
fog events. If this is the case, the fog can be slow to lift as the sublimation of the hoar-
frost feeds moisture back into the atmosphere. Cold air entrenched in the Red River
Valley is difficult to remove. Warmer flows from any direction tend to overrun the
cold pool, and the process of eroding the inversion can be markedly slow.

While radiation fog is uncommon, advection fog is not. It is usually associated with
low stratus and almost invariably invades from the south, travelling within the con-
fines of the Red River Valley. Its passage down the valley can happen quite quickly,
but it is possible to get advance warning by watching for the development of low
conditions at Grand Forks and Emerson. If the southerly flow is strong enough, it
will diminish the likelihood of fog, but may still advect in a deck of low stratus. Less
frequently, fog can also move into Winnipeg with a northeasterly flow off
Lake Winnipeg.

Even though the Red River Valley is very shallow, it does have a marked effect on
the weather. Winds with a north or south component are channelled and strength-
ened within the confines of the valley. This increases both mechanical turbulence in
the low levels and the frequency of reduced visibility in blowing snow in the winter
months. Southerly flows are likely to be much stronger than the synoptic situation
would indicate, especially if the flow in the lower portions of the atmosphere is also
brisk and aligned from the south. Also, because of the valley sides, winds from the
west and the east are downslope and are less likely to produce low flying conditions.
Westerly winds give the best flying weather over the Winnipeg area. Easterly flows
are trickier for two reasons; both because they are often associated with the moist flow
on the north side of a low pressure system, and because they are generally upslope
over southern Manitoba. If a moist east to northeast flow does bring stratus into
Winnipeg, then it can be expected to persist until there is a change in the wind
direction.

A large portion of the precipitation that falls in Winnipeg is attributable to the pas-
sage of Colorado Lows that are described in the climate portion. Rainfall from thun-
derstorms is also a major contributor in the summer, and Winnipeg is especially
known for the nocturnal variety. Snow squalls from Lake Manitoba and Lake
Winnipeg can dump copious quantities of snow over areas around Winnipeg, but
they usually miss the airport and city itself. The required condition for their initia-
tion is a cold north to northwesterly flow, and this will give the streamers a trajecto-
ry that will take them east of Winnipeg if they form off Lake Winnipeg, and west of
the city if they form off Lake Manitoba.

In the fall months, a pilot flying around Winnipeg must be on the lookout for areas
of reduced visibility due to smoke from stubble burning. This is a frequent practice of
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LAKP-Prairies 147

local farmers that usually starts in late August and continues to the end of October.
If there is low level moisture in the vicinity of the burning, particulate matter provided
by the smoke can aid or initiate the formation of stratus.

Winnipeg to Portage La Prairie to Brandon

10,000 FT
NW
MA
7000 FT
5000 FT NW
3000 FT
2000 FT
NI
TO
1500 FT
1000 FT
RIDING BA
600 FT MOUNTAINS
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
ES

PORTAGE
CA

LA PRAIRIE
RP

WINNIPEG
ME

BRANDON
NT

TURTLE
MOUNTAINS

Map 4-33 - Winnipeg to Portage La Prairie to Brandon

The land between Winnipeg and Brandon slopes gradually upwards towards the
west with a gain in elevation of over 560 feet by the time Brandon is reached.
Naturally, an east to northeast flow is the most likely to give prolonged stratus due to
the upslope component. It is quite normal to see deterioration in ceiling heights from
east to west under such conditions. To the west of Portage La Prairie, ceilings and
visibilities tend to deteriorate markedly near Austin because of terrain height increases
and can become quite low further west over the Carberry Hills. These hills are quite
distinctive as they are comprised of sand and gravel, and their gently rolling slopes can
trap stratus in an easterly flow and hold it in the area. Flying further west towards
Brandon, terrain rises become quite significant on the north and south sides, but a
safe and reliable route is found along the lower terrain of the Assiniboine Valley.

Encountering snow streamers or snowsqualls, on a flight from Winnipeg

to Brandon, is a distinct possibility, from fall to spring, when the flow is northwest-
erly. The locally heavy snowfalls are the result of cumulus and towering cumulous
embedded within a larger area of stratocumulus cloud, so the hazards to aviation are
threefold; pockets of very low visibility in snow flurries, significant turbulence, and
mixed icing throughout the entire region of cloud.

Streamers off the Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba follow a fairly predictable path.
Those from Lake Manitoba tend to give the highest snowfalls to the area between
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148 CHAPTER FOUR

Winnipeg and Portage La Prairie, and those from Lake Winnipeg to areas east of the
city of Winnipeg. It is rare that the cells will persist beyond about 20 miles south of
the Trans Canada highway. In either case, Winnipeg is generally safe from this effect.
The worst hit area is often centered around the tiny town of Elie, located halfway
between Portage La Prairie and Winnipeg. This small area not only receives the
PORCUPINE
greatest amount of lake effect snowfall, it is also a very
HILLSopen region where winds can
blow unimpeded. Visibilities near zero in blowing snow are common, even after the
snow has ceased to fall. Pilots should watch for the presence of this phenomenon,
known locally as the “Elie Blizzard”, particularly when the wind direction is anywhere
between 320 and 350 degrees true and the temperatures are cold.

Brandon and Westward DUCK

MOUNTAINS

MA
NI
DAUPHIN

TO
BA
ES
RIDING
REGINA

CA
MOUNTAINS

RP
ME
MOOSE

NT
MOUNTAIN
10,000 FT
7000 FT
BRANDON
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT TURTLE
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL MOUNTAINS

Map 4-34 - Brandon and westward

The city of Brandon is nestled in the west to east valley of the Assiniboine River
on the river’s south side, and the airport is about 3 miles north of it. From the
Assiniboine River valley northward, the terrain slopes gradually upward, reaching the
tops of the Riding Mountains at 2,200 to 2,300 feet, some 50 miles north of Brandon.
The Minnedosa River Valley interrupts this rise in the terrain, about 20 miles north
of the airport. From the Assiniboine River valley southward, the land is fairly flat
for about 10 miles and then rises into the Brandon Hills about 20 miles south of the
airport. Farther south, near the American border, is the much more significant rise
of Turtle Mountain.

A northwest flow is very favourable for Brandon as any weather associated with it
is weakened by subsidence off of the Riding Mountains. The second most favoured
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:11 PM Page 149

LAKP-Prairies 149

wind direction in Brandon is northeasterly, important because it is an upslope flow

that is quite capable of producing stratus. The majority of stratus events for Brandon
are confined to the fall and are associated with this northeast to east flow. If the
airport is reporting marginal to good ceilings in stratocumulus, it must be kept in
mind that conditions could be much lower over the higher terrain on virtually all
sides.

Because the city of Brandon is in a river valley, it does get radiation fog, but it is not
overly common at the airport. In the spring-time, with an east or southeasterly flow,
melting snow in North Dakota can supply enough low level moisture to give wide-
spread stratus across North Dakota and southern Manitoba. This low cloud can last
5 to 6 days and be the cause of significant accumulations of rime ice.

The summertime brings frequent convective activity in the region around Brandon.
The convective cells have a tendency to form in areas to the south and southwest but,
due to the prevailing west to northwesterly flow, they will frequently miss the airport
and stay south of Highway 2.

While there is not much pollution or industry in the area, Manitoba Hydro and a
fertilizer plant have smoke stacks on the southeast side of the city. The condensation
nuclei from these can contribute to stratus development and lower ceilings if the flow
is from the southeast.

Flying west from Brandon, it is usually advisable to stick to the lower terrain of the
Assiniboine River Valley which takes a turn to the northwest about 50 miles west of
the city. Right at the Manitoba/Saskatchewan border, the Qu’Appelle River joins the
Assiniboine River, making the valley of the Qu’Appelle an easy visual landmark to
follow on a westbound route.

South of the valley of the Assiniboine and Qu’Appelle Rivers, and about 60 miles
to the west of Brandon, the Moose Mountains rise some 400 to 500 feet above the
surrounding terrain. These mountains start near Virden and carry on as far west as
Fort Qu’Appelle. If the Brandon, Yorkton, Estevan and Regina observations are
showing a lower deck of stratocumulus in the region, then conditions can be very low
over the Moose Mountains. If the flow is from the east or northeast, ceilings could
even be close to the ground over the highest points of land.
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150 CHAPTER FOUR

Brandon to Dauphin

10,000 FT
DUCK 7000 FT

MOUNTAINS 5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT

MA
1500 FT
1000 FT
DAUPHIN
NI 600 FT
TO NW 300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
NW
BA

RIDING
ES

MOUNTAINS
CA

PORTAGE
RP

LA PRAIRIE
ME
NT

BRANDON WINNIPEG

TURTLE
MOUNTAINS

Map 4-35 - Brandon to Dauphin

Brandon’s elevation at 1,341 feet above sea level is actually higher than that of
Dauphin at 1,000 feet, due to Dauphin’s location within the lower terrain of the basin
formed by Lake Manitoba. However, the Riding Mountains stand as a barrier
between the two and rise a considerable 1,200 feet above the elevation of Brandon.
Whatever ceilings are reported in Brandon, it is necessary to subtract at least 1,000
feet to get representative ceilings over the Riding Mountains.

The Minnedosa River runs from the town of Rivers northeastward through
Minnedosa, 30 miles north of Brandon. The associated valley has fairly steep sides
and tends to trap stratus for extended periods of time. The absence of stratus in
Brandon is no guarantee that it won’t be encountered in the Minnedosa Valley. The
valley can also be an area of frequent low level turbulence, especially with a north-
westerly flow and on convectively unstable days.
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LAKP-Prairies 151

Dauphin and Vicinity

PORCUPINE
10,000 FT
HILLS 7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
MA

1000 FT
600 FT
NI

300 FT
DUCK
TO

0 SEA LEVEL
MOUNTAINS
BA
ES

DAUPHIN
CA

NW
RP

NW
ME

RIDING
NT

MOUNTAINS

Map 4-36 - Dauphin and vicinity PORTAGE

LA PRAIRIE
The town of Dauphin is in a broad valley between the Duck Mountains, rising
25 miles to the northwest, and the Riding Mountains, stretching across the southern
horizon. TheBRANDON
northern escarpment of the Riding Mountains is a mere 5 miles south
of the airport, which is situated on the south side of the town of Dauphin. To the
east of Dauphin, the terrain slopes gently downwards towards the shore of Dauphin
Lake, some 8 miles east of town. Dauphin Lake then drains into Lake Winnipegosis,
a larger and very shallow lake well to the north. Further east of Dauphin Lake, the
terrain continues to lower towards the large basin area of Lake Manitoba. The air-
port is at 1,000 feet ASL, but elevations rise precipitously over the northern escarp-
ment of the Riding Mountains just to the south. The highest peak within the Riding
Mountains is just 9 miles south of the airport, and it has a height of 2,200 feet above
sea level. Because of the complicated terrain around Dauphin, the weather reported
from the auto station is frequently not indicative of the surrounding area.

To the west of Dauphin, the terrain is wide open and part of the valley between the
Duck and Riding Mountains. Winds are channelled through this passage and the
strongest are from the west to southwest. Luckily for the Dauphin Airport, south-
westerlies also bring the best weather conditions.

Often when light west to northwest winds are indicated for Dauphin by the syn-
optic pattern, the winds can make an unexpected shift to the east and be surprisingly
brisk. There are two factors at play here: heating of the nearby slopes and lake effect
breezes. On a sunny day, the east slopes of the Riding Mountains will heat faster than
their surroundings causing air to rise locally. To the east over the lakes, the air is being
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152 CHAPTER FOUR

cooled by relatively cold waters causing it to subside. This produces a low level
circulation pattern as the denser, cooler lake air will move westward into the region
where the warm slope air is rising. This can produce an easterly wind of up to 15 knots.

The worst weather conditions, at least in terms of flying, will generally occur when
there is a low pressure system situated over Hudson Bay. This gives a north to north-
easterly flow of moist air from Hudson Bay over western parts of Manitoba, which
provides a good deal of upslope terrain, especially in the Dauphin area. To add to this,
there is a further injection of low level moisture from Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, and
Winnipegosis, and the marshy terrain that surrounds them. Very low conditions can
also occur when a low passes to the south of the area. The moist easterly flow to
the north of the low is further saturated by upslope terrain and by moisture from
Lake Manitoba.

The eastern slope of the Riding Mountains is quite steep, so with a fairly strong
west to southwesterly flow it is possible to have Chinook effects. This flow actually
produces a small lee trough east of the hills with southeasterly winds on the east side
of the trough and westerlies to the west. It is difficult to detect the presence of this
phenomenon, as the only observation site in the area is the auto station at Dauphin;
too far north to be in the lee trough. Often, however, low level standing lenticular
cloud forms about 10 miles east of the mountains, and significant subsidence warm-
ing occurs. Both are a sure indications of the presence of the downslope flow.
Regardless, a strong west to southwesterly flow should always be regarded with
caution as it can generate, or add significantly to, turbulence on the lee side of the
hills, up to about 5,000 feet ASL. As one would expect, the same effect can be felt on
the eastern slopes of the Duck Mountains. The most common area for the "Dauphin
Chinook" to be felt is from Cowan in the north to McCreary in the south.

Radiation fog does not occur very often at Dauphin. On clear nights with light
winds, a drainage wind tends to develop off the escarpment to the south that will
prevent fog from forming. There is, however, some possibility of fog being advected
into the airport area by an upslope northeasterly flow off of Dauphin Lake. This is
most likely to occur in the late summer and early fall.

It is possible, with a persistent northeast flow off the lakes to the east of Dauphin,
to generate a continuous band of very low stratus that begins near Sifton, about
15 miles north of Dauphin, and extends southward. To the north of Sifton, ceilings
are generally much better. This pattern is much more likely in the spring and fall
when the lakes are open and the lower atmosphere is not as dry.

Thunderstorms typically form in the regions to the west of Dauphin, under a

southwest or northwest flow. They frequently diminish in intensity before reaching
the town and airport due to the effects of subsidence.
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FLIN FLON
LAKP-Prairies 153

The Interlakes Region

THE PAS
NORWAY HOUSE

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
PORCUPINE 0 SEA LEVEL
HILLS

DUCK
MOUNTAINS
MA

DAUPHIN
NW
NI

NW
TO

RIDING
BA

MOUNTAINS
ES
CA

PORTAGE
RP

LA PRAIRIE
ME

WINNIPEG
NT

BRANDON

Map 4-37 - The Interlakes region

The Interlake refers to the area between Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis on the
west and Lake Winnipeg to the east. Carved by the last glacial passage over
Manitoba, the lakes are long, shallow, and irregularly shaped, stretching from the
north-northwest to the south-southeast. The large basin-like depression around the
lakes is mostly marsh and bog lands, interspersed with many smaller lakes, and is vir-
tually uninhabited except for the extreme southern end.

The three larger lakes are big enough to set up sea breeze circulations producing
quite variable winds throughout the area. This has a significant effect upon convective
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154 CHAPTER FOUR

patterns on warm summer days. The air over the water is cooled in the low levels,
producing subsidence that keeps the skies over the lakes completely clear. On the east
and west sides of the large lakes, however, there is enhanced development of convective
cells where lake breezes have established a line of convergence with the environmental
flow. This is especially magnified in the Interlake region as the lake breeze from
Lake Winnipeg impacts with the lake breeze from Lake Manitoba. Small cumulus or
towering cumuli are the norm, but large thunderstorms are quite possible if there is
enough instability. The cells will usually dissipate if they move away from their source
area.

In the spring and fall months, snow squalls are also a distinct possibility over and
to the lee of the lakes. The ideal synoptic set-up requires a predominantly ice free
water surface and a cool north to northwesterly flow, with the air temperature at least
10 degrees Celsius colder than that of the water. If the air is very stable, a widespread
area of cumulus and stratocumulus cloud will be formed giving snow flurry activity.
However, more often, towering cumulus cells will develop producing localized areas
of moderate to heavy snow, or ice pellets and mixed rain and snow. In a few cases, the
air will be unstable enough to form small cumulonimbus cells up to about 20,000 feet.
Low visibility is not the only concern within a band of snow streamers; this is the per-
fect environment for convective turbulence and moderate to severe mixed icing.

With any synoptic scale low pressure system passing south of the region, the already
moist easterly flow to the north of such a feature can be further saturated by passage
over the Interlake area. This is only true as long as the lakes are open, which in general
tends to be from early May to the first week of November. Expect ceilings to be
considerably lower to the west of the larger bodies of water.
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LAKP-Prairies 155

North of the Lakes - The Pas - Flin Flon - Thompson

GILLIAN
10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
THOMPSON

FLIN FLON

THE PAS
NORWAY HOUSE
Map 4-38 - North of the Lakes - The Pas - Flin Flon - Thompson

Elevations fluctuate only slightly over this area, averaging about 850 feet ASL, and
ranging from about 1,200 feet northeast of Flin Flon to about 600 feet near the lakes
south of Thompson. From spring through late fall, moist east to southeasterly upslope
flows can cause deteriorating conditions, especially for points northwest of Snow
Lake, and moisture picked up off Lake Winnipeg can further aggravate the situation.

Vegetation is predominantly mixed boreal forest that provides some shelter from
strong winds. Winter “white-outs” are rare, but low level wind shear and/or mechanical
turbulence below 4,000 feet ASL are quite common during strong wind events.

There are several large lakes in the Flin Flon - The Pas area. The largest, including
the huge Cedar Lake Reservoir and Lake Winnipegosis, are southeast of The Pas.
The Pas Airport is located just south of Clearwater Lake, which is roughly 12 miles
across. The area is susceptible to local fog and stratus, especially in the spring and fall.
Extensive streamer activity can occur over and southeast of these lakes in the fall,
when the winds are cold and from the northwest.

Flin Flon is one of several mining towns in northern Manitoba and is the site of a
large copper/zinc smelter, located on the western outskirts. The stack discharge
adds particulates to the atmosphere which, at times, can contribute to fog formation,
especially when a strong low level inversion exists.
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156 CHAPTER FOUR

Norway House - Island Lake - Thompson

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

GILLIAM

THOMPSON

GODS LAKE

ISLAND LAKE
NORWAY HOUSE

Map 4-39 - Norway House - Island Lake - Thompson

This region exhibits one of the smoothest topographies in Manitoba, with eleva-
tions staying uniformly near 750 feet ASL. There are a few widely scattered hills
reaching as much as 200 feet above the surrounding terrain and a few water surfaces
dipping 100 feet or so below. The area, covered by mostly coniferous boreal forest that
thins only over the northeast, is peppered with lakes and muskeg. The region, much
like the rest of northern Manitoba, is plagued by ample surface moisture and poor
drainage. Fog and stratus are most common during the transitional seasons, especially
when there are moist flows from the northwest through north to southeast. The
Norway House and Cross Lake districts are particularly vulnerable, due to large
expanses of water and muskeg near the upper reaches of the Nelson River, as are the
areas adjacent to the two largest lakes in the area, Gods Lake and Island Lake.
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LAKP-Prairies 157

Primary aerodromes in this sector are all very close to (or surrounded by) water, so
freeze up (early to mid November for smaller lakes, December for Lake Winnipeg)
and break up (mid to late April) are significant controls for the weather.

Even though Hudson Bay is at a considerable distance, it still has an influence on

the weather in this region. Thick blankets of stratus and fog can develop over the bay
at any time of the year, but most notably from June to December. Northeasterly
onshore flows advect this "blanket" inland, usually about 150 miles, affecting the
lower Gods River valley and Shamattawa areas. It can, however, under a persistent
northeasterly flow, reach Gods Lake and Thompson. Often these regions of stratus
present an icing problem; if temperatures within the cloud fall in the range of zero
to -15 °C, then moderate mixed icing is common, and severe mixed or clear icing is
possible.

There are no preferred areas of summertime convective development.

Thunderstorms, usually moving from west to east, tend to live out their life cycle in
a reasonably predictable fashion. Fair weather currents of buoyant and subsiding air
along forest/lake boundaries can interact with the environmental wind and sometimes
cause significant turbulence up to 4,000 feet ASL.

Even though drainage in the region is poor, there is so much water to move that
several of the rivers have sections of rapid flow that often do not freeze over in winter.
The presence of open water at this time of year can create local pools of evaporative
fog or ice fog, especially when temperatures are very cold and winds are light. Two
notable places where this phenomenon commonly occurs is around the strip and float
plane facilities at Gods Lake Narrows and near the village of Gods River.
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158 CHAPTER FOUR

Thompson and Area

10,000 FT HUDSON BAY

7000 FT
5000 FT
CHURCHILL
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

GILLAM

THOMPSON

Map 4-40 - Thompson and area

Thompson is the transportation hub of northern Manitoba. The city’s airport is the
second busiest in the province with several companies providing scheduled and charter
service to and from Winnipeg, and to many other communities in northern Manitoba
and southern Nunavut. Thompson also boasts an active float plane and helicopter
base on the Burntwood River and is a principal railway depot on the line serving
Churchill. A huge nickel mine and smelting operation, located on the southern
outskirts of the city, is a major supporting industry.

The Thompson Airport, located about 4 miles north of the city, is built on what is
locally described as “a swamp.” As with much of the terrain in northern Manitoba,
the ground does not drain well naturally, although recent ditching around the run-
ways has improved the situation. Nonetheless, local ponds and muskeg, the northern
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 159

LAKP-Prairies 159

reaches of Birch Tree Lake just to the west, and a generally high level of soil humidity,
give a ready supply of low level moisture outside of the winter months. Frequently,
during shallow fog events, the worst conditions tend to occur within the local control
zone. In fact, it is often noted that the lowest conditions are encountered on final
approach to the main runway from the west. This is most likely due to the proximity
of Birch Tree Lake as well as particulate discharge from the nearby gravel pit and
asphalt plant. The fog can sometimes extend outward along the Burntwood River
valley nearby. However, fairly often, the float plane base on the river near the town is
not affected. Another problem attributed to ground moisture is the tendency for the
paved surface of the main runway to be somewhat unstable. Freeze and thaw cycles
create dips and heaves that require constant repair by maintenance crews.

Seasonal weather conditions are generally fairly predictable. Since much of the sys-
tem weather affecting Thompson approaches from the west, observations from Lynn
Lake and The Pas make good upstream indicators. Lynn Lake is especially useful for
timing cold frontal passages behind low pressure systems. Gillam provides advanced
notice of weather approaching from the northeast or east, but since a flow from
Gillam is upslope, there could be some further deterioration by the time it reaches
Thompson.

Summer is short, but it tends to be pleasant and possesses the greatest percentage
of good flying weather of all the seasons. Cumuliform cloud is very common and con-
vective currents cause some turbulence up to about 4,000 feet ASL. Combined with
gusty surface winds, this turbulence can be significant below 1,000 feet above the
ground, especially along lake/forest boundaries. Severe convective weather can be
expected once or twice each year, especially in June and July when evapotranspiration
from the surrounding vegetation is at its peak. Locally, there are no preferred areas for
convective development.

Winter is the time when strong, arctic high pressure systems move or build across
this area from the north or northwest. They bring gusty west to northwesterly winds,
very cold temperatures, and very pronounced surface based inversions. These inversions
can act to trap exhaust moisture and particulate matter from aircraft and auto engines,
from the local smelter, and from wood burning heaters used in many of the local
households, resulting in locally reduced visibilities in ice fog. Ice crystals are usually
present and can be large and heavy enough to cause a significant reduction in visibility,
as well as accumulate to measurable amounts. To complicate matters, Manitoba’s most
northern ski resort is located about 4 miles north of the airport. When snow making
operations are underway and the winds are from the north, visibility can be reduced
by crystals carried downwind.

Typical winter storm tracks tend to carry eastward-moving low pressure systems
south of Thompson. This is significant as snowfalls are frequently at their heaviest
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160 CHAPTER FOUR

north of these lows, not to mention the enhancement of low level moisture created
by the east to northeasterly flow. The strongest winds will generally occur in the
northwesterlies that develop after the centre of the system has passed eastward, but
luckily for Thompson, the surrounding forest provides enough shelter to diminish the
winds and minimize the occurrences of blowing snow. Freezing precipitation is not
uncommon, with an average of roughly two events per month during the winter.
These events are not triggered by classic surface warm front situations as these tend
to pass well to the south of Thompson. What happens, instead, is an upper warm
front develops well north of the surface front, as the warm air in the south overruns
the firmly entrenched arctic air at the surface. The rising warm air can generate liq-
uid precipitation that falls through the much colder layer below. The icing created by
such an event can be extremely tenacious as there is rarely any subsequent surface
warming to cause melting.

As with most communities across the northern Prairie provinces, the trickiest
weather occurs during the transitional seasons of spring (late March to mid May) and
fall (late September to early November). During these periods, a greater number of
storms move across the area. Cold northwesterly flows inevitably develop behind
these systems and are quickly saturated in the lowest levels by moisture from melting
snow in the spring, and from the warmer water of the many lakes and muskegs in the
fall. Poor flying conditions usually persist until the flow pattern changes to a warmer
southerly direction. Fog is most common during the transition seasons, and is con-
sidered the biggest obstacle to aviation activities in the Thompson area. A local rule
of thumb for classic radiation fog (usually occurring with a ridge of high pressure,
giving clear skies and light winds) puts the time of dissipation at around 10:00 a.m.
The last traces of fog are usually gone by 11:00 a.m. However, if other processes, such
as evaporation or advection, formed the fog and stratus, it can be much more persist-
ent and sometimes requires a complete change in air mass to dissipate, showing only
marginal diurnal improvement. The addition or removal of local moisture sources is
important to consider when assessing the threat of fog. Lakes and muskeg in the area
are usually frozen over by mid-November. The snowmelt begins in April, and ice on
the lakes starts to break up during the latter half of that month. Large diurnal
temperature swings in early fall and late spring are common in the area and can cause
additional difficulties; rainfall during the day often falls on ground that has not yet
warmed to above freezing temperatures after a cold night. The result is hazardous and
widespread ice formation on roads, runways and other surfaces. Finally, the worst
airframe icing conditions usually occur during spring and fall, when thick low cloud
is present at temperatures in the zero to -15º C range. Mixed and rime icing are
common but significant clear icing is relatively rare.
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LAKP-Prairies 161

Thompson - Lynn Lake - Northwards

10,000 FT
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BROCHET 5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

LYNN LAKE

THOMPSON

FLIN FLON

Map 4-41 - Thompson - Lynn Lake - Northwards

This route follows highway 391 along a gradual incline from the Burntwood and
Nelson River Valleys across the Churchill River Valley, to the higher elevations of
northwestern Manitoba. Surface characteristics in the area are, for the most part, similar
to those around Thompson; a profusion of lakes and muskeg with ample surface
moisture. However, there is some ruggedness north of Lynn Lake due to a multitude
of eskers and other glacial leavings. Easterly winds are effectively upslope with
elevations increasing roughly 600 feet between Thompson and Lynn Lake. Under the
influence of such a flow, lower ceilings can be expected in the Lynn Lake area and to
the north, but these differences are usually not very great.

Trees become more spotty and stunted as one progresses further north to places like
Brochet and Tadoule Lake. Because of this, surface winds tend to be stronger in these
areas and there is a greater susceptibility in winter to periods of reduced visibility in
blowing snow. Moderate mechanical turbulence below 3,000 feet above ground is a
common occurrence, especially if the winds are from the north or northwest.
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162 CHAPTER FOUR

The high land near the Saskatchewan border, northeast of Reindeer and Wollaston
Lakes, tends to be a preferred place for development or intensification of convective
cloud when the area is under the influence of a southwesterly flow of unstable air.
Topographical effects and added moisture from these large lakes are probably respon-
sible for this phenomenon.

In the fall, northwesterly flows of cold air across the warmer water of Reindeer and
Wollaston Lakes can generate “streamers” of convective cloud that bring bands of rain
or snow showers to the area around Lynn Lake and southward toward Pukatawagan.
Extreme and rapid fluctuations in ceiling and visibility can be expected in such con-
ditions. Other lakes in the area, which are generally elongated in a southwest to
northeast direction, do not have a similar potential for streamers when the flow is
northwest, as the distance or “fetch” across each lake is relatively short.

Thompson - Gillam

CHURCHILL
10,000 FT
7000 FT HUDSON
5000 FT BAY
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

GILLAM

THOMPSON

Map 4-42 - Thompson - Gillam

The Thompson to Gillam route follows the Nelson River downstream toward
Hudson Bay. Elevation decreases roughly 250 feet between the two communities and
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LAKP-Prairies 163

there are no surprises topographically. Northeast of Gillam, the land follows a similar,
but slightly steeper slope to the Hudson Bay Lowlands, which contain the lower
reaches of the Churchill and Seal Rivers. The local features of this area are glacially
created and include several eskers and some fairly rough debris deposits (one just
north of Stephens Lake near Gillam) but, overall, the terrain is fairly smooth.

Any winds with an easterly component are upslope over this area, and those from
the northeast statistically give the lowest ceilings and visibilities. This is, of course,
due to the vast open body of water provided by the Hudson Bay from late spring to
early winter.

The Nelson River current is quite strong along this stretch, bolstered by water
diverted from the Churchill River system. Hydroelectric installations, two of which
are just downstream from Gillam, tap this flow. Many stretches of the river are slow
to freeze in the winter and break up early in the spring, especially where rapids exist
and in discharges from dams. These stretches, when they are open, are particularly
vulnerable to evaporation fog on cold winter days.

Stephens Lake, extending approximately 27 miles west-northwest of Gillam, is a

sizable body of water. In the fall, this lake can produce streamers around the Gillam
airport during west to northwesterly cold air outbreaks.

Because the forest canopy gradually thins out over the lowlands towards Hudson
Bay, that area is more prone to winter blizzard conditions when strong northwest to
northerly flows develop behind the deep low pressure systems that frequently traverse
the area.
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164 CHAPTER FOUR

Churchill - Hudson Bay Coast

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0 SEA LEVEL

CHURCHILL
HUDSON BAY

Map 4-43 - Churchill - Hudson Bay

GILLIAN
Churchill has the distinction of being the site of the only major aerodrome in the
Prairie provinces that is situated along a coastline. It is also Canada’s only arctic
seaport. The airport itself sits on a bluff a little over 90 feet above Hudson Bay and is
roughly one mile south of the water’s edge. The coastline runs about 27 miles due east
to Cape Churchill, then south-southeastward toward the mouth of the Nelson River.
Just to the west of the airport, the northward flowing Churchill River spills into the
bay. It is about 3 miles wide at this point, although it narrows to a channel just over
1/2-mile wide at the mouth itself. A few miles further west is Button Bay, an inlet
about 6 miles across. From there, the coastline begins to turn northward toward
Arviat.

Topography in the area plays a relatively minor role. The Hudson Bay Lowlands
could easily be described as one of the smoothest tracts of land on the Prairies,
broken only by the lower valleys of the major rivers that drain into the bay. Muskeg,
small lakes, patches of stunted trees and sedge grass cover the landscape. Mechanical
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LAKP-Prairies 165

turbulence is seldom severe, but can be moderate up to 3,000 feet ASL during
episodes of strong winds. Needless to say, the local weather in Churchill (and any-
where else along the coast for that matter) is largely dictated by Hudson Bay itself.

As is the case with any coastal environment, it is critical to have a good idea what
constitutes an “onshore” wind and one that flows “offshore”. In this region, a general
rule of thumb concludes that the weather usually is poorest when winds blow from
the water to the land, and is usually better when the opposite transpires. This, of
course, depends on many other things, including qualities of the air (moisture con-
tent, temperature and stability), temperature of the water, amount and extent of ice
cover, but the rule of thumb is a good one. Even though the coastline in the immediate
area of Churchill lies roughly west to east, an examination of the larger scale shows it
runs, overall, from north-northwest to southeast. Although Cape Churchill protrudes
to the east of the town, it is too low and flat to alter the moisture content in east to
southeasterly flows. If atmospheric conditions are prone to change, any wind from
about 310° through 360° and 90° through 140° traverses enough of Hudson Bay to
pick up sufficient additional moisture to cause some deterioration in the weather in
Churchill.

Hudson Bay is largely free of ice from the end of July to early November, but open
water can be present near the coast at any other time of the year as well. Knowing the
location and extent of open water at these “other times of the year” is fundamentally
important when trying to understand why certain weather conditions occur under
different wind regimes during that time. It is also important to note that water
surface temperatures can differ greatly, particularly in summer, between the colder
open sea and warmer shallow coastal areas. The surface water is even warmer near the
mouths of the major rivers, as it takes some time for the heated, fresh water from the
river to mix into that of the bay. As a result, the river outlets are preferred locations
for advective and evaporative fog formation when conditions are ripe. This is espe-
cially true at the mouth of the Nelson River.

Ice formation and break up cycles on Hudson Bay are quite complex, especially near
the outlets of major rivers such as the Churchill River. This is, in part, due to the lay-
ering effect of fresh over saline water in these areas. The fresh water is less dense than
salt water and freezes sooner. In October, fresh water from the rivers “flooding” the
salt water begins to freeze, creating a slushy suspension called “grease ice.” Onshore
winds cause the grease ice to accumulate along the coast where it freezes into a hard
sheet. This event marks the beginning of the formation of stationary “shore-fast” ice
that typically extends about 3 to 4 miles out from the coast. Waves, tidal actions and
storm surges break this ice up into blocks and slabs, which refreeze into a thicker,
rougher surface. Ice does not start to form in earnest over the open sea until the latter
half of November. It is hardly a continuous sheet, but rather a jumble of pans or floes
that are blown about by the winds and otherwise drift with the counter-clockwise
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166 CHAPTER FOUR

current that is present in the bay. They collide with each other and with the shore fast
ice, creating ridges along impact zones that can be 60 feet high. By mid winter,
Hudson Bay is basically ice covered, but prolonged winds from a given direction can
open up leads that are several miles wide, often along the edge of the shore-fast ice.
These leads can persist as long as the winds continue and take many hours, even days,
to close or freeze over once the winds abate or change direction. In early June, the
break-up of the rivers marks the beginning of the end of the winter’s ice over Hudson
Bay. The fresh water rushing out floods the ice and eventually cuts a channel through
it. Through June and July, the ice gradually recedes, fractures and thaws until it even-
tually disappears. The area of the bay north of Churchill can be completely cleared of
ice fairly early in this period if there is a prolonged southwesterly wind event (4 to 5
days on average) followed by a shift in the winds to the northwest or north. The
southwesterly winds push the ice out past Cape Churchill where the current begins
to carry it southeastward. If the winds then shift to the northwest or north, the ice is
literally driven toward the mouth of the Nelson River and areas to the east, where it
tends to remain until it melts.

Summer along the Hudson Bay coast is fairly short. The bay is open and generally
covered, at least partially, with low cloud (marine stratum). Northeast to easterly
winds will eventually advect this cloud over the lowlands and cause a general deteri-
oration in ceiling. Moderate rime or mixed icing often occurs in this cloud where it
extends above the freezing level. On warm sunny days with light winds, a sea breeze
circulation can set up and this, too, can cause or advect low cloud several miles inland
along the shore. Fog can accompany this low cloud, but normally does not extend too
far inland. At the Churchill airport, the northern end of the runway can be completely
enshrouded while the visibility at the southern end is unrestricted. Southwesterly to
west flows are associated with good flying weather and usually push the marine
stratum offshore. Flows that follow the coastline bring variable weather conditions to
the area. Summer convection is normally associated with unstable west to southwest
upper flows. Cells that affect the area usually form upstream (inland) and move
downwind. A few thunderstorms reach the Churchill region each summer. Once the
cells move out over the colder surface of Hudson Bay, much of their thermal support
is lost and they tend to weaken rapidly if not supported by other dynamic or
thermodynamic mechanisms.

During the fall, the local moisture sources are gradually cut off as the rivers freeze
over and the shore-fast ice develops. However, easterly winds continue to advect stra-
tus and fog into the area from further out on the bay. Early in the season, strong
northwest to northerly flows of cold arctic air (generated by building high pressure
areas to the west and/or deep low pressure systems moving across Hudson Bay)
become unstable over the warmer water. Widespread low cloud formed in these flows
is embedded with bands of convective cells that bring a mixture of precipitation types
to the area, resulting in wildly variable ceilings and visibilities at times. Even cool
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LAKP-Prairies 167

westerly flows can be tricky in Churchill at this time of year, as Button Bay and the
Churchill River can provide sufficient fetch for the formation of low cloud and fog
around the town. Freezing drizzle is most common at this time of year since the bay
is largely open and temperatures are dropping. As the season progresses, substantial
snowfalls can occur along the coast, which combine with the strong winds to cause
periods of white out conditions. Low level icing associated with the embedded con-
vective cloud or freezing precipitation can be problematic for approaching and
departing aircraft. A combination of mechanical and convective turbulence can also
cause difficulties. Conditions improve when the winds shift to an offshore direction,
cutting off the low-level supply of moisture and heat.

As winter sets in and ice cover extends well out over the bay, the polar bears leave
the land to gorge on seals during their annual hunt and overall weather conditions
tend to improve. However, winter storms that affect the area usually follow a track
that carries them from the south or southeast toward Hudson Bay, where they can
remain for several days. These storms are usually accompanied by ridges of high
pressure over western Canada. The strong pressure gradient in between the two fea-
tures generates a long ribbon of strong northwesterly winds along “blizzard alley”,
which extends from the central High Arctic across northeastern Manitoba into
northern Ontario. Since the lowlands are basically devoid of a continuous forest
canopy, the area is susceptible to prolonged blizzard conditions. These winds also
open huge leads in the pack ice, often just beyond the shore-fast ice, and streamers of
low level convection develop downwind. If the winds increase from the east after the
northwesterlies subside, these streamers turn with the wind and affect the coastal
areas with widespread snowshower activity, especially if the lead is along the edge of
the shore-fast ice (i.e. close to shore). If this is the case, a rule of thumb in Churchill
states that the lead will close in 8 hours or less if the ice on the other side is visible on
the horizon. If it is not, expect the flurries to last until the lead finally closes or the
winds shift direction again. Arctic high pressure areas that establish themselves over
northeastern Manitoba bring clear skies, very cold temperatures and light winds to
the area under a strong inversion. Periods of reduced visibility in arctic sea smoke, ice
crystals and ice fog are common during these events. Smoke from refuse burning at
Churchill’s famous dump, just east of the airport, can aggravate this problem locally.

Spring along the coast arrives with snow melt and the opening of the rivers, in late
May and early June. There is a rapid increase in local surface moisture sources as the
rivers flood the ice on the bay. Fog is common over and downwind from the rivers and
over pools of meltwater on the ice. The Churchill airport is often affected by fog
off the Churchill River when winds are light westerly, during the spring. As the sea
ice retreats, larger and larger expanses of open water gradually return the general
weather trend to an oscillating marine stratum scenario, as winds shift from onshore
to offshore and back. The polar bears come back, too.
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168
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LAKP-Prairies 169

Chapter 5

Airport Climatology

Alberta
(a) Calgary

10,000 FT
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5000 FT
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1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
CALGARY 0 SEA LEVEL

Calgary lies about 40 miles to the east of the Continental Divide, at the union of
the Bow and Elbow River Valleys, in southern Alberta. In a large treeless tract of
grassland, the river valleys provide the only strong physical relief. The airport is situ-
ated on a nearly flat tableland, 3 miles northeast of the centre of the city of Calgary.
From the airport the land falls away to the valley of Nose Creek, about one mile to
the west and then rises sharply to the crest of Nose Hill, a little over 3 miles west of
the airport, which has an elevation 500 feet higher than the airfield. To the west of
Calgary, the land rises steeply into the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. To the east,
the land slopes away, generally from northwest to southeast. Southward the land
slopes gradually to the Bow River, whose easterly flow bisects the city, until a sharp
southerly bend, 3 to 4 miles south-southeast of the airport. Despite the fact that the
local elevations are around 3,600 feet above sea level, the proximity to the Rocky
Mountains allows it to benefit from the moderating effect of mild Chinook winds
during the winter.
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170 CHAPTER FIVE

Calgary Calgary
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 11.2 S % Calm 9.2

Calgary is in the zone of the upper-level westerlies which produces predominantly

northerly or northwesterly winds in the winter and a more westerly or southwesterly
flow in the summer. There are slightly more southwest winds in winter than summer,
hinting that there may be more intrusions of warm pacific air in the winter than at
other times of the year. In extreme summer cases, southerly winds can carry moist
tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico into the area.

In the wintertime, the westerly winds can be produced by Chinooks and are fre-
quently quite turbulent. Since the Chinook arch always accompanies this phenome-
non, it can be used as a good indicator in timing the associated turbulence. Also, at
any time of year, it is possible to set up lee or mountain waves, which will cause low-
level wind shear and turbulence. While the lee waves are frequently indicated by
lenticular cloud in the area, this is not always present, and in these cases, the lee wave
turbulence can be quite hazardous. Of all the major cities in Canada, Calgary is most
likely to be affected by this phenomenon.
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Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Calgary
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Calgary
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Summer, typically, has very good flying weather. The main concern is on warm
days when thunderstorms can develop. Usually, thunderstorms form in the foothills
to the west of the city and move eastward. Many of these dissipate before reaching
Calgary but for those that don’t, strong winds, heavy rain, hail, lightning and even tor-
nadoes are possible. The frequency of low conditions increases after dark in summer,
up to a maximum at 1400 UTC, and then improves.

Fog is mostly a wintertime event. The average number of fog days per month peaks
at 2 or 3 in November, February, March and April. Poor flying conditions, when they
occur in the evening, continue through the night with little change. Then, just after
sunrise and probably due to the increases in aircraft movements providing a spike in
low level moisture, the frequency reaches a maximum late in the morning after which
conditions improve.
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172 CHAPTER FIVE

(b) Edmonton International

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EDMONTON
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The city of Edmonton is situated along the North Saskatchewan River in central
Alberta, and is located in the transition zone between prairie grassland and northern
forests. The International airport is located near Leduc, about 9 miles to the south of
the Edmonton city limits. The area surrounding the airport consists of generally flat
farmland with the occasional wooded area. The North Saskatchewan River flows
northeastward approximately 5 miles northwest of the airport.

Edmonton Intl Edmonton Intl

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 8.0 S % Calm 9.0

Edmonton is in the zone of the upper level westerlies, a large-scale atmospheric cir-
culation that streams generally in a west to east direction. In the winter, this flow
shifts to northwesterly or northerly which allows for frequent invasions of cold Arctic
air. In the summer, a more westerly or southwesterly upper flow allows for incursions
of moist Pacific air.
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Winds are typically lighter in winter than those during the rest of the year.
However, a combination of fresh snow, wind and cold temperatures may result in bliz-
zard conditions, but these events are rare in Edmonton. The winds become somewhat
stronger in the spring and summer and favour a west to northwest direction.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Edmonton International
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Edmonton International
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

In Edmonton, throughout the year, the predominant west to northwest winds gen-
erally are associated with good flying weather. A prolonged easterly (northeast -
southeast) flow is normally associated with the development of stratus and fog and
the poorest flying conditions.
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174 CHAPTER FIVE

(b) Fort McMurray

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FORT MCMURRAY 600 FT
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0 SEA LEVEL

Fort McMurray is located at the confluence of the Athabasca and Clearwater

Rivers, and the airport is located 7 miles southeast of the city. The Clearwater River
passes within 2 miles north of the airport before joining the Athabasca River in town.
The slightly rolling terrain rises moderately to the north and to the south of the
Clearwater River valley.

Fort McMurray Fort McMurray

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10%
5%

5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 15.5 S % Calm 20.2

The prevailing winds flow either up or down this river valley with very little differ-
ence from summer to winter. There is a secondary wind maximum from the south-
west and there is a high percentage of calm winds.
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Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Fort McMurray
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Fort McMurray
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Summer flying conditions in Fort McMurray are generally very good but, after
dark, the frequency of low ceiling and poor visibility conditions increases to a maxi-
mum near 1300 UTC. After this time conditions improve. There are a lot of small
lakes and stretches of muskeg in the area that promote fog formation, even in the
middle of summer and especially after a thunderstorm. In a northerly flow, it is pos-
sible to get "Syncrude Smog" advected into town and to the airport.

In winter, conditions are best in the late afternoon but deteriorate slightly during
the evening and overnight. They get worse just after sunrise, for an hour or two,
before starting to improve. This is due to aircraft movements generating significant
amounts of low level moisture, and ice fog which is slow to clear in light wind situa-
tions.
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176 CHAPTER FIVE

(c) Grande Prairie

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1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
GRANDE PRAIRIE

Grande Prairie is located about 43 miles east of the BC border in west central
Alberta. The airport is located 2 to 3 miles west of the city of Grande Prairie on com-
paratively flat farmland which is generally free of trees. The Bear River drains Bear
Lake, located about 5 miles northwest of the airport, and passes within about 1 mile
east of the airport. The Saddle Hills lie on an east to west line about 19 miles north
of Grande Prairie. The highest elevation in the Saddle Hills is White Mountain at
3,400 feet, located 19 miles northwest of the airport.

Grande Prairie Grande Prairie

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 10.7 S % Calm 17.6

The winds at Grande Prairie favour the western quadrant, the result of funnelling
around the Saddle Hills to the north and the Rocky Mountains to the south. With
the approach of a synoptic scale high from the west, westerly winds predominate for
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 177

LAKP-Prairies 177

some time until the high moves past. The winds then shift to an easterly direction.
There can be brief but very strong westerly wind events after cold frontal passages
associated with a migratory low, especially if the pressure is rising sharply behind of
the front. Southerly and northerly winds are quite rare.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Grande Prairie
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Grande Prairie
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Flying weather in Grande Prairie in the summer is normally very good during day-
light hours. After dark, the frequency of below VFR conditions increases up to 1300
UTC and then decreases for the remainder of the day. In winter, this frequency rises
fairly steadily all night, peaks just after sunrise for a few hours and then decreases.

Shallow inversions, bolstered by light easterly or calm surface winds, are frequent
year round and trap moisture in the low levels. As a result, overnight fog tends to per-
sist here longer than at other sites in the region, especially from late fall to early
spring.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 178

178 CHAPTER FIVE

(d) High Level

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
HIGH LEVEL
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

This site is located at an Alberta Forestry Service airport adjacent to the eastern
shore of Footner Lake. A level forested area of aspen and spruce surrounds the site.
Only enough clearing was done to maintain minimum clearance at the airport and so
there are trees within 1/2 mile of the runway. Mount Watt, a ridge oriented in a
southwest to northeast line, is located 12 miles west-northwest of the airport. The
peak of Mount Watt is 2,500 feet ASL while the airport is 1,150 feet. The Caribou
Mountains are located 17 miles northeast and are 3,300 feet high. High Level is sit-
uated in the bottom of a basin about 50 miles in radius that opens to the east. On a
topographical map of Alberta, the Buffalo Head Hills are to the southeast, Caribou
Hills to the northeast, Cameron Hills to the northwest and the Naylor Hills to the
southwest.

High Level High Level

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 32.7 S % Calm 51.7

The hills present openings to the east and west and, as one would expect, the pre-
vailing winds blow from these directions. There is also a secondary wind maximum
from the north or northwest which would be the most common direction during a
cold outbreak in winter.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 179

LAKP-Prairies 179

During the winter, the airport can be enveloped all day in stratus while the town is
clear, especially in a light easterly flow. There is a large percentage of calm winds both
in the winter and summer here. The basin noted above allows for the formation of
persistent inversions all year long.

Wind shear on descent below the treetops is a big concern at the High Level
Airport. If the winds are blowing across the runway, an inbound aircraft cannot
straighten out until below tree level. The subsequent loss of airspeed, occurring about
50 feet above the ground, is a hazard.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

High Level
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

High Level
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

High Level usually has very good daytime flying weather in the summer. The sur-
rounding hills provide some protection from thunderstorms during the season. It is
rare to have thunderstorms approaching from the south. Cells that do hit High Level
usually come off the Naylor Hills to the southwest and down the Chinchaga river
valley. Thunderstorms in a westerly flow are diverted to the north or south by Mt.
Watt and often miss High Level. Rarely do they traverse Mt. Watt to the airport area.
After dark, conditions are likely to deteriorate. The highest frequency of low ceilings
and poor visibility occurs near 1300 UTC after which time there is an improvement.

In the winter, the frequency of poor flying conditions is fairly steady from early
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 180

180 CHAPTER FIVE

evening through the overnight period, but near sunrise, conditions deteriorate. The
worst weather usually occurs between 1500 and 1900 UTC before improvement early
in the afternoon.

(e) Lethbridge

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
LETHBRIDGE 1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The Lethbridge Airport is located about 3 miles to the south of the city of
Lethbridge, and is situated on a huge plain with a modest rise to the west and south-
west. The Rocky Mountains are about 43 miles west of the airport. The Oldman
River passes within 1 mile northwest of the airport as it meanders off to the east.
About 21 miles to the south-southeast lies the Milk River Ridge, which rises about
1,300 feet above the surrounding terrain.

Lethbridge Lethbridge
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
20% 20%

NW 15% NE NW 15% NE

10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 5.0 S % Calm 6.5

The winds at Lethbridge strongly favour the west and southwest. These are also the
preferred directions for strong Chinook winds that frequently occur in Lethbridge
during the winter. Marginal flying conditions associated with the southeasterly flow
ahead of the Chinook Arch change for the better behind it.

While the flying conditions may be good west of the Arch, the strong westerly flow
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 181

LAKP-Prairies 181

associated with the Chinook can be quite turbulent. Wind events from other direc-
tions are evenly distributed, but not very frequent.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Lethbridge
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Lethbridge
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

The frequency of good flying conditions in Lethbridge is similar to that of Calgary,

but Lethbridge has the best weather of all the major Prairie aerodromes. Only one
poor flying day in 20 can be expected in summer and one day in 8 in the winter. After
dark in the summer, statistics show a gradual increase in the chance of below VFR
conditions, reaching a maximum at 1400 UTC. In winter, the probability of low con-
ditions remains fairly constant all night, spiking at 1700 UTC and then diminishing.
Easterly winds are not frequent but when they do occur there is a good chance of low
ceilings or poor visibility.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 182

182 CHAPTER FIVE

(f) Lloydminster

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
LLOYDMINSTER 1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Lloydminster is located on the Alberta - Saskatchewan border between the North

Saskatchewan River, to the north, and the Battle River to the south. These two rivers
often channel the winds from either the west or northwest or from the southeast.
A synoptic scale ridge of high pressure approaching from the west will usually gener-
ate westerly winds at Lloydminster. After the high goes by, the winds shift to the
southeast.

LLoydminster Lloydminster
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 5.5 S % Calm 5.6

In summer during the day, good flying weather can be anticipated around
Lloydminster. During the night, there is a gradual increase in the probability of poor
flying conditions, up to a maximum of 10 percent from 1300 to 1700 UTC. Once fog
or stratus arrives, the Big Gully Lakes and pollution sources in town are able to pro-
vide enough moisture and particulate to maintain or enhance the low flying condi-
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 183

LAKP-Prairies 183

tions. In winter, there is a steady increase in below VFR frequency up until about sun-
rise and then a gradual decrease.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Lloydminster
50
Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Lloydminster
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Da
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 184

184 CHAPTER FIVE

(g) Peace River

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
PEACE RIVER
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The airport is located midway between the town of Peace River to the east and
Grimshaw to the west. The main topographical feature in the area is the Peace River
valley that lies in a southwest to northeast orientation. The bottom of the Peace River
Valley is 770 feet below the level of the observing site. The Smokey River, also boast-
ing an impressive river valley, discharges into the Peace about 6 miles west of the
airport.

Peace River Peace River

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 8.2 S % Calm 10.2

Due to cold air drainage, the river valley is often completely filled with stratus and
fog while the airport is clear. Winds in town are biased towards the northeast or
southwest (along the Peace River Valley) while winds at the airport can be quite vari-
able. During both summer and winter, the winds at the airport are mostly from the
southwest or north. The passage of a migratory low to the north of Peace River will
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 185

LAKP-Prairies 185

cause southwest winds to shift around to the north. Once the low has moved far
enough to the east, rising pressure ahead of the next high or ridge approaching from
the west will cause the winds to shift back to southwest again.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Peace River
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Peace River
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

As with most of the airports on the Prairies, flying weather during summer day-
light hours is typically very good. After dark, the probability of low ceilings and poor
visibility increases to a maximum at 1300 UTC and is constant for several hours
afterward. Once stratus or fog forms in the area, it is slow to clear, even in summer.

In winter, there is a gradual increase in the frequency of below VFR conditions

from evening to about 2 hours after sunrise, after which conditions tend to improve.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 186

186 CHAPTER FIVE

(h) Red Deer

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
RED DEER 600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The Red Deer airport is located 6 miles southwest of the city. The Red Deer River
flows northeastward across western Alberta and courses within 3 miles of the airport,
which was built in a bowl-like depression in the terrain and therefore has poor
drainage of air and moisture. With a light flow from any direction, fog tends to form
easily here and is slow to dissipate. The terrain to the west of Red Deer and Rocky
Mountain House is a genesis area for thunderstorms. If convective cells form over the
foothills in the morning, they frequently move through the Red Deer area later in the
day.

In the wake of a winter cold front, stratocumulus or stratus cloud, based between
1,000 to 3,000 feet above ground, can be very persistent. As the cold front pushes up
into the Rockies, the area will experience a northeasterly upslope flow which aug-
ments cloud formation. This low cloud will remain in the area until an Arctic high
becomes established and clears it out.

Red Deer Red Deer

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 7.2 S % Calm 8.6

PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 187

LAKP-Prairies 187

The winds here tend to follow the orientation of the Red Deer River Valley, so are
generally from the northwest or south all year long. In the winter, there are more
southerly winds than northwest winds, which is a reflection of the climatological
average pressure pattern that shows a ridge of high pressure over the central Prairies.
Since the airport is built in a bowl, there is a high occurrence of calm winds. This is
especially true during inversion events in the winter, as weak air mass erosion allows
cold air to remain while warm air glides over top.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Red Deer
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Red Deer
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

As with many other stations across the Prairies, Red Deer, in summer, enjoys very
good flying weather during the day with few cases of low ceilings and visibility. After
dark, the frequency of low conditions increases to a maximum near 1200 UTC and is
slow to decrease until after 1500 UTC.

The fact that the airport is in a bowl means it is also subject to local water drainage.
This, coupled with the increased occurrence of inversions, causes fog to form more
readily overnight in the spring and fall, especially after precipitation episodes. The
Red Deer River is also a good source of moisture for fog formation.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 188

188 CHAPTER FIVE

Saskatchewan
(a) La Ronge

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
LA RONGE 2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The town of La Ronge is located on the western shore of Lac la Ronge while
the airport is a few miles to the north. This part of north-central Saskatchewan is
characterized by small, rolling hills, several large lakes and open boreal forest.

La Ronge La Ronge
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 12.0 S % Calm 15.2

The winds here favour westerly throughout the year with a secondary maximum
from the east-northeast. This is the result of being near the centre of the climato-
logical high pressure area which resides over this part of the Prairies. When the
centre of high pressure is approaching from the north, the winds are easterly and, after
it goes past, the winds shift to westerly. When the high is nearby, the winds under
the accompanying inversion are frequently calm.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 189

LAKP-Prairies 189

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

La Ronge
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

La Ronge
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

In summer, there is a gradual increase in the frequency of low ceilings and/or poor
visibility through the night, up to a maximum near 1200 UTC. Improvement after
this time is very slow, exhibiting the influence of Lac la Ronge. Moisture from the
lake can reinforce stratus and fog formation at this time or, at least, slow the dissipa-
tion process. In winter, there is a gradual increase in the frequency of below VFR con-
ditions to a maximum near 1500 UTC and a gradual decline after that time.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 190

190 CHAPTER FIVE

(b) Prince Albert

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
PRINCE ALBERT 300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The Prince Albert Airport is located on a flat plain in the valley of the North
Saskatchewan River, about one mile east of the city. The river itself approaches from
the west, bends around the south side of the facility and exits to the east, but the val-
ley is oriented more or less west to east. There is a gradual rise in terrain from the
southeast to the northwest.

Prince Albert Prince Albert

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 11.8 S % Calm 14.7

Most of the prevailing winds here are either westerly or easterly. North and south
winds greater than 10 knots are much less common. The location in the river valley,
and a local source of abundant moisture, make Prince Albert a prime candidate for
radiation fog on clear skies with light winds.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 191

LAKP-Prairies 191

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Prince Albert
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Prince Albert
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Even with all of these weather parameters working to form low cloud and fog,
Prince Albert has very good flying weather during the summer. Overnight, the fre-
quency of low flying conditions increases to a maximum at 1200 UTC and then con-
ditions tend to improve. Radiation fog becomes a concern in August and September
when the nights are longer and there is still abundant moisture. If stratus forms over
the city during the evening, it is a good indication that Prince Albert will fog in
overnight. There is a pulp mill located to the northeast of the airport and, in a north-
easterly flow, pollutants from this mill can create fog that will eventually advect over
the runway. In winter, the probability of poor conditions increases as night progresses.
There is a jump in this trend near sunrise due to aircraft movements and a maximum
of 22 percent near 1600 UTC. After this time, conditions tend to improve.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 192

192 CHAPTER FIVE

(c) Regina

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
REGINA 0 SEA LEVEL

The airport is located on a level plain at the southwest edge of the city of Regina.
The city is located on the banks of Wascana Creek, which lies in a very shallow basin
running southeast to northwest. The land rises slowly to the northeast and peaks at
an elevation of 2,300 feet, about 19 miles northeast of the airport. The Qu’Appelle
River, 32 miles north of the airport, meanders in an easterly direction in a very deep
narrow valley.

Regina Regina
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 20%
NW NE NW 15% NE
10%
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 2.7 S % Calm 2.8

The winds for Regina strongly favour southeast and northwest directions through-
out the year. This is a reflection of the orientation of the Wascana Basin which directs
the synoptic scale winds to flow either up or down the valley. Funnelling acts to
strengthen such flows, and blowing snow is fairly common in the Wascana Basin as a
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 193

LAKP-Prairies 193

result. The southeasterly flow, which can sometimes produce blizzard conditions
across southern Saskatchewan, will not affect the airport at Regina because of the
sheltering effect of the city. Northeast and southwest winds do not occur very often.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Regina
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Regina
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

In the summer, the flying weather at Regina is very good most of the time, but
there are rare dips below VFR limits. In winter, the frequency of low conditions
remains fairly constant through most of the evening and overnight. Near sunrise, the
frequency increases more rapidly to a maximum near 1700 UTC, and then diminishes.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 194

194 CHAPTER FIVE

(d) Saskatoon

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
SASKATOON 600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The airport at Saskatoon is located on the plain of the South Saskatchewan River,
about 2 miles north-northwest of the city centre. The terrain in the immediate vicin-
ity of the airport is relatively flat. The South Saskatchewan River flows through the
city in a northeast direction and passes within 2 miles east-southeast of the runway
complex. The terrain to the east of the airport reaches a height of 1,900 feet in the
Minichinas Hills, about 8 to 9 miles away. To the southeast, the nearest significant
topographical feature is the Allen Hills, about 17 miles from the airport.

Saskatoon Saskatoon
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 15%

NW NE NW NE
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 3.8 S % Calm 4.3

Although Saskatoon has no preferred wind direction, the highest average wind
speeds (10-12kts) occur from the west-northwest. There is a secondary maximum in
wind direction from the southeast that is more obvious in the summer than in the
winter. In the wintertime, southwest is another preferred wind direction.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 195

LAKP-Prairies 195

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Saskatoon
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Saskatoon
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

The “Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles” charts
for Saskatoon shown above are much like those for most other sites on the Prairies.
In the summer, the flying weather is very good most of the time. Episodes of low con-
ditions tend to occur most often between 1200 and 1500 UTC. Improvement after-
ward occurs fairly rapidly. In winter, the frequency of low ceilings and poor visibility
remains fairly constant through most of the evening and overnight. The frequency
increases quite rapidly between 1200 and 1400 UTC (near sunrise), remains high for
about 3 hours and then drops.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 196

196 CHAPTER FIVE

Manitoba
(a) Brandon

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
BRANDON 1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The city of Brandon is situated in the Assiniboine River valley about 3 miles south
of the airport. The terrain to the north of Brandon rises slowly but steadily, peaking
at 2,400 feet in the Riding Mountains 49 miles north of Brandon. South of the city,
the terrain rises slowly to heights between 1,600 and 1,700 feet in the Brandon Hills,
some 13 miles south of the city. Further to the south, near the Canada - U.S. Border,
are the Turtle Mountains.

Brandon Brandon
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 20%
NW NE NW 15% NE
10%
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 7.5 S % Calm 9.0

The Assiniboine River Valley forms an east to west channel between the Riding
Mountains and the Turtle Mountains. Because of this, Brandon winds blow most
often from the west or east. The most common wind is westerly around 10 knots.

Northwesterly winds tend to be stronger than the gradient would suggest, and this
is also due to the funnelling effects of the local terrain. In summer, westerly winds are
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 197

LAKP-Prairies 197

the most frequent, closely followed by those from the east and northeast. Northerly
winds are uncommon and southerly winds are even more rare. Calm conditions occur
8 percent of the time in summer. In winter, westerly winds occur more often than in
the summer but there is no real increase in easterly winds. A westerly flow is downs-
lope for Brandon and a northwest flow off the Riding Mountains is even more sub-
sident. Since these are the two most common wind directions for Brandon, overall
conditions tend to be good. With easterly and northeasterly flows in spring and fall,
stratus and fog are a common occurrence. The winds are calm at times at the airport
and, hence, radiation fog occurs fairly regularly at the airport. Because of the influ-
ence of the river valley, radiation fog will be even more common in town.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Brandon
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Brandon
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Although flying conditions in Brandon are generally reliable in summer, the chance
of poor conditions increases steadily after midnight up until 1200 UTC when it peaks
at about 9 percent. There is a gradual decrease in probability after this time. In win-
ter, there is an 11 to 13 percent chance of low ceilings or poor visibility occurring at
almost any time of day. There is a higher probability between 1400 and 2000 UTC,
with a peak of 20 percent around 1600 UTC.
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198 CHAPTER FIVE

A typical start for fog dispersal in summer is 1300 UTC, while in winter, dissipa-
tion commences around 1700 UTC. The increase in aircraft movement near sunrise,
and the delay in sunrise itself, form the best explanation of this phenomenon.

(b) Churchill

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
CHURCHILL
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The town of Churchill is located on the Hudson Bay coast. The airport itself sits
on a bluff a little over 90 feet above Hudson Bay and roughly one n. mile south of the
water’s edge, and 3 miles east-southeast of the town. The coastline runs about 27
miles due east to Cape Churchill, then south-southeastward toward the mouth of the
Nelson River. Just to the west of the airport, the northward flowing Churchill River
spills into the bay. A few miles further west is Button Bay, an inlet about 5 miles
across.

Churchill Churchill
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 30%

NW NW 25%
NE NE
10% 20%
15%
5% 10%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 1.5 S % Calm 1.5

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LAKP-Prairies 199

Once again, the climatological ridge of high pressure over the central Prairies is
responsible for the much of the bias in wind direction at Churchill. During the sum-
mer, the winds favour the northwest but any direction is possible at least part of the
time. In the fall, flows off Hudson Bay can advect marine stratum over the airport. In
winter, the dominant ridge of high pressure over the central Prairies produces north-
west winds twice as often as in summer. Strong northwest wind events can produce
blowing snow over the nearly treeless coastal area, and this is a major contributor to
the high frequencies of poor flying conditions in winter. In spring, these northwest
winds can bring in stratus from open water on the Churchill River. The winds are sel-
dom calm at Churchill.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Churchill
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Churchill
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Throughout the year, conditions with low ceilings and visibility are fairly common
at Churchill. In the summer, from about 2000 UTC to about 0700 UTC, conditions
are poor 12 percent of the time; a frequency more than 4 times higher than at airports
further south or inland. While Hudson Bay is the principal source of moisture for low
cloud formation in the area, it is not the only one. Even in a westerly or southwest-
erly flow, it is possible to tap moisture from the Churchill River, Button Bay or any
of the myriad of lakes and swamps dotting the region. After about 0700 UTC, the
chance for below VFR conditions increases, peaking at 1200 UTC, and then slowly
decreases.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 200

200 CHAPTER FIVE

Again, in a northwesterly flow in spring, open water at the mouth of the Churchill
River can produce a good deal of stratus. If the temperature is just below zero, freez-
ing drizzle is a good possibility. If the winds shift from northwesterly to northerly,
then the stratus drifts southward past the airport. In the fall, any wind direction from
the northwest through northeast to the southeast can produce stratus as this flow is,
for the most part, directly off the bay.

The likelihood of below VFR conditions in winter at Churchill is the greatest for
any major site on the Prairies by far. During the night, poor flying weather occurs 24
percent of the time, which is nearly one day in four. Interestingly, the frequency
increases to almost 30 percent in the morning and remains at that level throughout
the day. This trend is opposite to that normally seen at other sites on the Prairies.
Hence, if weather conditions are marginal or poor in the morning at Churchill in the
winter, they very likely will remain poor or get worse through the afternoon and
evening.

(c) Dauphin

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
DAUPHIN 1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

The Dauphin Airport is situated about 3 miles south of the town of Dauphin, and
about 8 miles west of Dauphin Lake. Several creeks and rivers, which originate in the
Riding Mountains to the south, flow northeastward into Dauphin Lake, which drains
into Lake Winnipegosis to the north. The Dauphin area is a broad, flat valley bounded
by the Duck Mountains to the northwest and the Riding Mountains, which extend
from southeast around Dauphin to the west-southwest. The northern escarpment of
the Riding Mountains begins 5 miles south of the airport and the highest peak (2,200
feet), is about 9 miles south. The valley floor slopes gently away to the north and east
towards Lake Winnipegosis and Lake Manitoba.
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LAKP-Prairies 201

Dauphin Dauphin
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 2155%
%
NW NE NW 20% NE
10%
15%
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 6.4 S % Calm 9.4

The wind record at Dauphin reflects the strong channelling effect of the valley
between the Riding and Duck Mountains. With a high over the central Prairies, the
winds generated by the northwesterly gradient over this area are backed significantly
by the valley. Winds from all other directions occur with about the same frequency
(3-5 percent) with a secondary maximum from the north, indicating that when low
pressure systems pass to the east of Dauphin, there is some diversion of the flow
around the Duck Mountains to the north of town. South to southeast winds do not
occur very often at all.

In winter, the winds favour the west to southwest directions even more strongly; the
result of more and stronger highs or ridges over the central Prairies and a northwest-
erly gradient across Manitoba. Winds from other directions occur even less in winter
than in the summer and south and southeasterly winds are very rare.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 202

202 CHAPTER FIVE

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Dauphin
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Dauphin
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

In summer, good flying conditions are the norm in Dauphin. Overnight, there is a
gradual increase in the chance of low ceilings and visibility, reaching a maximum near
1300 UTC, after which there is an equally gradual decrease through the morning into
the early afternoon. During the evening and overnight in winter, poor conditions
occur 10 percent of the time from hour to hour with very little variation. Near, or just
after, sunrise the frequency jumps quite quickly to a peak of 17 percent at 1600 UTC,
then returns to the normal 10 percent by 2100 UTC.
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LAKP-Prairies 203

(d) Island Lake

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
ISLAND LAKE 300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Like most of the sites in central and northern Manitoba, Island Lake is located
on the very flat, open forestland of the Canadian Shield with its many lakes and
sloughs. True to its name, the airport is located on Stevenson Island and completely
surrounded by water. Three miles to the northeast, and about 100 feet higher, is the
village of Garden Hill. There are open stretches of water to the northwest, west and
southeast. These compass points coincide with the most common wind directions.

Island Lake Island Lake

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 8.5 S % Calm 10.8

In summer, occurrences of below VFR weather are more frequent at Island Lake
than at sites further south, no doubt due to the site being totally encircled by water.
The frequency of low flying weather increases during the evening, and overnight, to
a maximum at 1300 UTC (near sunrise) and then decreases during the morning.
During the winter, there is no strong diurnal increase in the frequency of low ceilings
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 204

204 CHAPTER FIVE

and visibility until about 1200 UTC, or just before sunrise, when it increases sharply.
Probabilities increase until about 1700 UTC and then decline fairly rapidly. These
summer and winter sunrise peaks are similar to those at other sites in this part of
Manitoba. However, a completely different trend is shown at places further south and
away from the effects of local large bodies of water.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Island Lake
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Island Lake
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 205

LAKP-Prairies 205

(e) Lynn Lake

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
LYNN LAKE 1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Lynn Lake is located in the forested region of the rocky Canadian Shield that cov-
ers northwestern Manitoba. The rolling terrain is home to a profusion of lakes and
muskeg that provide (when they are not frozen) lots of low level moisture for stratus
and fog development.

Lynn Lake Lynn Lake

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 15%

NW NE NW NE
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 11.2 S % Calm 13.2

Winds can occur from any and all directions, but there is a noticeable maximum
from the northwest, particularly in winter when the climatological ridge is in place.
Because Lynn Lake is in a forested area, there are frequent occurrences of calm winds.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 206

206 CHAPTER FIVE

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Lynn Lake
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)
30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Lynn Lake
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

The proximity of water plays a role in the occurrence of low ceilings and poor
visibility. Like many other sites with lakes nearby, the probability of poor flying
weather in summer at Lynn Lake increases during the night to reach a maximum near
1200 UTC and falls off after that. In winter, the frequency of poor conditions is
fairly steady at 11 to 14 percent, from sundown right through the night. After sun-
rise, conditions tend to be worse until about 1600 UTC, then slowly improve through
the afternoon.
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LAKP-Prairies 207

(f) Norway House

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
NORWAY HOUSE 600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Norway House is located about 13 miles north of Lake Winnipeg in a flat, forest-
ed area of the Canadian Shield. There are many smaller lakes and muskeg in the area
which can provide low level moisture for stratus formation when not frozen. When
stratus ceilings are observed in the fall with a southerly flow, freezing drizzle is likely
when the temperature is just below freezing, due to the additional moisture provided
by Lake Winnipeg.

Norway House Norway House

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 10%
NW NE NW NE

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 15.3 S % Calm 18.1

Winds blow from all directions at Norway House with about equal likelihood. In
summer, there is a slight southwesterly maximum. In winter, a similarly weak prefer-
ence for the northwest is shown. The east channel of the Nelson River lies in a south-
west to northeast orientation through Norway House and provides some funnelling
for the southwest flows. Although this effect also occurs in winter, the climatological
high over the central Prairies provides a greater number of northwesterly wind events.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 208

208 CHAPTER FIVE

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Norway House
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)
30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Norway House
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

There is a high percentage of calm winds at Norway House, due in part to its
forested location and partly because thermal inversions are common, especially in
winter.

In general, Norway House has good flying conditions. Early on summer mornings,
there is a maximum frequency of low flying conditions near 1300 UTC. In winter, the
same “after sunrise” increase in the possibility of low ceilings and visibility occurs here,
in much the same way as it does at many other sites in northern Manitoba, and else-
where on the prairies, for that matter.
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LAKP-Prairies 209

(g) The Pas

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
THE PAS 0 SEA LEVEL

The Pas Airport is located at the southern end of Clearwater Lake, on the very flat
terrain of west-central Manitoba. The town itself is about 13 miles to the southwest
on the banks of the Saskatchewan River. There are many other large lakes in the area,
all great moisture sources for stratus when they are not frozen.

The Pas The Pas

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 7.8 S % Calm 8.8

The winds at The Pas favour either northwesterly or southeasterly directions. The
northwest winds result from having a ridge of high pressure located to the west or
northwest, providing a suitable gradient over the area. The southeasterlies occur dur-
ing the transits of low pressure systems to the south of The Pas. The Pasquia Hills,
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 210

210 CHAPTER FIVE

part of the Manitoba Escarpment, rising 1,500 feet above the surrounding terrain 46
miles southwest of The Pas, probably play some part in producing this northwest to
southeast preference in wind direction. Another topographic feature that may play a
role is a prominent terminal moraine left by the most recent ice age. The Pas Moraine
extends southeastward from west of Clear Lake, arcs between Cedar Lake and Lake
Winnipegosis, and extends out into Lake Winnipeg forming Long Point.

There is a stronger northwesterly maximum in winter, the result of having high

pressure most often to the west (the climatological ridge) during this season.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

The Pas
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

The Pas
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

In summer at The Pas, poor conditions do not occur very often, despite having
several sources of low level moisture nearby. The period where frequencies are higher
than 5 percent extends from 0800 to 1700 UTC, with a peak of 10 percent at 1300
UTC. During winter, the chance of below VFR weather for a given hour hovers
around 10 percent from 2100 to 1100 UTC. A peak of 17 percent occurs around 1700
UTC.
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LAKP-Prairies 211

(h) Thompson

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
THOMPSON
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL

Thompson is the transportation hub of northern Manitoba. The city’s airport is the
second busiest in the province with several companies providing scheduled and char-
ter service to and from Winnipeg, and to many other communities in northern
Manitoba and southern Nunavut. Thompson also boasts an active float plane and hel-
icopter base on the Burntwood River and is a principal railway depot on the line serv-
ing Churchill. A huge nickel mine and smelting operation, located on the southern
outskirts of the city, is a major industry.

Thompson Thompson
Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
10% 15%

NW NE NW NE
10%
5%
5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 11.3 S % Calm 12.9

Thompson is located in north central Manitoba in the middle of the gently slop-
ing Canadian Shield. There is an abundance of lakes, rivers and trees in the immediate
vicinity ready to supply moisture to the local atmosphere. With few topographical
features of any significance in the area, winds are a reflection of the synoptic scale
weather systems that affect the area.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 212

212 CHAPTER FIVE

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Thompson
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Thompson
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

In the summer, there is an equal likelihood of having high pressure to the west gen-
erating a west or northwest flow as there is of having an east to northeasterly flow
associated with low pressure to the south. During winter, the more common occur-
rence of a stronger high over the central Prairies produces a west to northwesterly
maximum in the wind climatology.

In summer, during the late afternoon and evening, low ceilings or visibility occur at
Thompson only about one day in 20. After 0400 UTC, the chances of poor flying
conditions increases to one day in 5, or 20 percent, by 1200 UTC. In the winter, low
ceilings or poor visibility conditions occur 10 percent of the time during most of
sthe day and night. Just after sunrise, conditions get worse until about 1500 UTC,
reaching a peak of close to 19 percent. It is interesting to note that there is a slightly
higher chance of having poor flying conditions in the summer than in winter. Within
the Canadian Shield, the familiar mixture of light winds, clear skies and abundant
low-level moisture makes this possible at any time of the year.
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LAKP-Prairies 213

(i) Winnipeg

10,000 FT
7000 FT
5000 FT
3000 FT
2000 FT
1500 FT
1000 FT
600 FT
300 FT
0 SEA LEVEL
WINNIPEG

Winnipeg is situated in the broad, flat valley of the Red River where it courses
northward toward Lake Winnipeg. The airport is located about 4 miles west of the
downtown core of Winnipeg. The surrounding countryside is smooth prairie with
almost no change in elevation for nearly 11 miles in any direction. The only excep-
tion to this is the Assiniboine River Valley that runs into Winnipeg and joins the Red
River in the middle of town.

Winnipeg Intl Winnipeg Intl

Wind Frequency by Direction Wind Frequency by Direction
Summer Winter
N N
15% 15%
NW NE NW NE
10% 10%

5% 5%

W E W E

SW SE SW SE

S % Calm 3.0 S % Calm 2.9

Since the average annual synoptic surface pressure pattern shows an area of high
pressure over the central Prairies, there is a northwesterly maximum in wind fre-
quency in Winnipeg. There is another sharp peak from the south which reflects the
channelling efficacy of the Red River Valley, especially with flows ahead of a migra-
tory low pressure system. When one of these lows passes to the south, the winds tend
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 214

214 CHAPTER FIVE

to blow out of the south longer than might be anticipated, based on the large-scale
flow. Southwest and easterly winds are not nearly as common. Calm winds seldom
occur which is why radiation fog is a very sporadic event.

In winter, the preferred directions from the south and northwest are more
pronounced than in summer. The previously mentioned climatological high over the
Prairies is more dominant, and normal winter storm tracks carry more migratory lows
along the path. This produces strong southerly winds down the Red River valley. Also
in winter, hoarfrost will occur, at times, with ice fog and, when it does, the ice fog is
slow to clear. This is possibly due to the sublimation of the hoarfrost and subsequent
increase in low level moisture after sunrise. With a southerly flow, stratus is frequently
reported at Grand Forks, North Dakota. If this flow persists, the stratus will be
advected across the border into Gretna and eventually into Winnipeg, often much
quicker than expected. Once the fog has arrived, it requires a westerly flow to
clear it out.

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Winnipeg
50 Summer

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)

Frequency of ceilings below 1000 feet and/or visibility below 3 miles

Winnipeg
50

40 Winter
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Day (UTC)
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 215

LAKP-Prairies 215

Good flying weather is commonplace in Winnipeg during the summer. The max-
imum hourly frequency of below VFR conditions is only 7 percent and occurs
between 1100 and 1500 UTC. If fog or stratus does happen to occur during the night,
one can expect it to begin to dissipate by 1600 UTC. In the wintertime, poor flying
weather occurs much more frequently. During most of the day, the hourly chance of
lower conditions ranges from 10 to 15 percent. However, between 1300 and 1900
UTC, the probability jumps sharply, peaking at 24 percent near 15 UTC. Since
Winnipeg is a major airport, the high number of aircraft movements at this time
of day no doubt augments low level moisture content and the typical maximum
expected around sunrise.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:12 PM Page 216

216
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LAKP-Prairies 217

Glossary of Weather Terms

anabatic wind - a local wind which blows up a slope heated by sunshine.
advection - the horizontal transportation of air or atmospheric properties.
air density - the mass density of air expressed as weight per unit volume.
air mass - an extensive body of air with uniform conditions of moisture and tem-
perature in the horizontal.
albedo – the ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to
the amount incident on it, commonly expressed as a percentage.
anticyclone - an area of high atmospheric pressure which has a closed circulation
that is anticyclonic (clockwise) in the Northern Hemisphere.
blizzard - A blizzard, in general, is a winter storm with winds exceeding 40 km/h,
with visibility reduced by falling or blowing snow to less than one kilometre,
with high windchill values and lasting for at least three hours. All regional defi-
nitions contain the same wind speed and visibility criteria but differ in the
required duration and have a temperature criterion.
cat’s paw – a cat paw-like, ripple signature on water given by strong downdrafts or
outflow winds. A good indication of turbulence and wind shear.
ceiling - either (a) the height above the surface of the base of the lowest layer of
clouds or obscuring phenomena (i.e. smoke) that hides more than half of the
sky; (b) the vertical visibility into an obstruction to vision (i.e. fog).
chinook - a warm dry wind blowing down the slopes of the Rocky Mountains and
over the adjacent plains.
clear air turbulence (CAT) - turbulence in the free atmosphere not related to con-
vective activity. It can occur in cloud and is caused by wind shear.
clear icing - generally, the formation of a layer or mass of ice which is relatively
transparent because of its homogeneous structure and smaller number and size
of air spaces; synonymous with glaze.
climate - the statistical collection of long-term (usually decades) weather condi-
tions at a point; may be expressed in a variety of ways.
cold front - the leading edge of an advancing cold air mass.
convection - atmospheric motions that are predominately vertical, resulting in the
vertical transport and mixing of atmospheric properties.
convergence - a condition that exists when the distribution of winds in a given area
is such that there is a net horizontal inflow of air into the area; the effect is to
create lift.
cumuliform - a term descriptive of all convective clouds exhibiting vertical develop-
ment.
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:13 PM Page 218

218 GLOSSARY

cyclone - an area of low atmospheric pressure which has a circulation that is

cyclonic (counterclockwise) in the Northern Hemisphere.
deepening - a decrease in the central pressure of a pressure system; usually applied
to a low. Indicates a development of the low.
deformation zone - An area in the atmosphere where winds converge along one
axis and diverge along another. Where the winds converge, the air is forced
upward and it is in these areas where deformation zones (or axes of deforma-
tion as they are sometimes referred to) can produce clouds and precipitation.
disturbance - applied loosely: (a) any small-sized low pressure system; (b) an area
where the weather, wind, and air pressure show signs of cyclonic development;
(c) any deviation in flow or pressure that is associated with a disturbed state in
the weather; and (d) any individual circulatory system within the primary circu-
lation of the atmosphere.
divergence - a condition that exists when the distribution of winds in a given area is
such that there is a net horizontal outflow of air from the area.
downdraft - a small scale downward current of air; observed on the lee side of large
objects that restrict the smooth flow of air or in or near precipitation areas
associated with cumuliform clouds.
downburst - an exceptionally strong downdraft beneath a thunderstorm usually
accompanied by a deluge of precipitation.
filling - an increase in the central pressure of a pressure system; applied to a low.
Föhn wind (foehn wind)- A warm dry wind on the lee side of a mountain range,
whose temperature is increased as the wind descends down the slope. It is
created when air flows downhill from a high elevation, raising the temperature
by adiabatic compression.
front - a surface, interface or transition zone of discontinuity between two adjacent
air masses of different densities.
Fujita Scale – a scale used to rate the intensity of a tornado by examining the dam-
age caused by the tornado after it has passed over a man-made structure
(see Table 1).
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LAKP-Prairies 219

Table 1 - The Fujita Scale

F-Scale Intensity Phrase Wind Speed Type of Damage Done
Number (kts)

Weak 35-62 Some damage to chimneys; breaks branches off trees;

FO Tornado pushes over shallow-rooted trees; damages sign boards.

The lower limit is the beginning of hurricane wind speed;

Moderate peels surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed off foundations
F1 63-97
Tornado or overturned; moving autos pushed off the roads; attached
garages may be destroyed.

Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses;

Strong
F2 Tornado
98-136 mobile homes demolished; boxcars pushed over; large trees
snapped or uprooted; light-object missiles generated.

Severe 137-179 Roof and some walls torn off well constructed houses;
F3 Tornado trains overturned; most trees in forest uprooted

Devastating Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak

180-226
F4 Tornado foundations blown off some distance; cars thrown and
large-object missiles generated.

Strong frame houses lifted off foundations and carried

Incredible
F5 227-285 considerable distances to disintegrate; automobile-sized
Tornado
missiles fly through the air in excess of 100 meters; trees
debarked; steel re-inforced concrete structures badly damaged.

funnel cloud - a tornado cloud or vortex cloud extending downward from the par-
ent cloud but not reaching the ground.
gust - a sudden, rapid and brief increase in wind speed. In Canada, gusts are
reported when the highest peak speed is at least 5 knots higher than the
average wind and the highest peak speed is at least 15 knots.
gust front - the leading edge of the downdraft outflow ahead of a thunderstorm.
high - an area of high barometric pressure; a high pressure system.
hurricane – An intense tropical weather system with a well defined circulation and
maximum sustained winds of 64 knots or higher. In the western Pacific, hurri-
canes are called “typhoons,” and similar storms in the Indian Ocean are called
“cyclones” (see Table 2 for hurricane intensitites).

Table 2 - Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale

Category Sustained Winds Damage
# (kts)

1 64-82 Minimal

2 83-95 Moderate

3 96-113 Extensive

4 114-135 Extreme

5 >155 Catastrophic
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220 GLOSSARY

icing - in general, any deposit of ice forming on an object.

instability - a state of the atmosphere where the vertical distribution of temperature
is such that a parcel displaced from its initial position will continue to ascend.
inversion - an increase of temperature with height - a reversal of the normal
decrease of temperature with height.
isothermal layer - equal or constant temperature with height.
jet stream - a quasi-horizontal stream of wind concentrated within a narrow band;
generally located just below the tropopause.
katabatic wind - downslope gravitational flow of colder, denser air beneath the
warmer, lighter air. Also known as “drainage wind” or “mountain breeze”.
Strength can vary from gentle to extremely violent winds.
knot - a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour.
lapse rate - the rate of change of an atmospheric variable (usually temperature) with
height.
lee wave - any stationary wave disturbance caused by a barrier in a fluid flow; also
called mountain wave or standing wave.
lightning - any and all forms of visible electrical discharge produced by a thunder-
storm.
low - an area of low barometric pressure; a low pressure system.
meridional flow – airflow in the direction of the geographic meridians, i.e. south-
north or north-south flow.
meteorology - the science of the atmosphere.
mixed icing - the formation of a white or milky and opaque layer of ice that
demonstrates an appearance that is a composite of rime and clear icing.
occluded front - a front that is no longer in contact with the surface.
orographic - of, pertaining to, or caused by forced uplift of air over high ground.
outflow - generally, a condition where air is flowing from the interior land area
through mountain passes, valleys and inlets onto the coastal areas; used most
commonly in winter when cold Arctic air spreads onto the coastal area and
adjoining sea.
overrunning - a condition when warm air overtakes or is lifted by colder denser air.
parcel - a small volume of air, small enough to contain uniform distribution of
meteorological properties, and large enough to remain relatively self-contained
and respond to all meteorological processes.
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LAKP-Prairies 221

plow wind - usually associated with the spreading out of a downburst from a thun-
derstorm; a strong, straight-line wind in advance of a thunderstorm that often
results in severe damage.
precipitation - any and all forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall
from the atmosphere and reach the surface.
quasi-stationary front - a front that is stationary or nearly so; commonly called sta-
tionary front.
ridge - an elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure; also called ridge
line.
rime icing - the formation of a white or milky and opaque granular deposit of ice
formed by the rapid freezing of supercooled water droplets.
saturation - the condition in the atmosphere where actual water vapour present is
the maximum possible at the existing temperature.
shower - precipitation from cumuliform cloud; characterized by suddenness of
beginning and ending, by rapid changes in intensity, and usually by rapid
change in the appearance of the sky.
squall - essentially gusts of longer duration. In Canada, a squall is reported when
the wind increases by at least 15 knots over the average speed for a duration of
at least 2 minutes and the wind reaches a speed of at least 20 knots.
squall line - a non-frontal line or narrow band of active thunderstorms.
stability - a state of the atmosphere where the vertical distribution of temperature
is such that a parcel will resist displacement from its initial position.
stratiform - term descriptive of clouds of extensive horizontal development; flat,
lacking definition.
stratosphere - the atmospheric layer above the tropopause; characterized by slight
increase in temperature from base to top, very stable, low moisture content and
absence of cloud.
subsidence - the downward motion of air over a large area resulting in dynamic
heating.
supercooled water - liquid water at temperatures below freezing.
thunderstorm - a local storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud, and
always accompanied by lightning and thunder.
tornado - a violently rotating column of air, shaped from a cumulonimbus cloud,
and nearly always observed as “funnel-shaped;” other names are cyclone and
twister.
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222 GLOSSARY

tropopause - the transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere;
characterized by an abrupt change in lapse rate.
troposphere - the portion of the earth’s atmosphere from the surface to the
tropopause; characterized by decreasing temperature with height and apprecia-
ble water vapour. Often referred to as the weather layer.
trough - an elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure; also called trough
line.
trowal - a trough of warm air aloft; related to occluded front.
turbulence - any irregular or disturbed flow in the atmosphere.
updraft - a localized upward current of air.
upper front - any frontal zone which is not manifested at the surface.
virga - water or ice particles falling from a cloud, usually in wisps or streaks, and
evaporating completely before reaching the ground.
warm front - the trailing edge of retreating cold air.
weather - the instantaneous conditions or short term changes of atmospheric condi-
tions at a point; as opposed to climate.
wind - air in motion relative to the earth’s surface; normally horizontal motion.
wind direction - the direction from which the wind is blowing.
wind speed - rate of wind movement expressed as distance per unit time.
wind shear - the rate of change of wind direction and/or speed per unit distance;
conventionally expressed as vertical and horizontal wind shear.
zonal wind - a west wind; conventionally used to describe large-scale flow that is
neither cyclonic or anticyclonic; also called zonal flow.
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LAKP-Prairies 223

Table 3: Symbols Used in this Manual

Fog Symbol (3 horizontal lines)

This standard symbol for fog indicates areas where fog is frequently observed.

Cloud areas and cloud edges

Scalloped lines show areas where low cloud (preventing VFR flying) is known to
occur frequently. In many cases, this hazard may not be detected at any
nearby airports.

Icing symbol (2 vertical lines through a half circle)

This standard symbol for icing indicate areas where significant icing is relatively
common.

Choppy water symbol (symbol with two wavelike points)

For float plane operation, this symbol is used to denote areas where winds and
significant waves can make landings and takeoffs dangerous or impossible.

Turbulence symbol
This standard symbol for turbulence is also used to indicate areas known for
significant windshear, as well as potentially hazardous downdrafts.

Strong wind symbol (straight arrow)

This arrow is used to show areas prone to very strong winds and also indicates the
typical direction of these winds. Where these winds encounter changing topography
(hills, valley bends, coastlines, islands) turbulence, although not always indicated,
can be expected.

Funnelling / Channelling symbol (narrowing arrow)

This symbol is similar to the strong wind symbol except that the winds are constricted
or channeled by topography. In this case, winds in the narrow portion could be very
strong while surrounding locations receive much lighter winds.

Snow symbol (asterisk)

This standard symbol for snow shows areas prone to very heavy snowfall.

Thunderstorm symbol (half circle with anvil top)

This standard symbol for cumulonimbus (CB) cloud is used to denote areas
prone to thunderstorm activity.

Mill symbol (smokestack)

This symbol shows areas where major industrial activity can impact on aviation
weather. The industrial activity usually results in more frequent low cloud and fog.

Mountain pass symbol (side-by-side arcs)

This symbol is used on aviation charts to indicate mountain passes, the highest point
along a route. Although not a weather phenomenon, many passes are shown as they
are often prone to hazardous aviation weather.
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224 APPENDIX

Appendix

• High Level L. ATHABASCA

Fort Chipewyan •

• Peace River
Fort McMurray •
• Grande Prairie
• Slave Lake
ALBERTA
• Grande Cache
• Whitecourt
Cold Lake
• Edson •

•Jasper • Edmonton

Red Deer •
Coronation •
Banff
•
• Calgary
Empress
•

Medicine Hat •
•
Lethbridge
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LAKP-Prairies 225

• Stony Rapids

Collins Bay •
REINDEER L.
• Key Lake

• Buffalo Narrows

• La Ronge
SASKATCHEWAN
• Meadow Lake

• Lloydminster
Prince Albert • • Nipawin
•
North Battleford
• Saskatoon
• Kindersley

Yorkton •
Swift Current
• • Regina
•
Broadview
• • Assiniboia
Shaunavon
Estevan
•
PRAIRIE-E05 11/12/05 9:13 PM Page 226

226 APPENDIX

Churchill •
• Tadoule Lake
• Brochet

•
• Lynn Lake York Factory
• Gillam

• Thompson

MANITOBA
• Flin Flon

Island Lake
• The Pas • Norway •
House
• Grand Rapids

•
• Swan River Berens River
L. WINNIPEG

• Dauphin
• Gimli

• Brandon • Winnipeg

• Morden
 PRAIRIE-E05

Map Index
Numbers indicate pages
89

• High Level
• Stony Rapids
11/12/05

Fort Chipewyan • 138

86 Churchill •
164
9:13 PM

• Peace River
83 • Key Lake
Fort McMurray •
York Factory•
• Grande Prairie 93 136 • Lynn Lake
162
81 161 • Gillam
• Slave Lake
158
ALBERTA • Thompson
Page 227

92
• Whitecourt • La Ronge
79 Cold Lake • 155 MANITOBA
76 96 SASKATCHEWAN • Flin Flon 156
•Jasper • Edmonton • Meadow Lake
78 134 Island Lake
98 • The Pas • Norway •
• Lloydminster 132 House
99 • Prince Albert
Red Deer • • 130 • Grand Rapids
North Battleford
Banff
• • Saskatoon
101 • Calgary • Swan River 153
128
103 114 Yorkton • 151
116 • Dauphin
Medicine Hat Swift Current
• • 122 126 • Regina 150
•
Lethbridge 124 147
120 118
148 • Brandon • Winnipeg
145
Estevan •
LAKP-Prairies
227
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11/08/05