CHAPTER 2 Prepared by: Dr.

Farouk Majeed Muhauwiss

Civil Engineering Department – College of Engineering
Tikrit University

SUBSOIL EXPLORATION

2.1 SOIL EXPLORATION

All office, laboratory and field worksare done in order to explore the subsurface of soil or
rock conditions at any given site to obtain the necessary information required in design and
construction. Subsoil exploration is the first step in the design of a foundation system. Soil
exploration consists essentially of boring, sampling and testing.
Mainly, planning of subsoil exploration involves three phases; reconnaissance phase,
preliminary site investigation phase, and detailed site investigation phase.

2.1.1 RECONNAISSANCE PHASE

This phase consists of:

(a) Collection of all available information, and
(b) Reconnaissance of the site.
So that, it will indicate any settlement limitations and help to estimate foundation loads.

2.1.2 A PRELIMINARY SITE INVESTIGATION PHASE

This phase consists of:

(a) Preliminary design data that satisfy building code requirements, and
(b) Number and depth of boreholes.
So,it involves knowing of the distribution of structural loads which is required in the design
of foundations. Also, a few borings or tests pits are to be opened to establish the stratification
types of soil and location of water table. In addition to, one or more borings should be taken to
rock when the initial boreholes indicate that the upper soil is loose or highly compressible.

2.1.3 A DETAILED SITE INVESTIGATION PHASE

In this phase, additional boreholes, samples will be required for zones of poor soil at smaller
spacing and locations which can influence the design and construction of the foundation.
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

2.2 DRILLING OR BORING

• Definition:It is a procedure of advancing a hole into ground.
• Drilling Methods:
(1) Test Pits
(2) Auger Drilling
(a) Hand-auger drilling.
(b) Power-auger drilling.
(3) Wash Boring
(a) Jetting.
(b) Sludging (reverse drilling).
(4) Rotary Drilling
(a) Rotary drilling with flush.
(b) Rotary-percussion drilling.
(5) Percussion Drilling
Each of these methods has its merits and its drawbacks. However, Table (2.1) gives a
guide for selecting the most appropriate drilling method.

Table (2.1): Drilling method selection.

Wash boring Rotary drilling

Hand Rotary Rotary Percussion
Type of soil auger Jetting Sludging drilling percussion drilling
drilling with drilling
flush
Gravel X X X X 9 ?  9 ? 
Sand 9  9  9  9  9 ?  9 ? 
Silt Unconsolidated
9  9  9  9  9 ?  9 ? 
Clay formations 9  ? 9  9  9 slow  9 slow 
Sand with pebbles
X X X X 9 ?  9 ? 
or boulders
shale Low to medium X X X 9  9 slow  9 
strength
Sandstone formations X X X 9  9  9 
Limestone X X X 9 slow  9  9 slow 
Igneous (granite, Medium to high
strength X X X X 9  9 slow 
basalt)
Metamorphic (slate, formations
X X X X 9  9 V slow 
gneiss)
Rock with fractures or voids X X X 9  9  9 ! 
Above water-table 9 ? X 9  9  9 
Below water-table ? 9   9   9  9  9 

9 =  Suitable drilling method      9 ?  =  Danger of hole collapsing  9 !   =  Flush must be maintained to continue drilling 

? = Possible problems x = Inappropriate method of drilling

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Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

2.2.1 TEST PITS

S
A pit
p is dug eith
her by hand or by a backkhoe. Probabbly in a test pit,
p the enginneer can exaamine
in detail the subsoil strata
s and taake disturbedd or undisturrbed samplees at the desiired locationn (see
Fig. 2.1):

Advanta
ages:
• Innexpensive.
• Prrovide detailled informattion of stratiggraphy.
• Large quantities of disturbbed soils cann be obtainedd for testingg.
• Large blocks of undisturbbed samples can be carveed out from the t pits.
• Fiield tests can
n be conductted at the boottom of the pit.
p

antages:
Disadva
• Depth
D limited
d to about 6m m.
• Deep
D pits uneeconomical such
s as in caase of investtigationthat involves
i bassement
coonstruction.
• Exxcavation beelow grounddwater (high water table)) and into rocck difficult and a costly.
• Tooo many pits may scar site s and requuire backfill soils.
s
• When
W the soill is unstablee and has a tendency
t to collapse, thiis prevents the
t engineer from
enntering the pit
p and accom mpanied by certain
c risks.
• Unsuitable
U in
n granular soils beloowwater levvelor whenn the standdard penetrration
reesistancetest (N-value) iss required.

Walls of test pit indicate foour layers 
(1) Claye
ey silt  (2) Sand
dy silt (3) Clean sand (4) Sandy gravel 

Fig. (2.1): Test pits.

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Foundatioon Engineeriing C
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ubsoil Explorration

2.2.2 AUGER
A DR
RILLING
(a) H
Hand-Augers
Thhe auger off (10-20) cm m in diametter is rotatedd by turningg and pushiing down on the
handlebar. Then with hdrawing annd emptyingg the soil-ladden auger too remove thhe excavatedd soil.
Several new
n auger seections are added
a up to the required depth is reached.
r Theese augers can be
available in different types such as
a (see Fig. 2.2):
2
a. Helical
H Augerr.
b. Sh hort flight Auger,
A and 
c. Iwwan Auger. 

Advanta
ages:
• Innexpensive.
• Siimple to opeerate and maaintain.
• Not
N dependen nt on terrain.
• Poortable.
• Used
U in uncassed holes, annd
• Groundwater
G location cann easily be iddentified andd measured.

Disadva
antages:
• Sllow compareed with otheer methods.
• Depth
D limited
d to about 6m m.
• Labor intensiv ve.
• Undisturbed
U samples
s can be taken only for soft cllay deposit, and
• Cannot
C be useed in rock, sttiff clays, drry sand, or caaliches soils.

a. Helical (worm tyypes) Augers         b.  Shortt flight Augerr           c.Iwann (posthole) A
Auger 

Fig. (2.2)): Hand-au

ugers.

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Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

(b) P
Power-Auge ers
Trruck or tracttor mountedd type rig and equipped with continuuous flight augers
a that bore
b a
hole 100 to 250 mm in diameter. These augeers can havee a solid or hollow
h stem of (20-75) cm
c in
diameter (see Fig.2.3).

ages:
Advanta
• Used
U in clay or
o sand or silt soils.
• Quick.
Q
• Used
U in uncassed holes, thherefore no need
n for usinng drilling mud.
m
• Undisturbed
U samples
s can be obtainedd quite easilyy, and
• Groundwater
G location cann easily be iddentified andd measured.

Disadva
antages:
• Depth
D limited
d to about 155m.At greateer depth, drilling becomees expansivee, and
• Siite must be accessible
a too motorized vehicle.
v

 
Continuous fliight augers.                                b. Solid‐sstem auger          c.  Hollow
a.  C w‐steam auge
er 

 
2.3): Power or mechan
Fig. (2 nical-augerrs.
 

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ubsoil Explorration

2.2.3 WASH
W BO
ORING
Wateer is pumpedd to bottom of
o borehole and
a soil wasshings are retturned to surrface. A drilll bit
is rotatedd and dropped to producee a choppingg action (see Fig. 2.4).

Fig. (2.4): Wash boring rig.

(a)Jettin
ng Method

Meth hod:Water is pumped downd the cenntre of the drrill-rods, emerging as a jet.
j It then reeturns
up thhe borehole or
o drill-pipe bringing wiith it cuttinggs and debriss. The washiing and cuttiing of
the formation
f is helped by rotation, and by the upp-and-down motion of the drill-strinng. A
foot--powered treeadle pump or
o a small intternal-combustion pumpp is equally suitable.
s

(b) Sludging(Reverse Jetting

g)

Meth hod: A holllow pipe off steel is mooved up andd down in thhe borehole while a onee-way
valvee can be useed to improvvise successfu
fully – providdes a pumpiing action. Water
W flows down
the borehole
b nnulus (ring)) and back up the drilllpipe, bringging debris with it. A small
an
reserrvoir is need
ded at the topp of the boreehole for reccirculation. Simple
S teethh at the bottoom of
the drill-pipe,
d preeferably madde of metal, help cuttingg efficiency.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Advantages:
• The equipment can be made from local, low-cost materials, and it is simple to use.
• Possible above and below the water-table.
• Suitable for clay to silt clay, silt soils and unconsolidated rocks, and
• Used in uncased holes.

Disadvantages:
• Slow drilling through stiff clays and gravels.
• Undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained.
• Water is required for pumping.
• Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.
• Boulders can prevent further drilling, and
• Depth is limited to about 30m.

2.2.4ROTARY DRILLING
(a) Rotary Drilling with Flush

Method:A drill-pipe and bit are rotated to cut the rock. Air, water, or drilling mud is
pumped down the drill-pipe to flush out the debris. The velocity of the flush in the borehole
annulus must be sufficient to lift the cuttings (see Fig. 2.5).

Advantages:
• Quick.
• Can drill any type of soil or rock.
• Possible to drill to depths of over 40 meters.
• Operation is possible above and below the water-table.
• Undisturbed soil samples or rock cores can easily be recovered.
• Water and mud supports unstable formations, and
• Possible to use compressed air flush.

Disadvantages:
• Expensive equipment.
• Terrain must be accessible to motorized vehicle.
• Water is required for pumping.
• Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.
• There can be problems with boulders, and
• Rig requires careful operation and maintenance (additional time required for setup and
cleanup).

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Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

(b) Rota
ary-Percussion Drillin
ng
Meth hod:In very y hard rocks, such as graanite, the onnly way to drill
d a hole iss to pulverizze the
rock,, using a raapid-action pneumatic
p h
hammer, ofteen known asa a 'down-tthe-hole ham mmer'
(DTHH). Compresssed air is neeeded to drivve this tool. The air alsoo flushes the cuttings andd dust
from
m the boreholle. Rotation of 10-30 rpmm ensures thhat the borehhole is straighht, and circuular in
crosss-section (seee Fig. 2.5).

Advanta
ages:
• Drills hard rocks.
D r
• P
Possible to penetrate
p graavel.
• F
Fast, and
• O
Operation iss possible above and beloow the waterr-table.

Disadva
antages:
• Higher tool cost than othher tools illuustrated here.
H
• A compresssor requiredd, and
Air
• R
Requires expperience to operate
o and maintain.
m

 
Fig. (2.5):: Rotary drrilling.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

2.2.5 PRECUSSION DRILLING

Method:The lifting and dropping of a heavy (+50kg) cutting tool will chip and excavate
material from a hole. The tool may be fixed to rigid drill-rods or to a rope or cable. With
a mechanical winch, depths of hundreds of meters can be reached.

Advantages:
• Simple to operate and maintain.
• Suitable for a wide variety of rocks.
• Operation is possible above and below the water-table.
• It is possible to drill to considerable depths, and
• Can be used for boring observation wells.

Disadvantages:
• Slow, compared with other methods.
• Equipment can be heavy.
• Problems can occur with unstable rock formations.
• Water is needed for dry holes to help remove cuttings, and
• Due to high disturbance of soil, the obtained samples can not be used for testing.

2.3UNDERGROUND WATER IN THE TEST HOLE

The depth of the water table (W.T.) as measured during drilling and sampling should be
carefully evaluated. It is always necessary to wait for at least 24 hours to check on the stabilized
water table for the final measurement.The technician should plug the top of the drill holes and
flag them for identification. Care is required to ensure that the water level in the drill hole is
always maintained. Any sudden drop or rise of the water table or a sudden change in the
penetration resistance should be carefully recorded in the field logs of borings.

2.4 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

These methodsrepresent indirect methods of subsoilexploration and mainly consist of:

(1) Ground Penetration Radar (GPR). (2) Electrical Resistivity Method (ERM)
(2) Electromagnetic Method (EM), and (4) Seismic Methods.

In subsoil investigation, the seismic methodsare most frequently used. Thesemethods are
based on the variation of the wave velocity in different earth materials.They involve in generating
a sound wave in the rock or soil, using a sledgehammer,a falling weight, or a small explosive
charge, and then recording its receptionat a series of geophones located at various distances from
the shot point, as shownin Fig.(2.6). The time of the refracted sound arrival at each geophone is
noted froma continuous reader. Typical seismic velocities of earth materials in (m/sec) are
shownin Table (2.1).

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Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

(b) Ground pen

netration rada
ar. ( Electrical resistivity method.
(a) m

(c) Seismic
c survey metthod.
 
Fiig. (2.6): Ge
eophysical methods.

23
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Table (2.1): Typical seismic velocities ofdifferent earth materials

(after Peck, Hanson, and Thornburn,1974).

Seismic Velocity
Type of soil
(m/sec)
Dry silt, silt, loose gravel. loose rocks, talus, and moist fine-grained soil 150 –180
Compacted till, indurated clays, gravel below water table, compacted
750 – 2250
clayey gravel, cemented sand, and sandy clay
Rock, weathered, fractured, or partly decomposed 600 – 3000
Sandstone, sound 1500 – 4200
Limestone, chalk, sound 1800 – 6000
Igneous rock, sound 360 – 6000
Metamorphic rock, sound 300 – 4800

Requirements of seismic exploration:

• Equipment to produce an elastic wave, such as a sledgehammer used tostrike a plate on the
surface.
• A series of detectors, or geophones, spaced at intervals along a line fromwave origin point,
and
• A time-recording mechanism to record the time of origin of the wave andthe time of
itsarrival at each detector.

Advantages of seismic exploration:

1. Permits a rapid coverage of largeareas at a relatively small cost.
2. Not hampered by boulders andcobbles which obstruct borings, and
3. Used in regions notaccessible to boring equipment, such as the middle of a rapid river.

Disadvantages of seismic exploration:

1. Lack of unique interpretation.
2. It is particularly serious when the strata are not uniform in thickness nor horizontal,
3. Irregular contacts often are not identified, and
4. The strata of similar geophysical properties sometimes have greatly different properties.

Note:Whenever possible, seismic data should be verified by one or two borings

beforedefinite conclusions can be reached.

2.5 SAMPLING
During the boring, three types of representative soil samples should be collected which are
valuable to geotechnical engineers; these are as follows:

(a) The disturbed samples (D): which were collected from auger cuttings at specified
depths?
(b) The undisturbed samples (U): which were obtained using a thin Shelby tubes of
100mm in diameter and (400-450)mm in length, and

24
Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

(c) The (SS) samples: which

w were taken from
m standard spplit spoon sampler usedd in a
standard pen netration tesst (S.P.T.) thhat performeed at differennt intervals depending
d onn soil
stratification
n.

All these sam

A mples then sealed
s tightlyy in plastic bagsto
b retainn its in situ moisture
m conntent,
l
labeled and transported to the soil mechanics
m labboratory, to perform the required tessts.

Fig.(2.7)shows some detaails of standdard split-sppoon and thhin-wall tubbe samplerss that
commonlly used in in n-situ testingg and samplee recovery eqquipment.A modificationn in the desiign of
the split spoon
s sampller allows thhe insertion of
o brass thinn-wall liners into the barrel. Four secctions
of brass liners
l (each 4 inch long)) can be usedd. Such a device allows the sampling and penetrration
test at thhe same tim
me. This metthod was innitiated in Californiaand
C d known as the “Califoornia”
sampler.

Sam mples of rocck are generrally obtaineed by rotaryy core drillinng. Diamondd core drilliing is
primarilyy used in medium-hard
m to hard roccks. Speciall diamond core
c barrels up to 8 innch in
diameter are occasio onally used and larger ones can beb used. Succh large sam mples enablle the
geologistt to study thee formation and
a texture of
o the foundation rock inn detail.

A suummary of different
d sam
mpler types which
w can bee used to obttain disturbeed or undistuurbed
samples of
o each type of soil are listed
l in Table (2.2).

Fig.(2.7): Details of comm

monly used samplers fo
or in-situ te
esting(after Moore,
M 1980)).

25
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Table (2.2):Types of samplers used for taking soil and rock samples from test holes.

Type of sampler Procedure Type of soil and Remarks

• All types of soils,
Auger boring, wash boring,
1. Highly disturbed sampler • Due to high disturbanceit is unsuitable
and precussion drilling.
forfoundation exploration.
• Cohesive, cohesionless soils and soft rocks,
• For taking disturbed samples which are
requiredfor physical and geotechnical
Standard Penetration
2. Split spoon sampler analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.
Test.
• In cohesionless soils, the penetration
number (N) is used for making both strength
and settlement estimates.
16gauge seamless steel
• For taking undisturbed samples from
tube (7.5-15)cmdia.;
cohesive soil,
3. Thin wall Shelby tube preferably pushed by static
• Unsuitable for granular soils and hard
force instead of drivenby
materials.
hammer.
4. Core barrel sampler:
(a) Single
• For taking undisturbedcontinuous rock
tube, Rotary drilling
samples.
and
(b)Double tube core barrel.
• For taking undisturbed samples in soft and
5. Piston samplers Rotary drilling
slightly stiff cohesive soils.
6. Hard carved samples: Cut by hand from side of • For taking disturbed samples in cohesive or
(a) Spring core catcher, and
test pit. cohesionless soils.
(b)Scraper bucket.
• For taking disturbed samples in
Cut by hand from side of
7. Hand-cut samples cohesionless soil or disturbed and
test pit.
undisturbed block samples in cohesive soil.

2.6 SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Certain amounts of disturbance during sampling must be regarded as inevitable:-

1. Effect of stress relief:

Due to boring, the stress state in soil will be changed as a result of a stress relief.

2. Effect of area ratio (Ar %):

It is the ratio of the volume of soil displacement to the volume of the collected sample.
D o 2 − Di 2
Ar = x100 ………………………….……………………………(2.1)
Di 2
For stiff clay < 20%, for soft clay ≤ 10% and samples with A r > 20% considered as disturbed
samples.

3. Effect of friction and adhesion:

If the length of sampler is large with respect to diameter, a bearing capacity failure may occur
due to disturbance of sample.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Do − Di
Ci = x100 ………………………………………..…………………(2.2)
Di
where, Ci = inside clearance = (0.3-0.4)% and not more than 1%.

4. Effect of the way in which the force is applied to the spoon:that meansby pushing
or driving or by constant rate of penetration.

2.7 TESTING
The tests performed on each type of the three different soil samples are as follows:
As a rule, undisturbed samples (U) can betested for strength and compressibility to determine the
stress strain characteristics of the material, in addition to classification and chemical tests.
Whereas, disturbed (D) or (SS) samples as available were mainly used for physical and
geotechnical analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.

2.7.1 LABORATORY TESTS:

The obtained samples should be tested according to the procedure of the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or the British Standards (BS) whichever is appropriate. The
test program of the samples includes the followings:

1. Classification Tests:
Sieve and hydrometer analysis,natural water content, Atterberge limits,specific gravity,
andwet and dry unit weights.

2. Compaction Test:
Modified Procter compaction test must be carried out on some soil samples to obtain the
max .
maximum dry density ( γ d ) and the relevant optimum moisture content (OMC).

3. Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests:

Unconfined or Triaxial compressive strength test and one-dimensional consolidation test.

4. Chemical Tests:
Sulphate Content (SO3-2)%,Total Soluble Salts(T.S.S.), Organic Matter Content
(ORG.)%,PH- value, Carbonate Content (CO3-2), and Chlorides Content (Cl-1)%.

2.7.2 FIELD TESTS

During the subsoil exploration, several field tests as given in Table (2.3),can be performed
depending on the available testing equipments, required parameters for design of foundations,
and the economic point of view.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Table (2.3): Types of field tests.

Purpose of test Type of test

1.SPT N-value
• Standard or Dynamic Penetration Test (SPT).
(for granular soil)
• Static Penetration Test (CPT)
• Vane shear test (for soft to medium fine grained soil,clay and silt clay;
up to Cu =1.0 kg/cm2),
• Tor vane shear test (for soft soil; up to Cu =5.0 kg/cm2),
2.Undrained shear strength • Pocket penetrometer,
(for cohesive soil) • Pressuremeter test; it is of three types:
a- Menard (to obtain; R D ,.φ,.Su ,.Es ,.G′,.m v ,.Cc ),
b- Self boring (to obtain; R D ,.φ,.Su ,.u,.Es ,.G′,.m v ,.Cc ,.Cv ),
c- Screw boring (to obtain; E s ...and...G ′ ).
• Pavements: plate bearing ;CBR test,
• Footings: plate bearing test,
3.Bearing capacity
• Piles subjected to vertical loads: load test,
• Batter piles: lateral load test.
• Seismic Tests:
a- Cross-hole,
4.Elastic and shear modulus b- Down-hole, and
c- Surface refraction (to measure R D , Es , G′ , liquefactionresistance
and thickness of soil layers).
• Pumping Test:
a- Constant head test,
5. Permeability
b- Variable head test,
c- Piezometers test (or ground water observation).
• Field or In-place Density:
6. Compaction control For Sand: a- Sand cone method, b- Rubber balloon method,
For Clay: a- Penetration needle, b- Core cutter method.

2.8 LOGS OF BORINGS AND RECORDS OF TESTS RESULTS

At the beginning, a map giving specific locations of all borings should be available. Each
boring should be identified (by number)and its location documented by measurement to
permanent features. Such a map is shown in Fig.(2.8). For each boring, all pertinent data should
be recorded in the field on a boring log sheet. These sheets are preprinted forms containing
blanks for filling in appropriate data. Fig.(2.9) shows an example of a boring log sheet.
Soil data obtained from a series of test borings can best be presented by preparing a
geologic profile, which shows the arrangement of various layers of soil, the groundwater table,
existing and proposed structures, and soil properties data. An example of a geologic profile is
shown in Fig.(2.10).
Depending on the results of the laboratory tests and the field observations, the actual subsoil
profiles or logs of borings can more accurately be sketched (see Fig.(2.11)). In addition to, the
actual description of soil strata in each borehole is summarized within records of tests results.

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 Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

90m

B-1 7.5m B-2

15m 30m 30m 15m

45m

15m B-3

B-4 7.5m B-5

Figure (2.8): Example map showing boring locations on site plan.

DRILLING COMPANY, INC. BORE HOLE NO.: -------------

PROJECT: LOCATION: --------------------

Name ----------------------------------------------------Date Time Depth Casing at

Address ------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CASING (SIZE AND TYPE) ---------------------------------
SAMPLE SPOON (SIZE AND TYPE) ---------------------
HAMMER (CSG): WT. ------------, DROP ------------------
(SPOON): WT. ------------, DROP ------------------
DATE: STARTED --------------------------------------------, COMPLETED ----------------------, DRILLER ----------------------

Field Depth of
'N'- Value
Samples Sampling (m) Visual Description of Soil
No. Type From To 6′′ 6′′ 6′′
1 D 0.0 2.0 Black and grey moist fill,
2 U 2.0 4.0 Black peat.
3 S.S 4.5 5.0 11 14 6 Sandy clay and silt mixture.
4 D 5.0 7.0 Sandy silt and clay mixture.
5 U 7.0 9.0 Silt with fine gravel and traces of fine sand.
6 S.S 9.5 10.0 4 8 3 Sandy clay and silt mixture.

Fig.(2.9): boring log sheet.

29
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Fig.(2.10):Example of geologic profile.

Natural ground surface

(N.G.S.) BH.no.1 BH.no.2 BH.no.3
0

2 Sandy clay
and Sandy clay
silt mixture and
silt mixture
4
Depth (m)

Sandy clay
and
6 E.O.B.
silt mixture
Sandy silt
and
8 clay mixture

10 Sandy clay
and
silt mixture
12
E.O.B. E.O.B.

Fig.(2.11): Log of borings for 1st. stage of garden city housing project
Tanahi District / Duhok city.

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Foundatioon Engineeriing Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

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Foundatioon Engineeriing Chapter 2: Su
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 Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

2.9 NUMBER OF BOREHOLES

It is a good practice in the beginning to take a few numbers of borings so that a soil profile
can be drawn with reasonable accuracy and then the preliminary program can be adjusted to suit
subsoil conditions.
Obviously, the more boreholes and the closer they are spaced, the more accurate the
resulting geologic profile. Boreholesnumber and layout may need to be changed as more
information emerges, so that, an additional boreholes may be required during the survey.
For rough guidelines, if soil conditions are relatively uniform or the geological data are
limited, Tables (2.4) and (2.5) can be used as a guide in planning of the preliminary program:

Table (2.4): Number and spacing of boreholes according to the type of project
(afterHvorslev 1949, and Road Research Laboratory 1954).

Distance between borings (m)

Minimum number
Project Horizontal stratification of soil of boreholes
uniform average erratic
Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
1 or 2 story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge, pier, abutment, Tv.Tower ---- 30 7.5 1-2
Highways 300 150 30 ----
Borrow pits 150-300 60-150 15-30 ----
Isolated small structures:such as small
1
houses.
4
Compact projects: such as buildings,
deeper and
dams, bridges or small landslips
closelyspaced
Extended projects:such as motorways,
shallower
railways, reservoirs and land reclamation
and widely spaced
schemes.

Table (2.5): Number of boringsfor medium to heavy weight buildings, tanks, and other
similar structures on shallow foundations(after Sowers, 1979).

Structure Footprint Area for Each

Subsurface Conditions
Exploratory Boring (m2)
Poor quality and / or erratic 100 – 300
Average 200 – 400
High quality and uniform 300 – 1000

2.10 DEPTH OF BORINGS

Hvorslev (1949) suggested a number of general rules which remain applicable:
• The soft strata should be penetrated even when they are covered with a surface layer of
high bearing capacity;
• In case of very heavy loads or when seepage or other considerations are governing, the
borings may be stopped when rock is encountered or after a short penetration into strata of

33
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

exceptional bearing capacity and stiffness, provided it is known from explorations in the
vicinity of the area that these strata have adequate thickness or are underlain by still
stronger formations. But, if these conditions are not satisfied, some of the borings must be
extended until it has been established that the strong strata have adequate thickness
irrespective of the character of the underlying material;
• When the structure is to be founded on rock, it must be verified that bedrock and not
boulders have been encountered, and it is advisable to extend one or more borings from 3
to 6m into solid rock in order to determine the extent and character of the weathered zone
of the rock;

For rough guidelines,the following criteriacan be used for minimum depths,from

considerations of stress distribution or seepage,:
1. Foundations:
• All borings should extend below all deposits such as top soils, organic silts, peat,
artificial fills, very soft and compressible clay layers;
• Boring should be sufficiently deep for checking the possibility of a weaker soil at greater
depth which may settle under the applied load;
• Deeper than any strong layer at the surface checking for a weaker layer of soil under it
which may cause a failure (see Fig.(2.12a));
• The depth at which the net increase in stress due to the foundation or building load is less
than 5% of the effective overburden pressure;
• The depth at which the net vertical total stress increase due to the foundation or building
load is less than 10% of the stress applied at foundation level (contact pressure);
• For isolated spread footings or raft foundations, explore to a depth equal 1.5B (B = least
width of the footing or the raft)(see Fig.(2.12b));
• For group of interfering footings, explore to a depth equal 1.5B (where, B = width of
interferingfootings)(see Fig.(2.13));
• For heavy structures (pressure > 200 kPa), the depth of borings should be extended to 2B
(width of footing);
L
• For strip footings, explore to not less than 3B (width of footing) for B > 6m and ≥ 10 .
B
• For multistory buildings, explore to:
(i) D = D f + 3.S0.7 (in meter)……….for light steel or narrow concrete buildings,
(ii) D = D f + 6.S0.7 (in meter) .…….. for heavy steel or wide concrete buildings.
where: D = Depth of boring, Df =Depth of footing, and S = Number of stories.
• If piled foundation is expected, the borehole depth D = ( L+ 1.5B)or D= (L + 3m)
into the bearing stratum (see Fig.(2.14a));

2. Reservoirs: Explore soil to:

(i) The depth of the base of the impermeable stratum, or
(ii)Not less than 2x maximum hydraulic head expected.

34
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

3. Dams: Because of thecritical factor is the safety against seepage and foundation failure,
boreholes should penetrate not only soft or unstable materials, but also permeable materials to
such a depth that seepage patterns can be predicted. Thus, Hvorslev (1949) recommends:-
• For earth structures, a depth equal to 1.5 times the base width of the dam, and
• For concrete structures, a depth between 1.5 and 2.0 times the height of the dam.

4. Roads, highways, and air fields:the minimum depth is 5m below the finished road level,
provided that vertical alignment is fixed but should extend below artificial fill or
compressible layers. In practice some realignment often occurs in cuttings, and side drains
may be dug up to 6m deep or to bore to at least 1.5 times the embankment height in fill areas,
and to at least 5m below finished road level in cut.

5. Retaining walls, slopes stability problems: Explore to:

• 1.5B (wall base width) or 1.5H (wall height) whichever is greater below the bottom of
the wall or its supporting piles (see Fig.(2.14b)), In addition to;
• It must be below an artificial fills or compressible layers, and deeper than possible surface
of sliding;

6. Canals,deep cut and fill sections on side hills:Explore to at least to:

(i)3m below the finished level in cut, or
(ii)B when B ≤ H , or
(iii) H when B > H (see Figs.(2.15a and 2.15b)).

8. Embankments:  The  depth  of  exploration  should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  height  of  the 
embankment  and  should  ideally  penetrate  all  soft  soils  if  stability  is  to  be  investigated.  If 
settlements are critical then soil may be significantly stressed to depths below the bottom of the 
embankment equal to the embankment width (see Fig.(2.15c)). 

35
 Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

G.S.

Borehole

Strong layer

Weak layer

(a) Existence of rock layer

B S B

L≥B
Column

Footing
Plan
P1 P2 P

G.S. when S ≥ 4B G.S.

Df
Borehole depth Borehole depth
> (Df + 1.5B) > (Df + 1.5B)
D = 1.5B B

Section

(b) Isolated spread footing (c) Raft or mat foundation.

Fig.(2.12):Depth of borings for spread and raft foundations.

36
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

W
B S B S B

L=W B

S
*

P1 P2 P3

G.S.

S S Df
Borehole depth
> (D f + 1.5B′) B B B

B′

(a) Single row of adjacent spread footings when S < 4B

P1 P2 P3

G.S.

S S Df
Borehole depth
B B B
> ( D f + D)
D = 1.5Bwhen S ≥ 4 B
= 3.0B when S > 2 B
= 4.5B when S ≤ 2 B

(b) Multiple rows of adjacent spread footings.

Fig.(2.13):Depth of borings for adjacent spread footings.

37
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

G.S.
B
Df Pile cap

2 Borehole depth
L
3 2
L > (D f + L + 1.5B)
3

Individual pressure bulbs

combined pressure bulb

Rock or hard layer

(a) Piles

G.S.

Backfill Soil
H

G.S.
B

Base Soil

Depth of B.H.= 1.5Bor 1.5H

whichever is greater

(b) Retaining walls

Fig.(2.14): Depth of borings for piles, and retaining walls.

38
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Fill
H

Cut
B

Depth of borehole= 3m mimm.or

= B when B ≤ H or
= H when B> H

(a) Deep cut and fills sections on side

Fill

Side hill
Fill

Cut

Depth of borehole= 3m mimm.

(b) Normal section of a canal.

Depth of borehole = H minm.

(c) High embankment

Fig.(2.15): Depth of borings for cuts and fills, canals, and embankments.

39
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

2.11 FIELD LOAD TEST

It is a method to investigate the stress-strain (or load-settlement) relationship of soils. Then,
the results are used in estimating the bearing capacity. In this test, the load is applied on a model
footing and the amount of load necessary to induce a given amount of settlement is measured.
Round plates from (150-750)mm in diameter by 150mm increment (i.e., 150, 300, 450, 600,
750)mm are available as well as square plates of (1.0 ft2) area. The minimum thickness of plate (1
inch or 25.4mm).

1.0 ft2 25.4 mm

Round plate square plate

Procedure of load test as given by ASTM D110-72:

(1) Excavate a pit to width at least 6 times as wide as the used plate, and to the depth that the
foundation is to be placed.
P

G.S.

Df B

2.5 B 2.5 B

If it is specified that three sizes of plates are to be used for the test, the pit should be large
enough so that, there is an available spacing between tests of 3 times the diameter (D) of the
largest plate. This is useful for studying the size effect of footings.
G.S.
300mm D = 750mm 450mm

Df

2.5 B 3D 3D 2.5 B

(2) A square loading plate 2.5cm thick and (30 x 30)cm is placed on the surface of the soil at
the bottom of the pit. There should not be any surcharge load placed on the soil within a
distance of (60cm) from around the plate.
(3) A vertical load is placed on the plate in increments and settlements are recorded as an
average from at least three dial gauges accurate to (0.025mm) that attracted to an
independent suspension system. Load increment should be approximately 1/10 of the
estimated allowable soil pressure. For each load increment, settlement readings should be
taken at regular intervals of not less than (1 hr.) until there is no further settlement. The
same time duration should be used for all the loading increments.

40
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

(4) The test is continued until a settlement of 25mm is observed or until the load increments
reached 1.5 times the estimated allowable soil pressure.
(5) If the load is released, the elastic rebound of the soil should be recorded for a periods of
time equal to the same time durations of each applied load increment.
(6) The result of each test can be represented graphically as follows:-
(a) Settlement versus log time curve (for each load increment),
(b) Load-settlement curve (for all increments) from which q ult . is obtained.

Pressure (kN/m2) Log Time (min.)

q ult . q ult .

q ult .
Settlement

Settlement
(mm)

(mm)
b
settl.

c
a

(a) Load - settlement curve (b) Log time-Settlement curve

Fig.(2.16): Typical load test results.

• For cohesive soil(bearing capacity is independent of footing size):

⎧ qf = qp
⎪
⎨s = s B f ................................................................................(2.3)
⎪ f p
Bp
⎩

• For cohesionless soil(bearing capacity increases with size of footing):

⎧ Bf
⎪ qf = qp B
⎪ p
⎨ ⎛ ⎞
2 .................................................................(2.4)
⎪s = s ⎜ 2B f ⎟
⎪ f p⎜ ⎟
⎩ ⎝ Bp + Bf ⎠

• Settlement for both cohesive and cohesionless soils:

sf / Bf Bf n
=( ) .....................................................................(2.5)
sp / Bp Bp

41
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

where, s f and s p are settlements of footing and plate, B f and B p are their respective widths;
Bf
provided that B p = 1.0 ft for ≥ 5 as well as the footing and plate carries the same
Bp
intensity of load, and (n) is an exponent depends on soil type; with some of its values are:

Type of soil n
Clay 0.03-0.50
Sandy clay 0.08-0.10
Dense sand 0.40-0.50
Medium sand 0.25-0.35
Loose sand 0.20-0.25

• For c − φ soils (bearing capacity from two-plate load tests; after Housel, 1929):

V = A.q + P.s .................................................................................(2.6)

where,
V = total load on a bearing area,
A = contact area of footing or plate,
q = bearing pressure beneath A,
P = perimeter of footing or plate, and
s = perimeter shear.
This method needs data from two-plate load tests so that Eq.(2.6) can be solved for q and s
(for given settlement). After the values of q and s are known, then, the size of a footing required
to carry a given load can be calculated.

2.12 FIELD PENETRATION TESTS

2.12.1 DynamicorStandard Penetration Test (SPT)
This test is preferred for very hard deposits, particularly of cohesionless soils for which
undisturbed samples cannot easily be obtained. It utilizes a split-spoon sampler shown previously
in Fig.(2.7a) that driven into the soil.
The test consists of driving the standard split-barrel sampler of dimensions (680mm length,
30mm inside diameter and 50mm outside diameter) a distance of 460mm (18'') into the soil at the
bottom of the boring. This was done by using a 63.5kg (140Ib) driving mass (or hammer) falling
"free" from a height of 760mm (30"). Then, counting the number of blows required for driving
the sampler the last 305mm (12") to obtain the (N) number (neglecting the no. of blows for the
upper first 150mm).

Note: The SPT- value is rejected or halted in any one of the following cases:
(a) if50 blows are required for any 150mm increment, or
(b) if100 blows are obtained, or
(c) if10 successive blow produce no advance.

42
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

The number of blows (N) can be correlated with the relative density ( D r ) of Cohesionless
soil (sand) and with the consistency of cohesive soil (clay) as shown in Tables (2.6, and 2.7).

Table (2.6): Relative density of sands according to results

of standard penetration test.

Relative density
SPT- value emax − einsitu φ°
N/30cm Dr = x100
emax − emin
0-4 0-15 Very loose 28
4-10 15-35 Loose 28-30
10-30 35-65 Medium 30-36
30-50 65-85 Dense 36-41
> 50 85- 100 Very dense > 41

Table (2.7): Relation of consistency of clay, SPT N-value, and

unconfined compressive strength ( q u ).
SPT- value
N/30cm
consistency q u (ksf ) q u (kg / cm 2 )
Below Very soft 0-0.5 0-0.25
2-4 Soft 0.5-1 0.25-0.5
4-8 Medium 1-2 0.5-1
8-15 Stiff 2-4 1-2
15-30 Very stiff 4-8 2-4
> 30 Hard >8 >4

2.12.2Corrections for N-value

(1) W.T. Correction (in case of presence of W.T.):

For N > 15: N corr. = 15 + 0.5( N field − 15) .…….…………………………..…(2.7)

and
For N ≤ 15: N corr. = N field …….……………..…......……..……………..….(2.8)

• If  N‐value is measured above water table, no need for this correction. 
(2) Overburden pressure, C N ; Energy ratio, η1 ; Rod length, η 2 ; Sampler;
η 3 ; and Borehole dia., η 4 Corrections:

N′70 = N field .C N ..η1..η2 ..η3..η4 …………………….……….……………..…….(2.9)

43
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

where,
N′70 = corrected (N) using the subscript for the energy ratio E rb and ( ' ) to indicate it has been
adjusted or corrected,
C N = adjustment for overburden pressure for p ≥ 25.(kPa) and can be calculated from the
following formula:
2000
C N = 0.77 log ………..………………....……………….(2.10)
Po
• If  p < 25.(kPa) , no need for overburden pressure correction. 
where,
p o = overburden pressure in ( kPa ),
ηi : factors obtained from (Table 2.9) as:
η1 = hammer correction = (average energy ratio)/(drill rig energy) = E r / E rb ;
η 2 = rod length correction;
η3 = sampling method correction; and
η 4 = borehole diameter correction.

Table (2.9): Hammer, borehole, sampler, and rod η i correction factors.

Hammer correction η1
Average energy ratio Er
Donut Safety
Country R-P = Rope -Pulley: η1 = E r / E rb
R-P Trip R-P Trip
USA For USA trip/auto w / E r = 80
North America 45 ---- 70-80 80-100 η1 = 80/70 = 1.14
Japan 67 78 ------ -------
UK ---- ---- 50 60
China 50 60 ------ -------
Rod length correction η 2
> 10m η 2 = 1.00
6-10 = 0.95
Length N is too high for L <10 m
4-6 = 0.85
0-4 = 0.75
Sampling method correction η3
Without liner: η3 = 1.00
With liner: Dense sand, Clay = 0.80 N is too high with liner
Loose sand. = 0.90
Borehole diameter correction η 4
60-120 mm η 4 = 1.00
Hole diameter 150 mm = 1.05 N is too small for oversize hole
200 mm = 1.15

44
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Notes:
1. It is evident that all ηi =1.0 for the case of a small borehole, no sampler liner, length of
drill rod >10 m and the given drill rig has E r = 70 . In this case the only adjustment is for
overburden pressure (i.e., N corr. = N field .C N ).
E
2. Large values of E r decrease the blow count (N) linearly (i.e., N 2 = r1 ..N 1 ). This
E r2
equation is used to convert any energy ratio to any other base.
⎛ 30 ⎞
3. If N field = 10...blows / 10cm , then Ncorr. = 10.⎜ ⎟ = 30...blows / 30cm.
⎝ 10 ⎠

2.12.3Staticor ConePenetration Test (CPT)

This is a simple static test used for soft clays and fine to medium coarse sands. The test is
not applicable in gravels and stiff hard clays. It is performed by pushing the standard cone
(according to ASTM D3441 with a 60o point and base diameter = 35.7mm with cross-section area
of 10 cm2) into the ground at a rate of (10 – 20) mm/sec.Several cone configurations can be used
such as:

1. Mechanical or the earliest "Dutch Cone Type",

2. Electric friction with strain gauges,
3. Electric piezo for pore water measurement,
4. Electric piezo/friction to measure q c , q s and u or (pwp), and
5. Seismic cone to compute dynamic shear modulus.

Fig.(2.17b) shows the operations sequence of a mechanical cone as: in position (1) the cone
is seated; position (2) advances the cone tip to measure q c ; position (3) advances the friction
sleeve to measure q s ;and position (4) advances both tip and sleeve to measure q t = q c + q s
.Therefore, at any required depth, the tip and sleeve friction resistances q c and q s are measured
and then used to compute a friction ratio f R as:
q
f R (%) = s x100 ; f R <1% for sands; f R >5 or 6% for clays and peat.
qc
The data collected from the CPT can be correlated to establishtheundrained shear strength
S u of cohesive soils,allowable bearing capacity of piles, to classify soils; and to estimate φ,..D r
for sands. A typical data set is shown in Fig.(2.18b).

45
Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

(a) Dutch cone modified d to measure both (b) Positions of th

he Dutch cone during (c) Typical output.
point resistance
r q c and
a skin frictio
on q f a prressure record.

Fig.(2.17): Mechan
nical (or Duttch) cone, operations
o s
sequence, a
and tip resis
stance data
a.

ocone.
(a)Piezo (b) Cone Penetration record
r for cla
ay soil.

Fig.((2.18): Electtric cone an

nd CPT data
a.

46
Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

2.13 VANE SHEAR TEST

It is a field test usedd to determ
mine the in-ssitu shearingg resistance(undrained shear
strength) of soft to medium
m clay and silt clayy having U.C k / cm2 ), thhen to be useed for
C.S.< 1.0 ( kg
design off foundationss and slopes.

• Apparatus
A s(see Fig.(22.19):
1. Van shear test equipmeent;
2. Drilling rig
g;
3. Casing (as required); and
a
4. Other neceessary tools and
a suppliess such as stopp watch, pippe,… etc..

Fiig.(2.19): Va
ane shear apparatus.

47
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

• Procedure:
1. The equipment is installed in place properly either at the ground surface without a hole
(case 1) or at the bottom of a borehole (case 2)and then the vane is pushed into the
soil layer to the required depth; (see Fig.(2.20)).
o o o
2. A torque is applied at a uniform rate of 0.1 per sec. or (1 -6 per minute).
3. Readings are taken each minute interval until failure happens.
 

T
T
T
G.S. H
t

S H
S
S
H

S
S D S
4t
a= ≤ 11%
π.D Case 1
S D
where,t = thickness of plate, and
S D D = diameter of vane.
Case 2

dr Standard dimensions of vane B.S. 1377

Rate of test (6 -12)deg./ min.
r
Soil strength (kPa) H (mm) D (mm)
< 50 150 75
D 50-75 100 50
> 75 Not suitable

Fig.(2.20): Vane shear standards.

• Calculation:
(i)Case (1):In this case, the vane is not embedded in soil, so that only the bottom end takes
pant in shearing. If the soil is isotropic and homogenous, then:
(a) Total shear resistance at failure developed along cylindrical surface = π.D.H.S
(b) Totalresistance of bottom ends, considering a ring of radius r and thickness dr
D/2
= ∫ ( 2π.r.dr ).S
0

48
Foundatioon Engineeriing C
Chapter 2: Su
ubsoil Explorration

D D/2
w then equual: T = (π.D.H.S)
(c) The torque T at failure will + ∫ (2π.r.dr ).S.r
2 0
π.D 2Su D
or T = ( H + ) ……
………………
……….……
……..………..……(2.11))
2 6

(ii) Case (2): If

I the top endd of the vanee is also embbedded in sooil, so shearing takesplacce on
top and botttom ends:
π.D 2Su D
or T = ( H + ) …… ……………… ………….… ……..………..……(2.12))
2 3
Notes:
• Use
U consisten nt units, suchh as: T in (kgg-cm); S u inn (kg/cm2);aand H and D in (cm).
• It is found th hat the S u values obtaained by vaane shear teest are too large for deesign.
Therefore, Bjerrum's (19 972) proposeed a reductio on factor usinng the follow
wing formulaa:
S u , design = λ..S u , fieldd ……………
……………..………..……
……..……(2
2.13)

where, λ is a correcction factor depends onn plasticity iindex I p andd obtained from
f Fig.(2..21a);
A
Also, Aas et al. (1986) proposed
p anoother charts (see Fig.(2.21b)) takingg into accounnt the
efffects of agin
ng and OCR
R (Overconsoolidation ratiio).

Ip ,% 

λ λ

Ip ,%  Vane strength ratio
o  Su, v /P o

(a) Bjerrrum correction
n factor for van
ne‐shear test. (b) Rein
nterpretation o of the Bjerrum chart of part a by
[(Bjeerrum, 1972) and
a Ladd etal., 1977)]. (Aas et al. (1986) to include effects of aging and OCR
O ).

Fig.(2.21): Vane shear

s ction factorr λ .
correc

49
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem (2.1):A thin-walled tube (OD = 76.2mm, ID = 73mm) was pushed into a soft clay at
the bottom of a borehole a distance of 600mm. When the sampler was recovered a
measurement done inside the tube indicated a recovered sample length of 575mm.
Calculate the recovery and area ratios.

Solution:
575
Recovery ratio: L r = = 0.958
600
(76.2) 2 − (73) 2
Area ratio: Ar = x100 = 8.96%
(73) 2

Problem (2.2):A three storysteel frame office building will be built on a site where the soils are
expected to be of average quality and uniformity. The building will have a (30m x 40m)
footprint and is expected to be supported on spread footing foundations located about (1m)
below the ground surface. The site appears to be in its natural condition, with no evidence
of previous grading. Bedrock is several hundred feet below the ground surface. Determine
the required number and depth of the borings.

Solution:
• Number of borings:
From Table (2.5), one boring will be needed for every 200 to 400 m2 of footprint area.
2
Since the total footprint area is 30 x 40 =1200 m , use (4)four borings.

• Depth of borings:
For subsurface condition of average quality, the minimum depth is:
5.S0.7 + Df = 5(3)0.7 + 1 = 12m.
However, it would be good to drill at least one of the borings to a slightly greater depth to
check lower strata.In summary, the exploration plan will be 4 borings with, 3 borings to 12
m, and 1 boring to 16 m.

Problem (2.3):Given:Available information about:

Structure: Multistory building with 3 stories and basement
No. of columns = 16, Column load = 1000 kN
Raft dimensions: 16m x 16m x 1m, Foundation at 3m below G.S.
Soil profile: γ d = 16 kN/m3 , γ sat = 20 kN/m3 , W.T. at 6m below G.S.

Required: Number, layout, and depth of B.Hs.?

50
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Solution:

• Number and layout of borings:

From Table (2.4b), for poor quality and/or erratic subsurface conditions, one boring is needed
2
for every (100 to 300) m of footprint area. Since the total footprint area is 16x16=256m2>
200m2 (average value), use one or two borings.

• Depth of borings:
(a) d = 1.5(16) = 24m
(b) 10% of contact pressure:
16.(1000) + 24(16)(16)(1)
q contact = − (3)(16) = 38.5..kPa
(16)(16)
38.5(16)(16)
0.1.(38.5) = , .………………..….………..……d = 34.6m
(16 + d)2
(c) 5% of overburden pressure:
38.5(16)(16)
0.05.[16(6) + (d − 3)(20 − 10)] = , …………...d = 15.5m
(16 + d )2
From (b and c) take the smaller d = 15.5m

(d) d = 6.S = 6.(4)0.7 = 15.83m

0.7

From all (24m, 15.5m, and 1٥.٨٣m) take the larger d = 24m
∴ use...D = 24 + 3 = 27m from G.S.

Problem(2.4): A wide strip footing applying net pressure of 35 kPa is to be constructed 1m

below the surface of uniform soil having unit weight of 19 kN/m3. The footing is 5m wide
and the water table is at ground surface. Is 12m depth of boring (measured from ground
surface) sufficient for subsoil exploration program.

Solution:

(a) d = 3(B) = 3(5) = 15m

(35)(5)(1)
(b)10% of contact pressure: 0.1.(35) = ,.......................d = 4.3m
(5 + d)(1 + d)
(35)(5)(1)
(c) 5% of overburden pressure: 0.05(9 + 9d) = ,...........d = 5.2m
(5 + d)(1 + d)
From (b and c) take the smaller d = 4.3m

51
Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

From all(15m, and 4.3m) take the larger d =15m, and so the depth from ground surface
D = 15 + 1 = 16m, ∴ 12m is not sufficient.

Problem (2.5):A standard penetration test SPT has been conducted in a coarse sand to a
depth of 4.8m below the ground surface. The blow counts obtained in the field were as
follows: 0 – 6 in: 4 blows; 6 -12 in: 6 blows; 12 -18 in: 8 blows. The test was conducted
using a USA-style donut hammer in a 150mm diameter boring with a standard sampler and
liner. If the vertical effective stress at the test depth was 70 kN/m2, determine N′60 ?

Solution:

The raw SPT value isN = 6 + 8 = 14

2000
Since p′o = 70...kPa > 25 kPa∴ C N = 0.77. log10 = 1.12
70
From (Table 2.9):
η1 = E r / E rb = 45/60 = 0.75
η 2 =0.85(forL = 4.8m (rod length) < 6m),
η 3 = 0.90 (for loose sand with liner),
η 4 =1.05 (for B.H. diameter = 150mm),

N′60 = N field ..C N ..η1..η2 ..η3 ..η4 = 14(1.12)(0.75)(0.85)(0.90)(1.05) =10blows

Problem (2.6):A standard penetration test was carried out in sand at 5m depth below the
ground surface gave (N = 28) as shown in the figure below. Find the corrected N-value?

Solution: G.S.

• Water table correction: 2m W.T. γ = 18 kN/m3

For N > 15 ..…. N′ = 15 + 0.5.( N field − 15) Fine sand

N ′ = 15 + 0.5(28 -15) = 21 3m γ sat = 20 kN/m3
• Overburden correction:
N field = 28..blows / 30cm
Po′ = 2(18) + 3(20 – 9.81) = 66.57 kPa > 25 kPa
2000 2000
∴ C N = 0.77 log = 0.77 log = 1.14
Po′ 66.57
∴ N′corr. = N′..C N = 21(1.14) = 23 blows

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Problem (2.7):It is proposed to construct a spread wall footing of (3m width) in sand at (1.5m)
below the ground surface to support a load of 12 Ton/m. The SPT results from a soil boring
are as shown below. If the water table is located at 0.9m from G.S. and γsoil(sat.) = 17.6
kN/m3, determine the average corrected N-value required for design?

SPT sample depth

1.5 2.25 3.0 3.75 4.5 5.25 6
(m)
Nfield 31 25 22 20 28 33 31
Solution:
Find Po′ at each depth and correct Nfield values up to at least a depth B below the
foundation according to the magnitude of overburden pressure in comparison of 25 kPa.
2000
Overburden pressure correction: C N = 0.77 log
Po′
For 1.5m depth:
Po′ = 0.9(17.6) + (0.6)(17.6– 9.81)= 20.5 kPa < 25 kPa, therefore, C N =1.00
For 4.5m depth:
Po′ = 0.9(17.6) + (3.6)(17.6– 9.81) = 43.9 kPa > 25 kPa, therefore, C N =1.28

Find the average corrected N-value as a cumulative average down to the depth indicated,
and then, choose the N-value for design as the lowest average N-value.
SPT
sample Po′ CN N ′avg
′ .
Nfield N′ = C N .N field N′′ = 15 + 0.5( N′ − 15)
depth (kN/m ) 2

(m)
1.5 31 20.5 1.00 31 23 23
2.25 25 26.3 1.45 36 25 24
3.0 22 32.2 1.38 30 22 23
3.75 20 38.0 1.32 26 20 22
4.5 28 43.9 1.28 35 25 23

For 1.5m depth: N′avg. = 23

23 + 25
For 2.25m depth: N ′avg. = = 24
2
23 + 25 + 22
For 3.0m depth: N ′avg. = = 23
3
23 + 25 + 22 + 20
For 3.75m depth: N ′avg. = = 22
4
23 + 25 + 22 + 20 + 25
For 4.5m depth: N ′avg. = = 23
5
N-value for design = N′avg. (lowest ) = 22 blows

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

Problem (2.8):The load-settlement data obtained from load test of a square plate of size (1ft)
are as shown below. If a square footing of size (7ft) settles (0.75 inch), what is the
allowable soil pressure of the footing? Consider sandy soil.

Load (Tsf) 2 5 8 10 14 16 19
Settlement (inch) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Solution:
⎧ Bf ⎛ ⎞
⎪ qf = qp B ⎜ ⎟
⎪ p ⎜ 0.75 ⎟ 0.75
For cohesionless soil: ⎨ 2 ,∴ sp = ⎜ ⎟= = 0.25′′
⎛ ⎞ 2
⎪ s = s ⎜ 2B f ⎟ ⎜ ⎛ 2x 7 ⎞ ⎟ 3 . 05
⎪ f p⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜1+ 7 ⎟ ⎟
⎩ ⎝ Bp + Bf ⎠ ⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠

Now by drawing the given data and for s p = 0.25 ′′ , Pressure (Tsf)
q p = 6.5 T/ft ,and
2
q p = 6 .5
s p = 0.25
B 7
q f = q p f = 6.5 = 45.5 T/ft2 .

Settlement
Bp 1

(inch)

Problem (2.9):Use Housel method to determine the size of square footing required to carry a
column load P = 45 tons if the two plate loading tests results are as given below:-
• plate size (1) = 35x35cms, corresponding load= 5.6 tons;relative to 1.0 cm settlement.
• plate size (2)=50x50 cms,corresponding load =10 tons; relative to 1.0 cm settlement.

Solution:

From Housel's method(Eq. 2.6):V A. q + P. s

5.6 0.123 q + 1.4 s
10 0.25 q + 2 s
Solving the two equations, gives: q = 26.9 and s = 1.63.
Again from Eq.(2.6) shown above, the footing area required to carry 45tons load is
calculated as:
45 = B2 q + 4B s
45 = B2(26.9) + 4B (1.63)
26.9 B2 + 6.52 B – 45 = 0
B2 + 0.24 B – 1.67 = 0

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

− 0.24 ± (0.24) 2 + 4(1)(1)(1.67) − 0.24 ± 2.59

B= = = 1.18 m
( 2)(1) 2
Take the footing 1.20 m x 1.20 m.

Problem (2.10):A vane tester with a diameter d = 9.1cms and a height h = 18.2 cms requires a
torque of 110 N-m to shear a clay soil sample, with a plasticity index of 48%. Find the soil
un-drained cohesion S u ?

Solution:
For CASE (2) with top and bottom vane ends embedded in soil, the torque is given by:
π.D2 .Su ,field D
T= (H + )
2 3
T 0.110
or S u , field = = = 40 kN/m2
2 2
π.D D π.(0.091) ⎡ 0.091⎤
(H + ) ⎢0.182 +
2 3 2 ⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
From Fig.(2.27a) for a plasticity index of 48%, Bjerrum'scorrection factor λ = 0.80, and
Therefore, Su ,design = λ..Su ,field = 0.8( 40 ) = 32 kPa

55