MATHEMATICS FORM ONE

INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY
Geometry is branch of mathematics. The word geometry in the Greek language translates the
words for "Earth" and "Measure". original1y developed. as a means of surveying land areas.
The approach to Geometry developed by the Ancient Greeks has been used for over 2000 years
as the basis of geometry.
In its simplest form, it is a study of figures that can be drawn on a perfectly smooth flat surface,
or plane.

The Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to use geometry. The Egyptians used right
triangles to measure and survey land. In our modern times, geometry is used to in fields such as
engineering, architecture, medicine, drafting, astronomy, and geology.

To begin, there are some basic concepts and terminology that you must understand at an intuitive
level. These are such basic ideas that it is difficult (perhaps impossible) to come up with a clear
definition in words.
A point has no dimension. It is usually represented by a small dot. A line extends in one
dimension. It is usually represented by a straight line with two arrowheads to indicate that the
line extends without end in two directions. In this book, lines are always straight lines.

A plane extends in two dimensions. It is usually represented by a shape that looks like a tabletop
or wall. You must imagine that the plane extends without end, even though the drawing of a
plane appears to have edges.

A few basic concepts in geometry must also be commonly understood without

being defined. One such concept is the idea that a point lies on a line or a plane.
Collinear points are points that lie on the same line.
Coplanar points are points that lie on the same plane.
EXAMPLE 1
a. Name three points that are collinear.
b. Name four points that are coplanar.
c. Name three points that are not collinear.
SOLUTION
a. Points D, E, and F lie on the same line, so they are
collinear.
b. Points D, E, F, and G lie on the same plane, so they are coplanar. Also, D, E, F, and H are
coplanar, although the plane containing them is not drawn.
c. There are many correct answers. For instance, points H, E, and G do not lie on the same line.

Another undefined concept in geometry is the idea that a point on a line is between two other
points on the line. You can use this idea to define other important terms in geometry.

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Consider the line AB (symbolized by AB ).

The line segment or segment AB (symbolized by AB

)

consists of the endpoints A and B, and all points on

AB
that are between A and B.

The ray AB (symbolized by AB ) consists of the initial pointA and all points on AB that lie on the
same side of A as point B.

Note that AB is the same as BA , and AB is the

same as BA . However, AB and BA are not the same.
They have different initial points and extend in different directions.

If C is between A and B, then CA and CB are opposite rays.

Like points, segments and rays are collinear if they lie on the same line. So, any
two opposite rays are collinear. Segments, rays, and lines are coplanar if they lie
on the same plane.

Angles and Their Measures

An angle consists of two different rays that
have the same initial point. The rays are the
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sides of the angle. The initial point is the vertex
of the angle.

The angle that has sides AB and AC is denoted

by BAC , CAB , or A . The point A is the
vertex of the angle.
Naming Angles
EXAMPLE 1 Name the angles in the figure.
SOLUTION
There are three different angles.
•  PQS or  SQP
•  SQR or  RQS
•  PQR or  RQP

You should not name any of these angles as

 Q because all three angles have Q
as their vertex. The name  Q would not
distinguish one angle from the others.
..........
The measure of  A is denoted by
m  A. The measure of an angle can be
approximated with a protractor, using
units called degrees (°). For instance,
 BAC has a measure of 50°, which can
be written as
m  BAC = 50°.

Angles that have the same measure are

called congruent angles.For instance,
 BAC and  DEF each have a
measure of 50°, so they are congruent.

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MEASURES ARE EQUAL. ANGLES ARE CONGRUENT.
m  BAC = m  DEF  BAC   DEF
“is equal to” “is congruent to”

CLASSIFYING ANGLES
Angles are classified as acute,

right, obtuse, straight and Reflex

according to their measures. Angles
have measures greater than 0° and less
than or equal to 180°.

An ACUTE ANGLE is an angle

between 0° and 90° (0° < m  A <
90°.

A RIGHT ANGLE is an angle of

90°( m  A = 90°).

An OBTUSE ANGLE is an angle between

90° and 180°
(90° < m  A < 180°).

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A STRAIGHT ANGLE is an
angle of 180°(m  A = 180°).

A REFLEX ANGLE is an angle between 180° and 360°°(180° < m  A < 360°).

revolution one complet revolution is 360°

vertical angles.
Two intersecting lines form two pairs of angles called vertical angles.

vertical angleshave equal measures

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Complementary angles:
A pair of angles is complementary
if the sum of their measures is 90°.

Supplementary angles:
Two angles having an angle sumof 180° are supplementary angles.

Angles on a straight line add to 1800

x + 55 = 180 Angles on a straight line
x = 1250

Angles at a point add to 3600

y + 920 + 1510 = 3600 Angles at a point
y + 2430 = 3600
y = 1170

Parallel Lines:
Definition: We say that two lines (on the same plane) are parallel to each other
if they never intersect each other, ragardless of how far
they are extended on
either side. Pictorially, parallel lines run along each other
like the tracks of a
train.

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Lines AB and CD are parallel to each other. We use the symbol \\ to represent
two lines being parallel. We write AB \\ CD to denote AB is parallel to CD. We
use little arrows on the two lines to indicate that they are parallel to each other.
A transversal of two (or more) lines is another line that intersects the two lines.

In the figure above, line EF is a transversal of lines AB and CD . It intersects

the two lines and forms 8 angles with the two lines. We name the relationship
of the angle pairs based on their position with respect to each other and to the
lines AB and CD

The angles 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 are exterior angles because they are on the

outside
of lines AB and CD .
The angles 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 are interior angles because they are on the inside
of
lines AB and CD .
Corresponding Angles are angles that are on the same side of the transversal
and on the same side of each intersected line. In the following figures ,

There are four pairs of corresponding angles, or F-angles.

2 and 6 are corresponding angles.

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3 and 7 are corresponding angles.

1 and 5 are corresponding angles.

4 and 8 are corresponding angles.

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Alternate Interior Angles are interial angles on opposite sides of the transversal.
 3 and  5 are alternate interior angles.
 4 and  6 are alternate interior angles.
Alternate Exterior Angles are exterior angles on opposite sides of the transversal.
 2 and  8 are alternate exterior angles.
 1 and  7 are alternate exterior angles.
Same-Side Interior Angles are interior angles on the same side of the transversal.
 4 and  5 are same-side interior angles.
 3 and  7 are same-side interior angles.
Same-Side Exterior Angles are exterior angles on the same side of the transversal.
 2 and  7 are same-side exterior angles.
 1 and  8 are same-side exterior angles.
Theorem: Corresponding Angles: If two lines are cut by a transversal
that makes a pair of corresponding angles congruent, then the two
lines are parallel.

Postulates
1. Corresponding Angles
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the pairs of corresponding
angles are congruent. Ex. ∠1 =∠5 and ∠4=∠8
2. Converse of Corresponding Angles Postulate:

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If two lines are cut by a transversal so that the corresponding angles are
congruent then the lines are parallel. Ex. Assume that ∠3=36and∠7=36 .
Since∠3=∠7 then l is parallel to m.
Alternate Interior Angles
Alternate Interior Angles Theorem: If two parallel
lines are cut by a transversal, then the pairs of
alternate interior angles are congruent.
Example
In the diagram, transversal t
intersects parallel lines m and n.
If m∠1=750, find the measures
of the other numbered angles.

Solution
m∠5 =75o, because ∠ and ∠5 are corresponding angles.
m∠4 = 75 o, because ∠4 and ∠5 are alternate interior angles.
m∠8 = 75 o, because ∠1 and ∠8 are alternate exterior angles.
m∠2 = 105 o, because ∠1 and ∠2 are supplementary angles.
m∠6 =105 o, because ∠2 and ∠6 are corresponding angles.
m∠3 =105 o, because ∠3 and ∠6 are alternate interior angles.
m∠7 = 105 o, because ∠2 and ∠7 are alternate exterior angles.
Checkpoint
Find the measures of the numbered angles in the diagram.

Find the value of x that makes lines m and n parallel

Solution
The labeled angles in the diagram are
corresponding angles. Lines m and n are
parallel when the measures are equal.
(5x + 18)o = 63 o Set measures equal.
5x =45 Subtract 18 from each side.
x=9 Divide each side by 5.

Exercise
1. Find the size of the angle marked with a letter in each diagram

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2. By considering each diagram. Write down an equation and find the value of x

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POLYGONS
The word polygon comes from Greek: poly- many, gons- angle.
A polygon is a closed figure that is the union of line segments in a plane.  A polygon has three or more sides. A
polygon has the same number of angles as sides.
Some examples of polygons are shown below.

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The following figure is not a polygon as it is not a closed figure.

A circle is not a polygon as it does not have straight sides

Polygons are named according to the number of sides.  The names of the most common polygons are given below:
Listed below are some of the more commonly used polygons.
(Do not assume that the diagrams under the "Graphic" column are "regular" polygons.  Do not assume any specific
details about the diagrams such as the length of the sides or measures of the angles.)

Polygon Parts
Side - one of the line segments that make up the polygon.

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Vertex - point where two sides meet. Two or more of these points are called vertices.
Diagonal - a line connecting two vertices that isn't a side.
Interior Angle - Angle formed by two adjacent sides inside the polygon.
Exterior Angle - Angle formed by two adjacent sides outside the polygon.

Classification of Polygons
0Polygons can be classified as either convex or concave.
Concave Polygon
 If a polygon has a reflex angle, then it is said to be a concave polygon. An
example of concave polygon is shown below.

 Concave polygons "cave-in" to their interiors, creating at least one interior angle greater than 180 degrees
(a reflex angle).  Unless otherwise stated, we will be discussing convex polygons.

Convex Polygon
 If a polygon has no reflex angle, then it is said to be a convex polygon. Examples of the convex polygons
are shown below.

A polygon is convex if no line that contains a side of the polygon contains a point in the interior of the
polygon.  In a convex polygon, each interior angle measures less than 180 degrees. 

Regular Polygon
A regular polygon's sides are all of the same length and its angles are the same size.
For example, a square is a regular polygon.

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Examples of regular polygons are shown below.

Irregular Polygon
If a polygon is not a regular polygon, then it is said to be an irregular polygon.
For example, the quadrilateral shown below is an irregular polygon.

A polygon is equilateral if all of its sides are of the same length.

A polygon is equiangular if all of its angles are of equal measure.
A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular.

Sum of Interior Angles of a Polygon 

Consider the angle sum of a quadrilateral.

Clearly, the diagonal AC divides the quadrilateral into 2 triangles.
 Angle sum of a quadrilateral  2  1800  3600
 Angle sum of a triangle  180  0

Consider the angle sum of a pentagon.

Clearly, the diagonals AC and AD divides the pentagon into 3 triangles.
 Angle sum of a pentagon  3  1800  5400
 Angle sum of a triangle  180  0

Consider the angle sum of a hexagon.

Clearly, the diagonals AC, AD, and AE divides the hexagon into 4 triangles.

 Angle sum of a hexagon  4  1800  7200  Angle sum of a triangle  1800 
From the above discussion, we observed that:
In general:

 Angle sum of a polyogon of n sides  (n  2 )  1800

 2(n  2 )  right angles
 ( 2n  4 )  right angle

Note that a polygon of n sides is called an n-gon.

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Example 1:  Find the number of degrees in the sum of the interior angles of an octagon.
An octagon has 8 sides.  So n = 8.  Using the formula from above,
180(n - 2) =  180(8 - 2) = 180(6) = 1080 degrees.
Example 2:  How many sides does a polygon have if the sum of its interior angles is 720°?
Since, the number of degrees is given, set the formula above equal to 720°, and solve for n.
180(n - 2) = 720 Set the formula = 720°
n-2=4 Divide both sides by 180
n=6 Add 2 to both sides
Each Interior Angle of a Regular Polygon
A polygon is called a REGULAR polygon when all of its sides are of the same length and all of its angles are of the
same measure. A regular polygon is both equilateral and equiangular.

Let's investigate the regular pentagon seen above.

To find the sum of its interior angles, substitute n = 5 into the formula 180(n - 2) and get 
180(5 - 2) = 180(3) = 540°
Since the pentagon is a regular pentagon, the measure of each interior angle will be the same.
To find the size of each angle, divide the sum, 540º, by the number of angles in the pentagon. (which is the same as
the number of sides).
540°  5 = 108°
There are 108° in each interior angle of a regular pentagon.
This process can be generalized into a formula for finding each interior angle of a REGULAR polygon ...

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180(n  2)
Each interior angle of a "regular" polygon = 
n
where n = the number of sides in the polygon.

Be careful!!!  If a polygon is NOT REGULAR (such as the one seen at the right), you cannot use this formula.  If
the angles of a polygon DO NOT all have the same measure, then you cannot find the measure of any one of them
just by knowing their sum.
NOT REGULAR = DO NOT USE FORMULA!!
Examples
Read these questions carefully!  If the word "EACH" appears in the question, you will most likely need the formula
for "each interior angle" to solve the problem.
1. Find the number of degrees in each interior angle of a regular dodecagon.
It is a regular polygon, so we can use the formula.
In a dodecagon, n = 12.   
180(12  2) 180(10)
  1500  
12 12
2. Each interior angle of a regular polygon measures 135°.  How many sides does the polygon have ?
180(n  2)
 First, set the formula (for each interior angle) equal to  135
n
180(n  2) 135
the number of degrees given. 
n 1
 Cross multiply. 135n  180( n  2)
 Multiply 180 by (n - 2). 135n  180n  360
 Subtract 135n from both sides of the equation.
360  180n  135n  54n
 Divide both sides of the equation by 45. n8

Sum of Exterior Angles of a Polygons 

Let the exterior angles of a triangle be rearranged so that they have the same vertex as shown above.
Then a  b  c  3600 (Angle sum at a point)

Let us now consider the external angle sum of a rectangle.

Let the exterior angles of a rectangle be rearranged so that they have the same vertex as shown above.
Then a  b  c  d  3600 (Angle sum at a point)

In general:

The external angle sum of a polygon is 360 0.

If you are working with a regular polygon, you can determine the size of EACH exterior angle by simply dividing
the sum, 360, by the number of angles.   Remember, the formula below will ONLY work in a regular polygon.

3600
Each exterior angle (regular polygon) =
n
Example 1
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Calculate the exterior and interior angle of a regular pentagon.
Solution:
A regular pentagon has five equal angles.
Sum of 5 exterior angles  3600
3600
 Each exterior angle   720
5
Let the interior angle be xº.
 x 0  72  180 0 (Supplementary adjacent angles)
x 0  720  720  1800
x 0  1080
So, each interior angle is 108º.
Example 2.
Find the measure of each exterior angle of a regular hexagon.
A hexagon has 6 sides, so  n = 6 Substitute in the formula.
3600
 Each exterior angle   600
6
Example 3.
The measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon is 45°.  How many
sides does the polygon have ?
Set the formula equal to 450.Cross multiply and solve for n.
360 0
 450
n
450 n  3600
3600
n 8
450
the polygon have 8 sides(Octagon)

Triangles
CLASSIFYING TRIANGLES
Atriangle is a figure formed by three segments joining three noncollinear
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points. A triangle can be classified by its sides and by its angles, as shown in the
definitions below.
Classification by Sides
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE SCALENE TRIANGLE

has 3 equal sides has At least 2 equal sides No equal sides

Classification by Angles

ACUTE TRIANGLE EQUIANGULARTRIANGLE RIGHTTRIANGLE OBTUS TRIANGLE

3 acute angles 3 congruent angles 1 right angle 1 obtuse angle

EXAMPLE 1 Classify the following Triangles

When you classify a triangle, you need to be as specific as possible.

a.  ABC has three acute angles and b.  DEF has one obtuse angle and
no congruent sides. It is an acute two congruent sides. It is an obtuse
scalene triangle. (  ABC is read isosceles triangle.
as “triangle ABC.”)

Each of the three points joining the sides

of a triangle is a vertex. (The plural of
vertex is vertices.) For example, in ¤ABC,
points A, B, and C are vertices.

In a

triangle, two sides sharing a common

vertex are adjacent sides. In  ABC,
CA and BA Aare adjacent sides. The third
side, BC A, is the side opposite <A.
RIGHT AND ISOSCELES TRIANGLES The sides of right triangles and isosceles
triangles have special names. In a right triangle, the sides that form the right
angle are the legs of the right triangle. The side opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse
of the triangle.
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An isosceles triangle can have three congruent sides, in which case it is equilateral. When an
isosceles triangle has only two congruent sides, then these two sides are Legs the of the isosceles
triangle. The third side is the base of the isosceles triangle.

USING ANGLE MEASURES OF TRIANGLES

When the sides of a triangle are extended, other angles are formed. The three
original angles are interior angles the The angles that are adjacent to the
interior angles are exterior angles. the Each vertex has a pair of congruent
exterior angles. It is common to show only one exterior angle at each vertex.

THEOREM 4.1 Triangle Sum Theorem

The sum of the measures of the
interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
m< A + m<B + m<C = 180°

THEOREM 4.2 Exterior Angle Theorem

The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle
is equal to the sum of the measures of the
two nonadjacent interior angles.
m<1 = m<A + m<B

EXAMPLE 3
find the measure of the exterior angle
shown.
First write and solve an equation to
find the value of x:
x° + 65° = (2x + 10)° Apply the Exterior Angles Theorem.
55 = x Solve for x.
So, the measure of the exterior angle is (2 • 55 + 10)°, or 120°.
A corollary to a theoremis a statement that can be proved easily using the
theorem. The corollary below follows from the Triangle Sum Theorem.
COROLLARY TO THE TRIANGLE SUM THEOREM
The acute angles of a right triangle are
complementary.
m<A + m<B = 90°

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EXAMPLE 4 The measure of one acute angle of a right triangle is two

times the measure of the
other acute angle. Find the measure of each acute angle.
SOLUTION
Make a sketch. Let x° = m<A.
Then m<B = 2x°.
x° + 2x° = 90° The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.
x = 30 Solve for x.
So, m<A = 30° and m<B = 2(30°) = 60°.
MATCHING TRIANGLES
In Exercises 1 –7, match the triangle description with the most specific name.

1. Side lengths: 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm A. Equilateral

2. Side lengths: 3 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm B. Scalene
3. Side lengths: 4 cm, 4 cm, 4 cm C. Obtuse
4. Angle measures: 60°, 60°, 60° D. Equiangular
6. Angle measures: 30°, 60°, 90° E. Isosceles
7. Angle measures: 20°, 145°, 15° F. Right
CLASSIFYING TRIANGLES Classify the triangle by its angles and by its sides.

Find the measure of the exterior angle shown.

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Congruence of Triangles

Objective
At the end of the lesson student should be able to :
Identify congruent figures and corresponding parts.
Prove that two triangles are congruent.

Two geometric figures are congruent if

they have exactly the same size and shape. Each of

figures 1 is congruent to the other figures1. None
of the figures 2 is congruent to another figure 2.
When two figures are there is a correspondence
between their angles and sides such that are
congruent and are congruent. For the triangles below, you can write.ABC  PQR, which is read
“triangle ABC is congruent to triangle PQR.” The notation shows the congruence and the
correspondence.
Corresponding angles Corresponding sides
A  P AB  PQ
B  Q BC  QR
C  R CA  RP

There is more than one way to write a congruence statement, but it is important to list the corresponding
angles in the same order. For example, you can also write.  BCA  .  QRP.

EXAMPLE 1 Naming Congruent Parts

The congruent triangles represent the triangles in the photo above. Write a congruence statement.
Identify all pairs of congruent corresponding parts.
SOLUTION
The diagram indicates that  DEF   RST.
The congruent angles and sides are as follows.

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MATHEMATICS FORM ONE
Angles:  D   R,  E   S,  F   T
Sides: DE DE  RS , EF  ST , FD  TR

EXAMPLE 2 Decide whether the triangles are congruent. Justify your reasoning.

SOLUTION
From the diagram, you are given that all three pairs of corresponding sides are congruent.
A RP  MN , PQ  NO , and QR  QM

Because  P and  N have the same measure,  P   N. By the Vertical Angles

Theorem, you know that  PQR   NQM. By the Third Angles Theorem,
 R   M.
So, all three pairs of corresponding sides and all three pairs of corresponding
angles are congruent. By the definition of congruent triangles,  PQR   NQM.
THEOREMS OF CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
We have learned that if all six pairs of corresponding parts (sides and angles) are congruent, then
the triangles are congruent. Now the question is How much do you need to know about two triangles to
prove that they are congruent?
If Sides are congruent and Angles are congruent then Triangles are
congruent
then
if Sides are congruent Angles are congruent
Triangles arecongruent
1. AB  DE 4. A  D .
 ABC   DEF. then
then

2. BC  EF 5. B  E
3. AC  DF 6.  C   F

In this lesson and the next, you will learn that

you do not need all six of the pieces of
information above to prove that the triangles are
Theorem 1 Side-Side-Side (SSS) Congruence Postulate
congruent. For example, if all three pairs of
If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of a second triangle, then
corresponding sides are congruent, then the SSS
the two triangles are congruent.
Congruence Theorem guarantees that the triangles are congruent.
If Side QR MN  QR
Side NP  RS and
Side PM  SQ ,
then  MNP   QRS. 98
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Theorem 1 Side-Side-Side (SSS)

Congruence Postulate
EXAMPLE 3 Prove that  PQW 
 TSW.
Proof The marks on the diagram
show that PQ  TS , PW  TW , and
QW  SW .

So, by the SSS Congruence Theorem, We get that

 PQW   TSW.

Theorem 2 Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Congruence Postulate

If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to two sides and the
included angle of a second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent
If Side PQ  WX
Angle  A   D
Side QS  XY

EXAMPLE 3 Prove that .  AEB   .DEC.

Proof
1. AE  ED AE, BE  CE Given
2.  1   2 Vertical Angles Theorem
3.  AEB   DEC SAS Congruence Theorem

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