Cambridge

IGCSE ®
and O Level

Additional
Mathematics
Val Hanrahan
Jeanette Powell
Series editor: Roger Porkess

9781510421646.indb 1 10/05/18 11:46 AM

 Questions from Cambridge IGCSE® and O Level Mathematics past papers are reproduced by
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 Contents
Introduction iv
CHAPTER 1 Functions 1
CHAPTER 2 Quadratic functions 19
CHAPTER 3 Equations, inequalities and graphs 41
CHAPTER 4 Indices and surds 58
CHAPTER 5 Factors of polynomials 68
CHAPTER 6 Simultaneous equations 80
CHAPTER 7 Logarithmic and exponential functions 90
CHAPTER 8 Straight line graphs 114
CHAPTER 9 Circular measure 128
CHAPTER 10 Trigonometry 138
CHAPTER 11 Permutations and combinations 173
CHAPTER 12 Series 184
CHAPTER 13 Vectors in two dimensions 210
CHAPTER 14 Differentiation 225
CHAPTER 15 Integration 257
CHAPTER 16 Kinematics 277
Mathematical notation 290
Answers 293
Index 334

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 INTRODUCTION

Introduction
This book has been written for all students of Cambridge IGCSE® and
O Level Additional Mathematics syllabuses (0606/4037). It carefully
and precisely follows the syllabus from Cambridge Assessment
International Education. It provides the detail and guidance that are
needed to support you throughout the course and help you to prepare
for your examinations.

Prior knowledge
Throughout this book, it is assumed that readers are competent and
fluent in the basic algebra that is covered in Cambridge IGCSE® / O
Level Mathematics:
» working with expressions and formulae, simplifying and collecting
like terms
» substituting numbers into algebraic expressions
» linear and quadratic factorisation and the use of brackets
» solving simple, simultaneous and quadratic equations
» working with inequalities
» changing the subject of a formula
» plotting and sketching graphs.

Chapter 1 Functions
As well as basic algebra, this chapter assumes a knowledge of graphs
and the basic trigonometrical functions. This chapter introduces readers
to the idea of a function, and the associated vocabulary; this pervades
the rest of the book.

Chapter 2 Quadratic functions

In this chapter, readers are expected to be familiar with the basic
algebra associated with quadratic functions, including drawing their
graphs. Quadratic functions are used in many places in this book.

Chapter 3 Equations, inequalities and graphs

This chapter assumes that readers are competent in basic algebra. It
builds on the work on the modulus function in Chapter 1. Chapter 2
included solving quadratic equations and this is now extended to solving
cubic equations.

Chapter 4 Indices and surds

In this chapter readers are expected to be familiar with numbers,
including squares, square roots and cubes. They are also expected to be
familiar with techniques from basic algebra, especially working with
brackets and collecting like terms.

iv

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 Introduction

Chapter 5 Factors of polynomials

This chapter builds on and starts to generalise ideas developed in the
context of quadratic and cubic functions in Chapters 2 and 3. It requires
competence in basic algebra and familiarity with curve sketching.

Chapter 6 Simultaneous equations

In this chapter readers solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns,
including cases where one of the equations is quadratic and the other
linear. It builds on work in Chapters 2 and 3, which in turn requires
fluency in basic algebra.

Chapter 7 Logarithmic and exponential functions

This chapter develops new ideas based on the work on indices covered
in Chapter 4.

Chapter 8 Straight line graphs

In this chapter, readers are required to use techniques relating to the
graphs of straight lines that they covered in Cambridge IGCSE® /
O Level, including drawing a straight line given its equation. They are
expected to know that y = mx + c is the equation of a straight line with
gradient m that crosses the y-axis at (0, c) and to be able to find the
gradient of a given line. They should also be able to find the equation of
a straight line given two points on it, or one point and its gradient.

Chapter 9 Circular measure

In this chapter, it is assumed that readers are familiar with the standard
formulae for the area and circumference of a circle.

Chapter 10 Trigonometry
Readers are expected to understand the three basic trigonometrical
functions, sin, cos and tan, and how they are used to find unknown sides
and angles in right-angled triangles. They are expected to be able to
work in radians, which are met in Chapter 8, as well as in degrees. This
chapter involves drawing and transforming the graphs of the various
trigonometrical functions, so it builds on ideas from Chapters 1, 2 and 3.

Chapter 11 Permutations and combinations

The work in this chapter is essentially new and no prior knowledge is
required.

Chapter 12 Series
This chapter develops ideas about sequences and series. Readers
who have prior knowledge of this topic will find it helpful but it is not
essential. Much more important is fluency in basic algebra. Knowledge
of the work in Chapter 4 on indices is expected.
v

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 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 13 Vectors in two dimensions

Much of the work in this chapter will be new to readers. However, they
are expected to be competent in basic trigonometry and also in translations,
both from Cambridge IGCSE® / O Level and from Chapter 10.

Chapter 14 Differentiation
This is the first of three chapters on calculus. Readers are expected to be
fluent with basic algebra from Cambridge IGCSE® / O Level and from
the earlier chapters in this book. They are also expected to be familiar
with work on straight line graphs from Chapter 8.

Chapter 15 Integration
This is the second chapter on calculus. It follows on from Chapter 14
and readers are expected to understand the ideas and techniques
developed there.

Chapter 16 Kinematics
This chapter shows how the ideas in the two previous chapters on
calculus can be applied to motion. So knowledge of both Chapters 14
and 15 is assumed. Readers are also expected to be familiar with
Chapter 8 on straight line graphs.

How to use this book

To make your study of Additional Mathematics as rewarding and
successful as possible, this Cambridge endorsed textbook offers the
following important features:

Organisation
The content is generally in the same order as the syllabus, although the
material within each chapter is presented in a natural teaching order
to aid both teaching and learning. Where possible, the chapter titles
and chapter section headings match those of the Cambridge IGCSE®
and O Level Additional Mathematics syllabuses; however, the long,
final section on calculus is split into three chapters: Differentiation,
Integration and Kinematics, so that it is easily manageable for students.

vi

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 a
Notice that sin(x 2) is
b
not the same as (sin x)2
or sin(sin x).
Introduction
c

Approach The modulus function

Each chapter is broken down into several The modulus of a number is its positive value even when the number
itself is negative.
sections, with each section covering a
single topic. Topics are introduced through The modulus is denoted by a vertical line on each side of the number
and is sometimes called the magnitude of the quantity.
clear explanations, with key terms picked
out in bold type.

Worked examples
The worked examples cover important techniques and question styles. They
Worked example
are designed to reinforce the explanations, and give you step-by-step help
1 Functions
for solving problems.
a
b b
y c y
7 7

Worked
6 example
y=x −2 2 6 y = | x2 − 2|
5 a 5
Show that the4two lines y = 1 x − 4 and x − 2 y − 6 = 0 are parallel.
4
2
Solution 3 3
y=x−2 y = | x − 2|
Start by rearranging
2 the second equation into the form y = mmxx2 + c.
1 Notice the sharp 1
x − 2 y − 6 = 0  ⇒ x − 6 = 2 y change of gradient
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x from negative to –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–1 ⇒  2 y = x − 6 –1
positive, where
–2
–2
⇒  y = 1 x − 3 part of the graph
–3 2 is reflected. This –3
point is called a
Both lines have a gradient of 1 so are parallel.
c 2 ‘cusp’.
y y
y = cos x 
118 –1 1
y = cos x 13

Exercises
These appear throughout
90° the text,
180° xand allow you to apply what
90°
you 180° x
have learned. There are plenty of routine questions covering important
examination techniques.
–1 –1

Exercise 1.2 1 Given that f(x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = x2 and h(x) = 2x, find:
a fg(2) b fg(x) c gh(x) d fgh(x)
2 Given that f(x) = 2 x + 1 and g(x) = 4 − x, find:
a fg(−4) b gf(12) c fg(x) d gf(x)
3 Given that f(x) = x + 4, g(x) = 2x2 and h(x) = 2 x1+ 1 , find:
a f²(x) b g²(x) c h²(x) d hgf(x)
4 For each function, find the inverse and sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and
y = f−1(x) on the same axes. Use the same scale on both axes.
a f(x) = 3x − 1 b f(x) = x3, x > 0
5 Solve the following equations:
a |x − 3| = 4 b |2x + 1| = 7 c |3x − 2| = 5 d |x + 2| = 2
6 Sketch the graph of each function:
a y=x+2 b y = |x + 2| c y = |x + 2| + 3
14
vii

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 INTRODUCTION

5 Factors oF polynomials

Commentaries Worked example

The commentaries provide Given that f ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 − 4 x + 112

additional explanations and a Show that (x - 3) is a factor of f(x).

b Solve the equation f(x) = 0.
encourage full understanding To show that
(x - 3) is a factor, Solution
of mathematical principles. you need to show a f(3) = 33 – 32 – 9(3) + 9
that f(3) = 0. = 27 – 9 – 27 + 9 = 0
This shows that (x - 3) is a factor of f(x).
Check by b Once you have found one linear factor of a cubic expression, the remaining
multiplying out factor is quadratic. With practice you will be able to do this step by
that you agree inspection.
with this answer. x 3 − x 2 − 10 x + 12 = ( x − 3) ( x 2 + 2 x − 4)
4
How do you x 2 + 2 x − 4 cannot be factorised so use the quadratic formula for the next
know it can’t be step.
2
factorised? ax 2 + bx + c = 0 → x = −b ± b − 4 ac
2a
−2 ± 2 2 − 4 (1) (−4 )
1,  b = 22,  c = −4 → x =
In this example, a = 1,  2 (−1)
Operations using surds
→ x = −2 ± 220
−2
→ x =1± 5
6 The solution to the equation is therefore x = 3 or x = 1 ± 5 .
7 Logarithmic and exponentiaL functions
a b c
7
The family of curves y = kex, where k is a positive integer, is different set
a b of transformations of the curve y = ex. These represent stretches of the
curve y = ex in the y-direction.
c d

y = 6 ex
Worked example

y = 3ex

y = ex
y
e f
a
g h b
6
8 c
a b Notice that the
d
c d curve y = kex 3
crosses the y-axis
e f 1
at (0, k). a
Start by working x
9
systematically

9
through all factors Similarly, for a fixed value of n, graphs of the family y = kenx are
of 24 until you find represented by stretches of the graph y = e by scale factor k in the
nx

Surds one giving f(x) = 0. y-direction.

Circular measure 74
One additional transformation gives graphs of the form y = kenx + a.

Worked example

Discussion point y = ex

Why is 4   not a surd?

Operations using surds Discussion points y = e2x

These are points you should discuss

in class with your teacher or fellow
students, to encourage deeper
exploration and mathematical
Worked example
communication.
Writing
106
18 =  6 ×  3
does not help since
neither 6 nor 3 is a Discussion point
perfect square. This is the Singapore Flyer. It has a radius of 75 metres. It takes about
30 minutes to complete one rotation, travelling at a constant speed. How
fast do the capsules travel?
61

viii

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 Introduction
Straight line graphs

Learning outcomes
Each chapter ends with a Learning outcomes
summary of the learning Now you should be able to:
outcomes and a list of key points H interpret the equation of a straight line graph in the form
to confirm what you should have y=m mxx + c
learned and understood. H solve questions involving midpoint and length of a line
H know and use the condition for two lines to be parallel or
perpendicular, including finding the equation of perpendicular
bisectors
H transform given relationships, including y = aax n and y = A
Ab x , to
straight line form and hence determine unknown constants by
calculating the gradient or intercept of the transformed graph.

Key points
4 An equation of the form y = m
mxx + c represents a straight line
that has gradient m and intersects the y-axis at (0, c).
4 The midpoint of the line joining the points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is
given by:
midpoint = ( x +2 x , y +2 y ).
1 2 1 2

4 The length of the line joining the points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is given

by:
length = (( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 ) .
4 Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient.
4 Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect at an angle of 90°.
4 When the gradients of two parallel lines are given by m1 and
m2 ,  m1 m2 = −1.
4 Logarithms can be used to describe the relationship between two
variables in the following cases:
i y = ax n Taking logs, y = ax n is equivalent to logg y = log a + n log
log x.
Plotting logg y against logg x  gives a straight line of gradient n
that intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, logg a).
)
ii y = Ab x Taking logs, = Ab x is equivalent to logg y = llog
og A + x log
log b.
Plotting log y against x gives a straight line of gradient log b that
intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, log A).

Additional support
The Workbook provides additional practice for students. These write-in
workbooks are designed to be used throughout the course. 127

Assessment
For both Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Additional Mathematics you
will take two examination papers; Paper 1 and Paper 2:
» 2 hours each
» 50% each
» scientific calculators are required.

ix

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 INTRODUCTION

Command words
Command word What it means
Calculate Work out from given facts, figures or
information, generally using a calculator
Describe State the points of a topic / give characteristics
and main features
Determine Establish with certainty
Explain Set out purposes or reasons / make the
relationships between things evident / provide
why and / or how and support with relevant
evidence
Give Produce an answer from a given source or
recall / memory

Plot Mark point(s) on a graph

Show (that) Provide structured evidence that leads to a
given result
Sketch Make a simple freehand drawing showing the
key features
State Express in clear terms
Verify Confirm a given statement / result is true
Work out Calculate from given facts, figures or
information with or without the use of a
calculator
Write Give an answer in a specific form
Write down Give an answer without significant working

From the authors

We very much hope you enjoy this book. It introduces you to
some of the exciting ideas of mathematics. These will broaden your
understanding of the subject and prove really helpful when you go
on to further study. They include topics such as identities, vectors and
particularly calculus; all of these are covered in the later chapters of the
book. In order to handle such topics confidently, you will need to be
fluent in algebra and numerical work and to be able to communicate
the mathematics you are doing. The early chapters are designed to build
on your previous experience in a way that develops these essential skills
and at the same time expands the techniques you are able to use.
Val Hanrahan
Jeanette Powell
Roger Porkess

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 1 Functions
If A equals success, then the formula is A equals X plus Y plus Z, with X
being work, Y play, and Z keeping your mouth shut.
Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)

Discussion point
Look at the display on this fuel pump. One of the quantities is measured
and one is calculated from it. Which is which?

You can think of the display as a mapping. Some of the values are shown below.
Amount of fuel (litres) → Cost ($)
1 → 2.40
2 → 4.80
3 → 7.20
4 → 9.60
5 → 12.00
10 → 24.00
50 → 120.00
100 → 240.00
If x is an element of the first set, then f(x) denotes the associated
element from the second set. For example, this mapping diagram shows
integers mapped onto the final digit of their squares.

Input Output
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 6
5 5
6 6

x f(x)

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 1 FUNCTIONs

Discussion point
Which digits will never appear in the output set of the previous
example?

A function is a rule that associates each element of one set (the input)
with only one element of a second set (the output). It is possible for
more than one input to have the same output, as shown above.
You can use a flow chart (or number machine) to express a function.
This flow chart shows a function, f, with two operations. The first
operation is × 2 and the second operation is + 3.

Input ×2 +3 Output

You can write the equation of a line in the form y = 2 x + 3 using

Read this as ‘f of function notation.
x equals two x plus f(x) = 2x + 3 Read this as ‘f maps x
three’. or f: x  2x + 3 onto two x plus three’.
Using this notation, you can write, for example:
f(4) = 2 × 4 + 3 = 11
or f:(−5)  2 × (−5) + 3 = −7

The domain and range

The domain of a function f(x) is the set of all possible inputs. This is the set of
Real numbers are values of x that the function operates on. In the first mapping diagram of the
all of the rational next worked example, the domain is the first five positive odd numbers. If no
and irrational domain is given, it is assumed to be all real values of x. This is often denoted
numbers. by the letter ℝ.
The range of the function f(x) is all the possible output values, i.e. the
corresponding values of f(x). It is sometimes called the image set and is
controlled by the domain.
In certain functions one or more values must be excluded from the
domain, as shown in the following example.

Worked example
1
For the function f(x) = 2 x + 1 :

a Draw a mapping diagram showing the outputs for the set of inputs odd
numbers from 1 to 9 inclusive.
b Draw a mapping diagram showing the outputs for the set of inputs even
numbers from 2 to 10 inclusive.
c Which number cannot be an input for this function?

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 Functions

Solution
a
Input Output
1
1
3
1
3
7
1
5
11
1
7
15
1
9
19

b
Input Output
1
2
5
1
4
9
1
6
13
1
8
17
1
10
21

c A fraction cannot have a denominator of 0, so 2x + 1 ≠ 0

 
⇒ x = − 12 must be excluded.

Mappings
A mapping is the process of going from an object to its image.
For example, this mapping diagram shows the function f(x) = x² + 1
when the domain is the set of integers −2  x  2.

Domain Range

Input Output
1
A mapping −2

diagram is one −1
way to illustrate a 0 2
function. 1
2 5

Object Image

There are four different types of mappings.

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 1 FUNCTIONs

One-one
Every object has a unique image and every image comes from only one
object.
y
6

5 y=x+1
Input Output
4

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

−2

Many-one
Every object has a unique image but at least one image corresponds to
more than one object.
y
7
y = x2 − 2
6
Input Output
5

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1

−2

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 Functions

One-many
There is at least one object that has more than one image but every
image comes from only one object.

y
5

4 y2 = 2x
Input Output 3

−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1

−2

−3

−4

Many-many
There is at least one object that has more than one image and at least
one image that corresponds to more than one object.
y
6
5
4 x2 + y2 = 25
3
Input Output
2
1

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

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 1 FUNCTIONs

Types of function
A function is a mapping that is either one-one or many-one.
For a one-one function, the graph of y against x doesn’t ‘double back’ on
itself.
Below are some examples of one-one functions.
» All straight lines that are not parallel to either axis.
» Functions of the form y = x2n+1 for integer values of n.
» Functions of the form y = ax for a > 0.
» y = cos x for 0°  x  180°.
These are examples of many-one functions:
» all quadratic curves,
» cubic equations with two turning points.

Worked example
Sketch each function and state whether it is one-one or many-one.
a y=x+3 b y = x² − 1

Solution
a y = x + 3 is a straight line.
When x = 0, y = 3, so the point (0, 3) is on the line.
When y = 0, x = −3, so the point (−3, 0) is on the line.

y=x+3

−3 x

y = x + 3 is a one-one function.

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 Inverse function

b y = x² is a ∪-shaped curve through the origin.

y = x² − 1 is the same shape, but has been moved down one unit so crosses
the y-axis at (0, −1).
y = x² − 1 factorises to y = (x + 1)(x – 1)
⇒  When y = 0, x = 1 or x = −1.

y = x2 − 1

−1 1 x
−1

y = x2 − 1 is a many-one function since, for example, y = 0 corresponds to

both x = 1 and x = −1.

Inverse function
The inverse function reverses the effect of the function. For example,
if the function says ‘double’, the inverse says ‘halve’; if the function
says ‘add 2’, the inverse says ‘subtract 2’. All one-one functions have an
inverse; many-one functions do not.

Worked example
3x + 2 .
a Use a flow chart to find the inverse of the function f(x) = 2
b Sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f –1(x) on the same axes. Use the same
scale on both axes.
c What do you notice?

Solution
3x + 2
a For f(x) = :
2

Input ×3 +2 ÷2 Output
3x 3x + 2 3x + 2 f(x)
x
2

Reversing these operations gives the inverse function.

Output ÷3 −2 ×2 Input

f−1(x) 2x − 2 x
2x − 2 2x
3

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 1 FUNCTIONs

f(x)
b y = 3x + 2
7 2

6
y=x

3
y = 2x − 2
3
2

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1

–2

–3

–4

Reflecting in the c The graphs of y = f(x) and y = f –1(x) are reflections of each other in the line
line y = x has the y = x.
effect of switching An alternative method is to interchange the coordinates, since this gives a
the x- and reflection in the line y = x, and then use an algebraic method to find the inverse
y-coordinates. as shown in the next example.

Worked example
a Find g–1(x) when g(x) = x3  + 4.
b Sketch y = g(x) and y = g–1(x) on the same axes. Use the same scale on both
axes.

Solution
x
a Let y = 3  + 4.
y
Interchange x and y. x = 3  + 4
y
Rearrange to make y the subject. x – 4 = 3 
⇒ y = 3(x – 4)
The inverse function is given by g–1(x) = 3(x – 4).
Rearranging and
interchanging x
and y can be done
in either order.

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 Inverse function

b g(x)
y = 3(x − 4)
10
y =x
9

7 y= x +4
3
6

4
3

−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
−1

Worked example
a Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = x2 for −4  x  4.
b Explain, using an example, why f(x) does not have an inverse with
−4  x  4 as its domain.
c Suggest a suitable domain for f(x) so that an inverse can be found.

Solution
a f(x)
16
14
12 y = f (x)
10
8
6
4
2
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–2

b The function does not have an inverse with −4  x  4 as its domain because,
for example, f(2) and f(−2) both equal 4. This means that if the function were
reversed, there would be no unique value for 4 to return to. In other words,
f(x) = x2 is not a one-one function for −4  x  4.
c Any domain in which the function is one-one, for example, 0  x  4.

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 1 FUNCTIONs

Exercise 1.1 1 For the function f(x) = 3x + 4, find:

a f(3) b f(−2) c f(0) ()
d f 12

2 For the function g(x) = (x + 2)², find:

a g(4) b g(−6) c g(0) ()
1
d g 2

3 For the function h:x → 3x2 + 1, find:

a h(2) b h(−3) c h(0) d h3(1)
4 For the function f: x → 2 x3+ 6 , find:
  2 x+ 1 is the a f(3) b f(−6) c f(0) ()
d f 14
notation for the 5 For the function f(x) = 2 x + 1 :
positive square a Draw a mapping diagram to show the outputs when the set of inputs
root of 2 x+ 1 is the odd numbers from 1 to 9 inclusive.
b Draw a mapping diagram to show the outputs when the set of inputs
is the even numbers from 2 to 10 inclusive.
c Which number must be excluded as an input?
6 Find the range of each function:
a f(x) = 3x – 2; domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b g(x) = x −2 4 ; domain {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
c h(x) = 2x2; domain x∈ℝ
d f: x → x2 + 6; domain x∈ℝ
7 Which value(s) must be excluded from the domain of these functions?
a f(x) = 1x b f(x) = x − 1

c f(x) = 2 x3− 3 d f(x) = 2 − x 2

8 Find the inverse of each function:

a f(x) = 7x − 2 b g(x) = 3x2+ 4
c h(x) = (x – 1)2 for x  1 d f(x) = x2 + 4 for x  0
9 a Find the inverse of the function f(x) = 3x – 4.
b Sketch f(x), f –1(x) and the line y = x on the same axes. Use the same
scale on both axes.
Plot: Start with a 10 a Plot the graph of the function f(x) = 4 − x2 for values of x such that
table of values. 0  x  3. Use the same scale on both axes.
Sketch: Show the b Find the values of f–1(−5), f–1(0), f–1(3) and f–1(4).
main features of c Sketch y = f(x), y = f–1(x) and y = x on the same axes. Use the range −6
the curve. to +6 for both axes.

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 Composition of functions

Composition of functions
When two functions are used one after the other, the single equivalent
function is called the composite function.
For example, if f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = 2x – 3, then the composite function
gf(x) is obtained by applying f first and then applying g to the result.
Input f(x) g f (x) Output

x 3x + 2 2(3x + 2) − 3 6x + 1

Input Output
1 7
2 13
3 19

x g f(x)

If f(x) and g(x) are two functions such that the range of f is the domain
of g, then gf(x) = g(f(x)) means that you apply f first and then apply g to
the result.
f 2(x) is the same as f(f(x)) and means that you apply the same function
twice.
The order in which these operations are applied is important, as shown
below.

Worked example
Given that f(x) = 2x, g(x) = x2 and h(x) = 1x , find:
a fg(x) b gf(x) c h2(x)
d fgh(x) e hgf(x)
Solution
a fg(x) = f(x2) b gf(x) = g(2x) c h²(x) = h[h(x)]
= 2x2 = (2x)2
= 4x2
=h x (1)
=1÷1
x
=x
d fgh(x) = fg x (1) e hgf(x) = hg(2x)

= f ( 1x ) 
2 = h((2x)²)
 
= h(4x²)
= f( )
1
1
x 2
= 4x2
2
= x2

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 1 FUNCTIONs

Worked example
a Find f–1(x) when f(x) =  2 x4− 1
b Find f[f–1(x)].
c Find f–1[f(x)].
d What do you notice?
Solution
2x − 1
a Write f(x) as y = 4
2y − 1
Interchange x and y. x = 4
⇒ 4x = 2y − 1
⇒ 2y = 4x +1
4x + 1
⇒ y =
2
4x + 1
⇒ f (x) = 2
–1

4 x + 1
b f[f–1(x)] = f  2 

  =
( 2 )
2 4x + 1 − 1
4
= ( 4 x +41) − 1
= 44x
=x

c f–1[f(x)] = f–1( 2 x4− 1)

4( 2x − 1) + 1
4
= 2
=
( 2 x − 1) + 1 This result is true for
2
2x
all functions that
= 2 have an inverse.
=x
d Questions a and b show that f[f–1(x)] = f–1[f(x)] = x.

The examples above show that applying a function and its inverse in
either order leaves the original quantity unchanged, which is what the
notation f(f–1) or f–1(f) implies.

Worked example
Using the functions f(x) = sin x and g(x) = x2, express the following as functions
of x:
a fg(x) b gf(x) c f 2(x)

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 The modulus function

Solution
a fg(x) = f[g(x)]
= sin(x2) Notice that sin(x 2) is
b gf(x) = g[f(x)]
not the same as (sin x)2
= (sin x)² or sin(sin x).
c f²(x) = f[f(x)]
= sin(sin x)

The modulus function

The modulus of a number is its positive value even when the number
itself is negative.
The modulus is denoted by a vertical line on each side of the number
and is sometimes called the magnitude of the quantity.
For example, |28| = 28 and |–28| = 28
|x| = x when x  0 and |x| = –x when x < 0
Therefore for the graph of the modulus function y = |f(x)|, any part of
the corresponding graph of y = f(x) where y < 0, is reflected in the x-axis.

Worked example
For each of the following, sketch y = f(x) and y = |f(x)| on separate axes:
a y = x – 2; −2  x  6
b y = x2 – 2; −3  x  3
c y = cosx; 0°  x  180°

Solution
a
y y
6 6
5 y=x−2 5 y = | x − 2|
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5

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 1 FUNCTIONs

b
y y
7 7
6 y = x2 − 2 6 y = | x2 − 2|
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 Notice the sharp 1
change of gradient
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x from negative to –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–1 –1
positive, where
–2
–2
part of the graph
–3 is reflected. This –3
point is called a
c ‘cusp’.
y y
y = cos x 
–1 1
y = cos x

90° 180° x 90° 180° x

–1 –1

Exercise 1.2 1 Given that f(x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = x2 and h(x) = 2x, find:
a fg(2) b fg(x) c gh(x) d fgh(x)
2 Given that f(x) = 2 x + 1 and g(x) = 4 − x, find:
a fg(−4) b gf(12) c fg(x) d gf(x)
3 Given that f(x) = x + 4, g(x) = 2x2 and h(x) = 2 x1+ 1 , find:
a f²(x) b g²(x) c h²(x) d hgf(x)
4 For each function, find the inverse and sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and
y = f−1(x) on the same axes. Use the same scale on both axes.
a f(x) = 3x − 1 b f(x) = x3, x > 0
5 Solve the following equations:
a |x − 3| = 4 b |2x + 1| = 7 c |3x − 2| = 5 d |x + 2| = 2
6 Sketch the graph of each function:
a y=x+2 b y = |x + 2| c y = |x + 2| + 3
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 The modulus function

7 Sketch these graphs for 0°  x  360°:

a y = cos x b y = cos x + 1
c y = |cos x| d y = |cos x| + 1
8 Graph 1 represents the line y = 2x − 1. Graph 2 is related to Graph 1 and
Graph 3 is related to Graph 2.
Write down the equations of Graph 2 and Graph 3.
Graph 1 Graph 2 Graph 3
y y y

1 4

3
0.5 x 0.5 x

–1

0.5 x

9 The graph shows part of a quadratic curve and its inverse.

y

y=x
(2, 5)

(1, 2)

1 x

a What is the equation of the curve?

b What is the equation of the inverse?
10 a Sketch the graphs of these functions:
i y = 1 − 2x ii y = |1 − 2x|
iii y = −|1 − 2x| iv y = 3 −|1 − 2x|
b Use a series of transformations to sketch the graph of y = |3x + 1| − 2.

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 1 FUNCTIONs

Exercise 1.2 (cont) 11 For each part:

a Sketch both graphs on the same axes.
b Write down the coordinates of their points of intersection.
i y = |x| and y = 1 − |x|
ii y = 2|x| and y = 2 − |x|
iii y = 3|x| and y = 3 − |x|

Past-paper questions
1 The functions f and g are defined by
2x
f( x) = for x > 0,
x+1
g( x) = x + 1 for x > −1
(i) Find fg(8). [2]
ax
(ii) Find an expression for f 2(x), giving your answer in the form ,
bx + c
where a, b and c are integers to be found. [3]
(iii) Find an expression for g (x), stating its domain and range.
−1 [4]
(iv) On axes like the ones below, sketch the graphs of y = g(x) and y = g−1(x),
indicating the geometrical relationship between the graphs. [3]
y

O x

Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037

Paper 21 Q12 June 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q12 June 2014

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 Functions

2 (i) Sketch the graph of y = |3x − 5|, for −2  x  3, showing the

coordinates of the points where the graph meets the axes. [3]
(ii) On the same diagram, sketch the graph of y = 8x. [1]
(iii) Solve the equation 8x = |3x − 5|. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 13 Q7 November 2010
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 13 Q7 November 2010

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H understand the terms function, domain, range (image set),
one-one function, inverse function and composite function
H use the notation f(x) = sin x, f: x  g(x), x > 0, f −1(x) and f 2(x)
[= f(f(x))]
H understand the relationship between y = f(x) and y = |f(x)|, where
f(x) may be linear, quadratic or trigonometric
H explain in words why a given function is a function or why it does
not have an inverse
H find the inverse of a one-one function and form composite
functions
H use sketch graphs to show the relationship between a function and
its inverse.

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 1 FUNCTIONs

Key points
✔ A mapping is a rule for changing one number into another number or
numbers.
✔ A function, f(x), is a rule that maps one number onto another single
number.
✔ The graph of a function has only one value of y for each value of x.
However, two or more values of x may give the same value of y.
✔ A flow chart can be used to show the individual operations within a
function in the order in which they are applied.
✔ The domain of a function is the set of input values, or objects, that
the function is operating on.
✔ The range or image set of a function is the corresponding set of
output values or images, f(x).
✔ A mapping diagram can be used to illustrate a function. It is best used
when the domain contains only a small number of values.
✔ In a one-one function there is a unique value of y for every value of x
and a unique value of x for every value of y.
✔ In a many-one function two or more values of x correspond to the
same value of y.
✔ In a one-many function one value of x corresponds to two or more
values of y.
✔ In a many-many function two or more values of x correspond to the
same value of y and two or more values of y correspond to the same
value of x.
✔ The inverse of a function reverses the effect of the function. Only one-
one functions have inverses.
✔ The term composition of functions is used to describe the application
of one function followed by another function(s).The notation fg(x)
means that the function g is applied first, then f is applied to the result.
✔ The modulus of a number or a function is always a positive value.
|x| = x if x  0 and |x| = −x if x < 0.
✔ The modulus of a function y = f(x) is denoted by |f(x)| and is illustrated
by reflecting any part of the graph where y < 0 in the x-axis.

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 2 Quadratic functions
One really can’t argue with a mathematical theorem.
Stephen Hawking (1942–2018)

Early mathematics focused principally on arithmetic and geometry.

However, in the sixteenth century a French mathematician,
François Viète, started work on ‘new algebra’. He was a lawyer by trade
and served as a privy councillor to both Henry III and Henry IV of
France. His innovative use of letters and parameters in equations was
an important step towards modern algebra.

François Viète (1540−1603)

Discussion point
Viète presented methods of solving equations of second, third and
fourth degrees and discovered the connection between the positive roots
of an equation and the coefficients of different powers of the unknown
quantity. Another of Viete’s remarkable achievements was to prove that
claims that a circle could be squared, an angle trisected and
the cube doubled were untrue. He achieved all this, and much more,
using only a ruler and compasses, without the use of either tables or a
calculator! In order to appreciate the challenges Viète faced, try to solve
the quadratic equation 2x² − 8x + 5 = 0 without using a calculator. Give
your answers correct to two decimal places.

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

This chapter is about quadratic functions and covers a number of

related themes.
The graph below illustrates these themes:
The equation is y = x2 − 4x + 3. This is a quadratic curve.
x2 − 4x + 3 is a quadratic function. Quadratic curves are
Quadratic functions are covered covered on pages 20 to 22.
throughout the early part of this
chapter.
y
8

x
−1 1 2 3 4 5

−2

The values of x at the points where the The turning point and the line of
curve crosses the x-axis are the roots of symmetry can be found by expressing
the quadratic equation x2 − 4x + 3 = 0. the equation in completed square form.
Coverage of quadratic equations begins Coverage of completed square form
at the bottom of page 22. begins on page 24.

Maximum and minimum values

A polynomial is an expression in which, with the exception of a
constant, the terms are positive integer powers of a variable. The highest
power is the order of the polynomial.
A quadratic function or expression is a polynomial of order 2.
x² + 3, a² and 2y² − 3y + 5 are all quadratic expressions. Each expression
contains only one variable (letter), and the highest power of that
variable is 2.
The graph of a quadratic function is either ∪-shaped or ∩-shaped.
Think about the expression x² + 3x + 2. When the value of x is very
large and positive, or very large and negative, the x² term dominates the
expression, resulting in large positive values. Therefore the graph of the
function is ∪-shaped.

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 Maximum and minimum values

Similarly, the −2x² term dominates the expression 5 − 4x − 2x² for both
large positive and large negative values of x giving negative values
of the expression for both. Therefore the graph of this function is
∩-shaped.
Although many of the quadratic equations that you will meet will have
three terms, you will also meet quadratic equations with only two, or
even one term. These fall into two main categories.
1 Equations with no constant term, for example, 2x² − 5x = 0.
This has x as a common factor so factorises to x(2x − 5) = 0
⇒ x = 0 or 2x − 5 = 0
⇒ x = 0 or x = 2.5
2 Equations with no ‘middle’ term, which come into two categories:
i The sign of the constant term is negative, for example, a² − 9 = 0
and 2a² − 7 = 0.
a² − 9 = 0 factorises to (a + 3)(a − 3) = 0
⇒ a = −3 or a = 3
2a² − 7 = 0 ⇒ a² = 3.5
⇒ a = ± 3.5
ii The sign of the constant term is positive, for example, p² + 4 = 0.
p² + 4 = 0 ⇒ p² = −4, so there is no real-valued solution.

Note
Depending on the calculator you are using, (−4) may be displayed as ‘Math
error’ or ‘2i’, where i is used to denote (−1). This is a complex number or
imaginary number which you will meet if you study Further Mathematics at
Advanced Level.

The vertical line of symmetry

Graphs of all quadratic functions have a vertical line of symmetry. You
can use this to find the maximum or minimum value of the function.
If the graph crosses the horizontal axis, then the line of symmetry
is halfway between the two points of intersection. The maximum or
minimum value lies on this line of symmetry.

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

Worked example
a Plot the graph of y = x² − 4x − 5 for values of x from −2 to +6.
b Identify the values of x where the curve intersects the horizontal axis.
c Hence find the coordinates of the maximum or minimum point.
Solution
First create a table
a
of values for x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2  x   6. y 7 0 −5 −8 –9 −8 −5 0 7

y
7
6 y = x2 − 4x − 5
5
4
3
2
1

–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
This point is often –6
referred to as the –7
turning point of –8
the curve. –9
This is also shown –10
in the table.
b The graph intersects the horizontal axis when x = −1 and when x = 5.
The line x = 2 c The graph shows that the curve has a minimum turning point halfway
passes through the between x = −1 and x = 5. The table shows that the coordinates of this point
turning point. It is are (2, −9).
a vertical line of
symmetry for the
curve. Factorising
Drawing graphs by hand to find maximum or minimum values can be
time-consuming. The following example shows you how to use algebra
to find these values.

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 Maximum and minimum values

Worked example
The first step Find the coordinates of the turning point of the curve y = x² + x − 6. State
is to factorise whether the turning point is a maximum or a minimum value.
the expression. Solution
One method of Find two integers (whole numbers) that multiply together to give the constant
factorising is term, −6.
shown, but if you Possible pairs of numbers with a product of −6 are: 6 and −1, 1 and −6,
are confident using 3 and −2, 2 and −3.
a different method Identify any of the pairs of numbers that can be added together to give the
then continue to coefficient of x (1). 3 and −2 are the only pair with a sum of 1, so use this pair to
use it. split up the x term.

x² + x − 6 = x² + 3x −2x − 6
Both expressions = x(x + 3) − 2(x + 3)
in the brackets = (x + 3)(x − 2)
must be the same.
Notice the sign Note
change due to the You would get the same result if you used 3x and −2x in the opposite order:
negative sign in x² + x − 6 = x² −2x + 3x − 6
front of the 2. = x(x − 2) + 3(x − 2)
= (x − 2)(x + 3)

The graph of y = x² + x − 6 crosses the x-axis when (x + 3)(x − 2) = 0, i.e. when

x = −3 and when x = 2.
The x-coordinate of the turning point is halfway between these two values, so:
−3 + 2
x=
2
  = −0.5
Substituting this value into the equation of the curve gives:
y = (−0.5)² + (−0.5) − 6
  = −6.25
The equation of the curve has a positive x² term so its graph is ∪-shaped.
Therefore the minimum value is at (−0.5, −6.25).

The method shown above can be adapted for curves with an equation in
which the coefficient of x² is not +1, for example, y = 6x² − 13x + 6 or
y = 6 − x − 2x², as shown in the next example.

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

Worked example
For the curve with equation y = 6 − x − 2x²:
a Will the turning point of the curve be a maximum or a minimum? Give a
reason for your answer.
Continue to use
b Write down the coordinates of the turning point.
any alternative
methods of c State the equation of the line of symmetry.
factorising Solution
that you are a The coefficient of x² is negative so the curve will be ∩-shaped. This means
confident with. that the turning point will be a maximum.
b First multiply the constant term and the coefficient of x², i.e. 6 × −2 = −12.
Identify any of the Then find two whole numbers that multiply together to give this product.
pairs of numbers
Possible pairs are: 6 and −2, −6 and 2, −3 and 4, −3 and 4,
that can be added 1 and −12, −1 and 12.
together to give
−3 and 4 are the only pair with a sum of −1, so use this pair to split up the
the coefficient of
x term.
x (−1).
6 − x − 2x² = 6 + 3x − 4x − 2x²
Both expressions   = 3(2 + x) − 2x(2 + x)
  = (2 + x)(3 − 2x)
in the brackets
must be the same. The graph of y = 6 − x − 2x² crosses the x-axis when (2 + x)(3 − 2x) = 0,
Notice the sign i.e. when x = −2 and when x = 1.5.
change is due to −2 + 1.5
x=
the sign in front of 2
the 2.   = −0.25
Substituting this value into the equation of the curve gives:
The x-coordinate y = 6 − (−0.25) − 2(−0.25)²
of the turning   = 6.125
point is halfway
So the turning point is (−0.25, 6.125)
between these two
values. c The equation of the line of symmetry is x = −0.25.

Completing the square

The methods shown in the previous examples will always work for
curves that cross the x-axis. For quadratic curves that do not cross the
x-axis, you will need to use the method of completing the square, shown
in the next example.
Another way of writing the quadratic expression x 2 + 6 x + 11 is
( x + 3) 2 + 2 and this is called completed square form. Written like this
the expression consists of a squared term, ( x + 3) 2, that includes the
variable, x, and a constant term +2.
In the next example you see how to convert an ordinary quadratic
expression into completed square form.

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 Maximum and minimum values

Worked example
a Write x 2 − 8 x + 18 in completed square form.
b State whether it is a maximum or minimum.
c Sketch the curve y = f(x).
Solution
a Start by halving the coefficient of x and squaring the result.
−8 ÷ 2 = −4
(−4)2 = 16
Now use this result to break up the constant term, +18, into two parts:
18 = 16 + 2

You will always and use this to rewrite the original expression as:
have a perfect f(x) = x² − 8x + 16 + 2
square in this   = (x − 4)² + 2
expression. (x − 4)²  0 (always)
⇒ f(x)  2 for all values of x
In completed square form, x 2 − 8 x + 18 = ( x − 4 ) 2 + 2
b f(x)  2 for all values of x so the turning point is a minimum.
c The function is a ∪-shaped curve because the coefficient of x2 is positive.
From the above, the minimum turning point is at (4, 2) so the curve does
not cross the x-axis. To sketch the graph, you will also need to know where it
crosses the y-axis.
f(x) = x² − 8x + 18 crosses the y-axis when x = 0, i.e. at (0, 18).
y
30
25
20
15 f (x) = x2 − 8x + 18
10
5

–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x

Worked example
Use the method of completing the square to work out the coordinates of the
turning point of the quadratic function f(x) = 2x² − 8x + 9.

Solution
f(x) = 2x² − 8x + 9
= 2(x² − 4x) + 9
= 2((x − 2)² − 4) + 9
= 2(x − 2)² + 1

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

(x − 2)²  0 (always), so the minimum value of f(x) is 1.

When f(x) = 1, x = 2.
Therefore the coordinates of the turning point (minimum value) of the function
f(x) = 2x² − 8x + 9 are (2, 1).

Sometimes you will be asked to sketch the graph of a function f(x) for
certain values of x. This set of values of x is called the domain of the
function. The corresponding set of y-values is called the range.

Worked example
The domain of the function y = 6x² + x − 2 is −3  x  3.
Sketch the graph and find the range of the function.
Solution
The coefficient of x² is positive, so the curve is ∪-shaped and the turning point is
a minimum.
The curve crosses the x-axis when 6x² + x − 2 = 0.
6x² + x − 2 = (3x + 2)(2x − 1)
⇒ (3x + 2)(2x − 1) = 0
⇒ (3x + 2) = 0 or (2x − 1) = 0
So the graph crosses the x-axis at (− 23 , 0) and ( 12 , 0).
The curve crosses the y-axis when x = 0, i.e. at (0, −2).
y
60
50
y = 6x2 + 6x − 2
40
30
20
10

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–10

The curve has a vertical line of symmetry passing halfway between the two
points where the curve intersects the x-axis. Therefore the equation of this line
− 23 + 12 1
of symmetry is x =  or x = − .
2 12

) + (− 121 ) − 2 = −2 24 , the minimum value of the function.

1
When x = − 1 , y = 6 − 1 (
2

12 12
To find the range, work out the values of y for x = −3 and x = +3.
The larger of these When x = −3, y = 6 (−3)² + (−3) − 2 = 49.
gives the maximum When x = 3, y = 6 (3)² + 3 − 2 = 55.
value. The range of the function corresponding to the domain −3  x  3 is therefore
1
−2 24  y  55.
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 Maximum and minimum values

Exercise 2.1 1 Solve each equation by factorising:

a x² + x − 20 = 0 b x² − 5x + 6 = 0
c x² − 3x − 28 = 0 d x² + 13x + 42 = 0
2 Solve each equation by factorising:
a 2x² − 3x + 1 = 0 b 9x² + 3x − 2 = 0
c 2x² − 5x − 7 = 0 d 3x² + 17x + 10 = 0
3 Solve each equation by factorising:
a x² − 169 = 0 b 4x² − 121 = 0
c 100 − 64x² = 0 d 12x² − 27 = 0
4 For each of the following curves:
i Factorise the function.
ii Work out the coordinates of the turning point.
iii State whether the turning point is a maximum or minimum.
iv Sketch the graph, labelling the coordinates of the turning point and
any points of intersection with the axes.
a y = x² + 7x + 10 b f(x) = 16 − 6x − x²
c y = 5 − 9x − 2x² d f(x) = 2x² + 11x + 12
5 Write each quadratic expressions in the form (x + a)² + b:
a x² + 4x + 9 b x² − 10x − 4
c x² + 5x − 7 d x² − 9x − 2
6 Write each quadratic expression in the form c(x + a)² + b.
a 2x² − 12x + 5 b 3x² + 12x + 20
c 4x² − 8x + 5 d 2x² + 9x + 6
7 Solve the following quadratic equations. Leave your answers in the form
x = p ± q.
a x² + 4x − 9 = 0 b x² − 7x − 2 = 0
c 2x² + 6x − 9 = 0 d 3x² + 9x − 15 = 0
8 For each of the following functions:
i Use the method of completing the square to find the coordinates of
the turning point of the graph.
ii State whether the turning point is a maximum or a minimum.
iii Sketch the graph.
a f(x) = x² + 6x + 15 b y = 8 + 2x − x²
c y = 2x² + 2x − 9 d f : x → x² − 8x + 20
9 Sketch the graph and find the corresponding range for each function and
domain.
a y = x² − 7x + 10 for the domain 1  x  6
b f(x) = 2x² − x − 6 for the domain −2  x  2

Real-world activity
1 Draw a sketch of a bridge modelled on the equation 25y = 100 − x²
for −10  x  10. Label the origin O, point A(−10, 0),
point B(10, 0) and point C(0, 4).
2 1 unit on your graph represents 1 metre. State the maximum
height of the bridge, OC, and the span, AB.
3 Work out the equation of a similar bridge with a maximum height
of 5 m and a span of 40 m.
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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

The quadratic formula

The roots of a quadratic equation f(x) are those values of x for which
y = 0 for the curve y = f(x). In other words, they are the x-coordinates
of the points where the curve either crosses or touches the x-axis.
There are three possible outcomes.
1 The curve crosses the x-axis at two distinct points. In this case, the
corresponding equation is said to have two real distinct roots.
2 The curve touches the x-axis, in which case the equation has two
equal (repeating) roots.
3 The curve lies completely above or completely below the x-axis so it
neither crosses nor touches the axis. In this case, the equation has no
real roots.
The method of completing the square can be generalised to give a
formula for solving quadratic equations. The next example uses this
method in a particular case on the left-hand side and shows the same
steps for the general case on the right-hand side, using algebra to derive
the formula for solving quadratic equations.

Worked example
Solve 2x² + x − 4 = 0.

Solution Generalisation
2x² + x − 4 = 0 ax² + bx + c = 0
1 b c
⇒ x² +x−2=0 ⇒ x² + a x + = 0
2 a
1 b c
⇒ x² + x = 2 ⇒ x² + x = −
2 a a
 1 2 b
1 2
( ) ( )
2 2
1 c
⇒ x² + x +   x = 2 +   ⇒ x² +  a  x + b = − + b
2 4 4   2 a a 2 a

( )
2
( x + 14 ) x + b = b −  ac
2 2
⇒ = 33 ⇒
2a
16 4a 2
b 2 − 4 ac
  =
4a 2
⇒ ( x + 14 ) = ± 33
4
⇒ x+
2a
b
= ± b − 42 ac
2
4a
= ± b − 4 ac
2
2a
1 33 b
⇒                                      x = − ± b − 4 ac
2
⇒ x=−
4 ± 4 2a 2a
= −1 ±4 33 − ±
b b 2 − 4 ac
  =
2a

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 The quadratic formula

The result x = −b ± 2ba − 4ac is known as the quadratic formula. You can
2

use it to solve any quadratic equation. One root is found by taking the
+ sign, and the other by taking the − sign. When the value of b² − 4ac
is negative, the square root cannot be found and so there is no real
solution to that quadratic equation. This occurs when the curve does not
cross the x-axis.

In an equation Note
of the form
(px + q)2 = 0, The part b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant because it discriminates between
quadratic equations with no roots, quadratic equations with one repeated
where p and q root and quadratic equations with two real roots.
can represent
either positive or • If b2 − 4ac > 0 there are 2 real roots.
negative numbers, • If b2 − 4ac = 0 there is 1 repeated root.
px + q = 0 gives • If b2 − 4ac < 0 there are no real roots.
the only solution.

Worked example
a Show that the equation 4x² − 12x + 9 = 0 has a repeated root by:
i factorising ii using the discriminant.
b State with reasons how many real roots the following equations have:
i 4 x 2 − 12 x + 8 = 0 ii 4 x 2 − 12 x + 10 = 0

Solution
a i 4x² − 12x + 9 = 0
  ⇒ (2x − 3)(2x − 3) = 0
2x − 3 = 0
  ⇒ x = 1.5
ii The equation has a repeated root because the discriminant
b² − 4ac = (−12)² − 4(4)(9) = 0.
y = 4x 2 – 12x + 10 b i The curve y = 4 x 2 − 12 x + 8 is 1 unit
y y = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 below y = 4 x 2 − 12 x + 9 and crosses
the x-axis in 2 points. So the equation
4 y = 4x 2 – 12x + 8 has two real roots.

2 ii The curve y = 4 x 2 − 12 x + 10 is
1 unit above y = 4 x 2 − 12 x + 9 and
does not cross the x-axis. So the
equation 4 x 2 − 12 x + 10 = 0 has no
1 2 3 4
x real roots.

–2

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

In some cases, such as in the previous example, the factorisation is not

straightforward. In such cases, evaluating the discriminant is a reliable
method to obtain an accurate result.

Worked example
Show that the equation 3x² − 2x + 4 = 0 has no real solution.

Solution
The most straightforward method is to look at the discriminant. If the
discriminant is negative, there is no real solution.

Substituting these For 3x² − 2x + 4 = 0, a =3, b = −2 and c = 4.

values into the b² − 4ac = (−2)² − 4(3)(4)
  = −44
discriminant
Since the discriminant is negative, there is no real solution.

The general The intersection of a line and a curve

equation of a
straight line is The examples so far have considered whether or not a curve intersects,
touches, or lies completely above or below the x-axis (y = 0). The next
y = mx + c. This has
example considers the more general case of whether or not a curve
alternate forms, intersects, touches or lies completely above or below a particular
e.g. ax + by + c = 0. straight line.

Worked example
a Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = 4 − 2x and
the curve y = x² + x.
b Sketch the line and the curve on the same axes.

Solution
a To find where the curve and the lines intersect, solve y = x² + x
The y-values of simultaneously with y = 4 − 2x.
both equations
are the same at x² + x = 4 − 2x
⇒ x² + 3x − 4 = 0
the point(s) of ⇒ (x + 4)(x − 1) = 0
intersection. ⇒ x = −4 or x = 1

It is more To find the y-coordinate, substitute into one of the equations.

straightforward to When x = −4, y = 4 − 2(−4) = 12.
substitute into the When x = 1, y = 4 − 2(1) = 2.
linear equation. The line y = 4 − 2x intersects the curve y = x² + x at (−4, 12) and (1, 2).

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 The intersection of a line and a curve

b The curve has a positive coefficient of x² so is ∪-shaped.

It crosses the x-axis when x² + x = 0.
⇒   x(x + 1) = 0
⇒   x = 0 or x = −1
So the curve crosses the x-axis at x = 0 and x = −1.
It crosses the y-axis when x = 0.
Substituting x = 0 into y = x² + x gives y = 0.
So the curve passes through the origin.
The line 2x + y = 4 crosses the x-axis when y = 0. When y = 0, x = 2.
The line 2x + y = 4 crosses the y-axis when x = 0. When x = 0, y = 4.
y
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
y = x2 + x
4
3
2
1 y = 4 − 2x

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1

It is possible for a quadratic curve to touch a general line, either sloping

or parallel to the x-axis. You can see this when you solve the equations
of the line and the curve simultaneously. If you get a repeated root, it
means that they touch at only one point. The line is a tangent to the
curve. This is shown in the next example.

Worked example
a Use algebra to show that the line y = 6x − 19 touches the curve y = x² − 2x − 3
and find the coordinates of the point of contact.
b Sketch the line and curve on the same axes.

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 2 Quadratic functions

Solution
a Solving the equations simultaneously
x² − 2x − 3 = 6x − 19
⇒ x² − 8x + 16 = 0
⇒ (x − 4)² = 0
⇒ x=4
The repeated root x = 4 shows that the line and the curve touch.
It is more
Substitute x = 4 into either equation to find the value of the y-coordinate.
straightforward to
substitute into the y = 6(4) − 19
line equation. =5
Therefore the point of contact is (4, 5).
b The coefficient of x² is positive so the curve is ∪-shaped.
Substituting x = 0 into y = x² − 2x − 3 shows that the curve intersects the
y-axis at (0, −3).
Substituting y = 0 into y = x² − 2x − 3 gives x² − 2x − 3 = 0.
⇒   (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
⇒   x = −1 or x = 3
So the curve intersects the x-axis at (−1, 0) and (3, 0).
You need two y
points to draw a 25
line. It is best to 20
choose points with y = x2 – 2x – 3
whole numbers 15

that are not too 10

large, such as y = 6x – 19
5
(3, −1) and (5, 11).
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–5

Discussion point
Why is it not possible for a quadratic curve to touch a line parallel to the
y-axis?

There are many situations when a line and a curve do not intersect or
touch each other. A straightforward example of this occurs when the
graph of a quadratic function is a ∪-shaped curve completely above the
x-axis, e.g. y = x² + 3, and the line is the x-axis.

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 The intersection of a line and a curve

You have seen how solving the equations of a curve and a line
simultaneously gives a quadratic equation with two roots when the line
crosses the curve, and a quadratic equation with a repeated root when it
touches the curve. If solving the two equations simultaneously results in
no real roots, i.e. the discriminant is negative, then they do not cross or
touch.

Worked example
a Sketch the graphs of the line y = x − 3 and the curve y = x² − 2x on the same
axes.
b Use algebra to prove that the line and the curve don’t meet.

Solution
a y
4
3
2
y = x2 – 2x
1

–2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
y=x–3
–2
–3
You do not actually –4
need to write
down the solution. b x² − 2x = x − 3 Solving the two equations
Once you see that simultaneously
⇒ x² − 3x + 3 = 0
the value of the This does not factorise, so solve using the quadratic formula x = −b ± 2ba − 4 ac
2

discriminant is
negative, as in this a = 1, b = −3 and c = 3
case where it is -3, x = 
−(−3) ± (−3) 2 − 4(1)(3)
2(1)
you know that the
3 ± −3
equation has no = 2
real roots, so the Since there is a negative value under the square root, there is no real
line and the curve solution. This implies that the line and the curve do not meet.
don’t meet.

Note
It would have been sufficient to consider only the discriminant b² − 4ac.
Solving a quadratic equation is equivalent to finding the point(s) where the
curve crosses the horizontal axis (the roots).

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

Using quadratic equations to solve

problems
Worked example
A triangle has a base of (2x + 1) cm, a height of x cm and an area of 68 cm2.

2x + 1

a Show that x satisfies the equation 2x² + x − 136 = 0.

b Solve the equation and work out the base length of the triangle.
Solution
1
a Using the formula for the area of a triangle, area = base × height:
2
1
Area = × (2x + 1) × x
2
1
= (2x² + x)
2
The area is 68 cm2, so:
1
(2x² + x) = 68
2
⇒ 2x² + x = 136
Alternatively, ⇒ 2x² + x − 136 = 0
you can use a b It is not easy to factorise this equation − it is not even obvious that there are
calculator to solve factors − so use the quadratic formula.
the equation. −b ± b2 − 4 ac
x= 2a
a = 2, b = 1 and c = −136
−1 ± 12 − 4(2)(−136)
x=
2(2)
−1 ± 1089
⇒x=
4
−1 ± 33
⇒ x =  4
⇒ x = 8 or x = −8.5
Since x is a length, reject the negative solution.
Substitute x = 8 into the expression for the base of the triangle, 2x + 1, and
work out the length of the base of the triangle, 17 cm.
Check that this works with the information given in the original question.
1
× 17 cm × 8 cm = 68 cm2
2

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 Solving quadratic inequalities

Solving quadratic inequalities

The quadratic inequalities in this section all involve quadratic
expressions that factorise. This means that you can find a solution either
by sketching the appropriate graph or by using line segments to reduce
the quadratic inequality to two simultaneous linear inequalities.
The example below shows two valid methods for solving quadratic
inequalities. You should use whichever method you prefer. Your choice
may depend on how easily you sketch graphs or if you have a graphic
calculator that you can use to plot these graphs.

Worked example
Solve these quadratic inequalities.
a x2 − 2x − 3 < 0
b x2 − 2x − 3  0
Solution
Method 1
x2 − 2x − 3 = (x + 1)(x − 3)
So the graph of y = x2 − 2x − 3 crosses the x-axis when x = −1 and x = 3.
Look at the two graphs below.
Here the end points are not Here the end points are
included in the solution, so included in the solutions, so
you draw open circles: you draw solid circles:
y y
y = (x + 1) (x – 3) y = (x + 1) (x – 3)

0 x 0 x
–1 3 –1 3

–3 –3 Notice how the

solution is in
The solution is −1 < x < 3. The solution is x two parts when
 −1 or x  3. there are two
line segments.
a The answer is the values of x for which y < 0, i.e. where the curve is below the
x-axis.
b The answer is the values of x for which y  0, i.e. where the curve crosses or
is above the x-axis.

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

Method 2
This method identifies the values of x for which each of the factors is 0 and
considers the sign of each factor in the intervals between these critical values.

x < −1 x = −1 −1 < x < 3 x=3 x>3

Sign of (x + 1) − 0 + + +
Sign of (x − 3) − − − 0 +
Sign of (x + 1)( x − 3) (−) × (−) = + (0) × (−) = 0 (+) × (−) = − (+) × (0) = 0 (+) × (+) = +

From the table, the solution to:

a (x + 1)(x − 3) < 0 is −1 < x < 3
b (x + 1)( x − 3)  0 is x  −1 or x  3

If the inequality to be solved contains > or <, then the solution is

described using > and <. If the original inequality contains  or , then
the solution is described using  and .
If the quadratic inequality has the variable on both sides, collect the
terms involving the variable on one side first in the same way as you
would before solving a quadratic equation.

Worked example
Solve 2x + x2 > 3.

Solution
2x + x2 > 3 ⇒ x2 + 2x − 3 > 0
  ⇒ (x − 1)(x + 3) > 0
y

y = (x – 1)(x + 3)

–3 0 1 x

–3

From the graph, the solution is x < −3 or x > 1.

Exercise 2.2 1 For each of the following equations, decide if there are two real and
different roots, two equal roots or no real roots. Solve the equations with
real roots.
a x² + 3x + 2 = 0 b t² − 9 = 0 c x² + 16 = 0
d 2x² − 5x = 0 e p² + 3p − 18 = 0 f x² + 10x + 25 = 0
g 15a² + 2a − 1 = 0 h 3r² + 8r = 3

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 Solving quadratic inequalities

2 Solve the following equations by:

i completing the square ii using the quadratic formula.
Give your answers correct to two decimal places.
a x² − 2x − 10 = 0 b x² + x = 0
c 2x² + 2x − 9 = 0 d 2x² + x − 8 = 0
3 Try to solve each of the following equations. Where there is a solution,
give your answers correct to two decimal places.
a 4x² + 6x − 9 = 0 b 9x² + 6x + 4 = 0
c (2x + 3)² = 7 d x(2x − 1) = 9
4 Use the discriminant to decide whether each of the following equations
has two equal roots, two distinct roots or no real roots:
a 9x² − 12x + 4 = 0 b 6x² − 13x + 6 = 0 c 2x² + 7x + 9 = 0
d 2x² + 9x + 10 = 0 e 3x² − 4x + 5 = 0 f 4x² + 28x + 49 = 0
5 For each pair of equations determine if the line intersects the curve, is a
tangent to the curve or does not meet the curve. Give the coordinates of
any points where the line and curve touch or intersect.
a y = x² + 12x; y = 9 + 6x b y = 2x² + 3x − 4; y = 2x − 6
c y = 6x² − 12x + 6; y = x d y = x² − 8x + 18; y = 2x + 3
e y = x² + x; 2x + y = 4 f y = 4x² + 9; y = 12x
g y = 3 − 2x − x²; y = 9 + 2x h y = (3 − 2x)²; y = 2 − 3x
6 Solve the following inequalities and illustrate each solution on a number
line:
a x² − 6x + 5 > 0 b a² + 3a − 4  0 c 4 − y² > 0
d x² − 4x + 4 > 0 e 8 − 2a > a² f 3y² + 2y − 1 > 0

Real-world activity
Anna would like to design a pendant for her mother and decides
that it should resemble an eye. She starts by making the scale
drawing, shown below.
y
5
4
3
2
1

0 x
6 ––5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–7 ––6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
–2
–3
–4

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

The pendant is made up of the shaded area.

The equations of the two circles are x² + y² = 4 and x² + y² = 9.
The rest of the pendant is formed by quadratic curves.
The scale is 2 units represents 1 cm.
1 Find the equations of the four quadratic curves.
2 Anna decides to make some earrings using a smaller version of
the pendant design. She reduces the size by a factor of 2. Find the
equations of the four quadratic curves for the earrings.

Past-paper questions
1 (i) Express 2x2 − x + 6 in the form p(x − q)2 + r, where p, q and r
are constants to be found. [3]
(ii) Hence state the least value of 2x2 − x + 6 and the value of x
at which this occurs. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 21 Q5 June 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q5 June 2014
2 Find the set of values of k for which the curve y = 2x2 + kx + 2k − 6
lies above the x-axis for all values of x. [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q4 June 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q4 June 2013
3 The line y = mx + 2 is a tangent to the curve y = x2 + 12x + 18. Find
the possible values of m. [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 13 Q3 November 2010
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 13 Q3 November 2010

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 Quadratic functions

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H find the maximum or minimum value of the quadratic function
f: x  ax² + bx + c by any method
H use the maximum or minimum values of f(x) to sketch the graph
or determine the range for a given domain
H know the conditions for f(x) = 0 to have two real roots, two equal
roots or no real roots and know the related conditions for a given
line to intersect a given curve, be a tangent to a given curve or not
intersect a given curve
H solve quadratic equations for real roots and find the solution set
for quadratic inequalities.

Key points
✔ A quadratic function has the form f(x) = ax² + bx + c,, where
a, b and c can be any number (positive, negative or zero) provided
that a ≠ 0. The set of possible values of x is called the domain of
the function and the set of y values is called the range.
✔ To plot the graph of a quadratic function, first calculate the value
of y for each value of x in the given range.
✔ The graph of a quadratic function is symmetrical about a vertical
line. It is ∪-shaped if the coefficient of x² is positive and ∩-shaped
if the coefficient of x² is negative.
✔ To sketch the graph of a quadratic function:
• look at the coefficient of x² to determine the shape
• substitute x = 0 to determine where the curve crosses the
vertical axis
• solve f(x) = 0 to determine any values of x where the curve
touches or crosses the horizontal axis.
✔ If there are no real values for x for which f(x) = 0, then the curve
will be either completely above or completely below the x-axis.
✔ A quadratic equation is of the form ax² + bx + c with a ≠ 0.
✔ To factorise a quadratic equation of the form x² + bx + c = 0, look
for two numbers, p and q, with the sum b and the product c. The
factorised form is then (x − p)(x − q) = 0. To factorise an equation
of the form ax² + bx + c = 0, look for two numbers with the sum
b and the product ac.

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 2 QUaDRaTIC FUNCTIONs

✔ The discriminant of a quadratic equation (ax² + bx + c = 0) is

b² − 4ac. If b² − 4ac > 0, a quadratic equation will have two distinct
solutions (or roots). If b² − 4ac = 0, the two roots are equal so
there is one repeating root. If b² − 4ac < 0, the roots have no real
values.
✔ An expression of the form (px + q)² is called a perfect square.

( − (b)
2)
2 2
✔ x² + bx + c can be written as x + b + c using the method of
2
completing the square. For expressions of the form ax² + bx + c,
first take a out as a factor.
✔ The quadratic formula for solving an equation of the form
ax² + bx + c = 0 is x =  −b ± 2ba −4 ac
2

✔ To find the point(s) where a line and a curve touch or intersect,

substitute the expression for y from one equation into the other
to give a quadratic equation in x.
✔ When solving a quadratic inequality, it is advisable to start by
sketching the associated quadratic graph.

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 3 Equations, inequalities
and graphs
It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by
means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position as well
as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so
simple to us now that that we ignore its true merit.
Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace (1749 – 1827)

The picture shows a quadrat. This is a tool used by biologists to select

a random sample of ground; once it is in place they will make a record
of all the plants and creatures living there. Then they will throw the
quadrat so that it lands somewhere else.
y This diagram illustrates a 1 metre square
1 quadrat. The centre point is taken to be the
origin and the sides to be parallel to the x- and
y-axes.
–1 1 x

–1

Discussion point
What is the easiest way to describe the region it covers?

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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

Many practical situations involve the use of inequalities.

How economical is a Formula 1 car?
The Monaco Grand Prix, consisting of 78 laps and a total distance
of approximately 260 km, is a well-known Formula 1 race. In 2017 it
was won by Sebastian Vettel in 1 hour 44 minutes. Restrictions on
the amount and use of fuel mean that drivers need to manage the
performance of their car very carefully throughout the race.
A restriction in 2017 was that the total amount of fuel used during the
race was limited to 105kg which is approximately 140 litres.
Using: f to denote the total amount of fuel used in litres
d to represent the distance travelled in kilometres

(
E to represent the fuel economy in litres per kilometre E =
f
d )
the restriction can be represented as E  140
260
 
⇒ E  0.538
This shows that, at worst, the fuel economy of Vettel’s Ferrari Formula 1
car is 0.538 litres per kilometre.

Discussion point
How does this compare with an average road car?

Modulus functions and graphs

For any real number, the absolute value, or modulus, is its positive size
whether that number is positive or negative. It is denoted by a vertical
For any real line on each side of the quantity. For example, |5| = 5 and |−5| = 5 also.
number x, the The absolute value of a number will always be positive or zero. It can
modulus of x is be thought of as the distance between that point on the x-axis and
denoted by |x| and the origin.
is defined as: You have already met graphs of the form y = 3x + 4 and y = x² − 3x – 4.
|x| = x if x  0 However you might not be as familiar with graphs of the form
|x| = −x if x < 0. y = |3x + 4| and y = |x² − 3x – 4|.

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 Solving modulus equations

Worked example
Set up a table for the graphs y = x + 2 and y = |x + 2| for −6  x  2. Draw both
graphs on the same axes.

Solution
y −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
x+2 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
|x + 2| 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

y
5

The equation of 4

this part of the y = |x + 2| 3

graph is  2
y = −(x + 2). 1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2

y=x+2 –3
–4

Notice that effect of taking the modulus is a transformation in which

the positive part of the original graph (above the x-axis) remains the
same and the negative part of the original graph (below the x-axis) is
reflected in the x-axis.

Solving modulus equations

Worked example
Solve the equation |2x + 3| = 5
a graphically
b algebraically.

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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

Solution
a First draw the graph of y = 2x + 3.
Start by choosing three values of x and calculating the corresponding values
of y, for example, (−2, −1), (0, 3) and (2, 7).
Then reflect in the x-axis any part of the graph that is below the x-axis to give
the graph of y = |2x + 3|.
Next draw the line y = 5. This is a
y continuation
7 of the line
y = |2x + 3|
6 y = 2x + 3.
5
y=5 x = 1 here
4
3
2
x = −4 here
1

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–1
–2
–3

The solution is given by the values of x where the V-shaped graph meets the
line y = 5
⇒ x = 1 or x = −4.
b |2x + 3| = 5 ⇒ 2x + 3 = 5 or 2x + 3 = −5
⇒ 2x = 2 or 2x = −8
⇒ x = 1 or x = −4

Discussion point
Notice that in the solution three points are used to draw the straight line
when only two are necessary. Why is this good practice?

Either of these methods can be extended to find the points where two
V-shaped graphs intersect. However, the graphical method will not
always give an accurate solution.

Worked example
Solve the equation |2x + 5| = |x − 4|.

Solution
Start by drawing the graphs of y = |2x + 5| and y = |x − 4| on the same axes.

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 Solving modulus equations

y
14 This is part
This is part of the of the line
A y = |2x + 5|
line y = −(x – 4). 12
y = 2x + 5.
10
This is part
of the line 8
y = −(2x + 5). 6 y = |x − 4|
B4
This is part
of the line
2 y = x − 4.

–12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2

The graph shows that the point A is (−9, 13), but the coordinates of B are not
This shows a clear.
failing of the The graph shows that both points of intersection occur where the reflected part
graphical method. of the line y = x − 4, i.e. the line y = −(x – 4) intersects the graph of
However, the y = |2x + 5|.
graph is useful At A, y = 4 − x meets y = −2x − 5
in determining
⇒ 4 − x = −2x – 5
the equation of
the line required ⇒ 2x − x = −5 − 4
for an algebraic ⇒ x = −9
solution.
When x = −9, y = 4 – (−9) = 13, i.e. A is the point (−9, 13).
At B, y = 4 − x meets y = 2x + 5
⇒ 2x + 5 = 4 − x
⇒ 3x = −1
⇒x = − 1
3

3 3( ) 3 (
When x = − 1, y = 4 – − 1 = 4 1 , i.e. B is the point − 1 , 4 1 .
3 3 )

Exercise 3.1 For questions 1–3, sketch each pair of graphs on the same axes.
1 a y = x and y = |x| b y = x − 1 and y = |x – 1|
c y = x − 2 and y = |x – 2|
2 a y = 2x and y = |2x| b y = 2x – 1 and y = |2x − 1|
c y = 2x – 2 and y = |2x − 2|
3 a y = 2 – x and y = |2 – x| b y = 3 – x and y = |3 – x|
c y = 4 – x and y = |4 – x|

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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

Exercise 3.1 (cont) 4 a Draw the graph of y = |x + 1|.

b Use the graph to solve the equation |x + 1| = 5.
c Use algebra to verify your answer to part b.
5 a Draw the graph of y = |x – 1|.
b Use the graph to solve the equation |x – 1| = 5.
c Use algebra to verify your answer to part b.
6 a Draw the graph of y = |2x + 3|.
b Use the graph to solve the equation |2x + 3| = 7.
c Use algebra to verify your answer to part b.
7 a Draw the graph of y = |2x − 3|.
b Use the graph to solve the equation |2x − 3| = 7.
c Use algebra to verify your answer to part b.
8 Solve the equation |x + 1| = |x – 1| both graphically and algebraically.
9 Solve the equation |x + 5| = |x – 5| both graphically and algebraically.
10 Solve the equation |2x + 4| = |2x – 4| both graphically and algebraically.

Solving modulus inequalities

When illustrating an inequality in one variable:
» An open circle at the end of a line shows that the end point is
excluded.
» A solid circle at the end of a line shows that the end point is included.
» The line is drawn either in colour or as a solid line.
For example, the inequality −2 < x  3 is shown as:

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Worked example
a Solve algebraically the inequality |x – 3| > 2.
An open circle is
b Illustrate the solution on a number line.
used to show that
The blue lines Solution the value there is not
show the a |x – 3| > 2 ⇒ x – 3 > 2 or x – 3 < −2 part of the solution.
required parts of ⇒ x > 5 or x < 1
the number line. b
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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 Solving modulus inequalities

Worked example
Write the inequality −3  x  9 in the form |x – a|  b and show a and b on a
number line.

Solution
|x – a|  b ⇒ –b  x – a  b
You are finding the
⇒ a–bxa+b
values of x within a ± b.
Solve a + b = 9 and a – b = −3 simultaneously.
Adding: 2a = 6, so a = 3
Subtracting: 2b = 12, so b = 6

–3 3 9
–b b
a
Substituting in a − b  x  a + b gives −3  x  9.
Substituting in |x – a|  b gives |x – 3|  6.

Worked example
Solve the inequality |3x + 2|  |2x – 3|.

Solution
Draw the graphs of y = |3x + 2| and y = |2x – 3|. The inequality is true for values
of x where the unbroken blue line is below or crosses the unbroken red line, i.e.
Draw the line between (and including) the points A and B.
y = 3x + 2 as y
a straight line 14
through (0, 2) A
13
y = |3x + 2|
with a gradient of 12
+3. Reflect in the 11
x-axis the part 10
of the line that is 9
below this axis. 8
7
y = |2x − 3|
Draw the line 6
y = 2x − 3 as 5
a straight line 4
through (0, −3) 3
B
with a gradient of 2
+2. Reflect in the 1
x-axis the part
x
of the line that is –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
below this axis. –2
–3
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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

The graph shows that x = −5 at A, but the exact value for x at B is not clear.
The algebraic solution gives a more precise value.
At A, −(3x + 2) = −(2x – 3) ⇒ 3x + 2 = 2x – 3
⇒ x = −5
Substituting in either of the equations gives y = 13, so A is the point (−5, 13).
At B, 3x + 2 = −(2x – 3) ⇒ 3x + 2 = –2x + 3
⇒ 5x = 1
⇒ x = 0.2
Substituting in either equation gives y = 2.6, so B is the point (0.2, 2.6).
The inequality is satisfied for values of x between A and B, i.e. for −5  x  0.2.

Worked example
Solve the inequality |x + 7| < |4x|.

Solution
The question does not stipulate a particular method, so start with a sketch graph.
y
12
y = |4x|
11
10
The sketch graph 9
shows that the
8
points where
the two graphs y = |x + 7|
7

intersect do not 6

have integer 5
coordinates. This 4
means that a 3
graphical method 2
is unlikely to 1
give an accurate
solution. –13 –12 –11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
1 2 3 4 x

–2
Use algebra to find the points when |x + 7| = |4x|, i.e. when x + 7 = 4x and when
x + 7 = −4x.

Discussion point
Why is it sufficient to consider only these two cases? Why do you not
need to consider when –(x + 7) = 4x?

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 Solving modulus inequalities

7
x + 7 = 4x when x = .
3
x + 7 = −4x when x = − 7 .
This tells you that 5
part of the solution Think about a point to the left of x = − 7 , such as x = −2.
5
is to the left of When x = −2, |x + 7| < |4x| gives 5 < 8. This is true so the inequality is satisfied.

x = − 57 , i.e. x < − 57 . ( )
Next think about a value of x in the interval − 7 ,  7   , for example, x = 0.
5 3
When x = 0, |x + 7| < |4x| gives 7 < 0, which is false.

Any other value Finally consider a value greater than 7 , for example, x = 3.
3
in this interval will When x = 3, |x + 7| < |4x| gives 10 < 12. This is true so the inequality is satisfied.
also give a false Therefore, the solution is x < − 7 or x > 7 .
result. 5 3

Inequalities in two dimensions are illustrated by regions. For example,

x > 2 is shown by the part of the x–y plane to the right of the line x = 2
and x < −1 by the part to the left of the line x = −1.
If you are asked to illustrate the region x  2, then the line x = 2 must
be included as well as the region x > 2.

Note
• When the boundary line is included, it is drawn as a solid line; when it is
excluded, it is drawn as a dotted line.
• The answer to an inequality of this type is a region of the x–y plane, not
simply a set of points. It is common practice to specify the region that you
want (called the feasible region) by shading out the unwanted region. This
keeps the feasible region clear so that you can see clearly what you are
working with.

Worked example
Illustrate the inequality 3y − 2x  0 on a graph.
Solution
Draw the line 3y − 2x = 0 as a solid line through (0, 0), (3, 2) and (6, 4).

Discussion point
Why are these points more suitable than, for example, 1, 2 ? ( 3)
Choose a point which is not on the line as a test point, for example, (1, 0).
Using these values, 3y − 2x = −2. This is clearly not true, so this point is not in the
feasible region. Therefore shade out the region containing the point (1, 0).

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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

y
6
5 (6, 4)
4
3 (3, 2)
2
1
(0, 0)
–5 –4 –3 –2 ––1
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
3y − 2 x = 0 ––1
1 (1, 0)
(1,
2
–2

1 Write each of the following inequalities in the form |x − a|  b:

a −3  x  15 b −4  x  16 c −5  x  17
2 Write each of the following expressions in the form a  x  b:
Exercise 3.2 a |x − 1|  2 b |x − 2|  3 c |x − 3|  4
3 Solve the following inequalities and illustrate each solution on a number
line:
a |x − 1| < 4 b |x − 1| > 4 c |2x + 3| < 5
d |2x + 3| > 5
4 Illustrate each of the following inequalities graphically by shading the
unwanted region:
a y − 2x > 0 b y − 2x  0 c 2y − 3x > 0
d 2y − 3x  0
5 Solve the following inequalities:
i graphically ii algebraically.
a |x − 1| < |x + 1| b |x − 1| > |x + 1|
c |2x − 1|  |2x + 1| d |2x − 1|  |2x + 1|
6 Each of the following graphs represents an inequality. Name the inequality.
y y y
a 4 b 5 c 6
3 4 5
y = |x|
2 3 4
1 2 3
y=x+1
1 2
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–1 1
–2 –1 1 2 3 x
–2 –1
y=2−x –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–3 –2 –1

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 Using substitution to solve quadratic equations

Using substitution to solve quadratic

equations
Sometimes you will meet an equation which includes a square root.
Although this is not initially a quadratic equation, you can use a
substitution to solve it in this way, as shown in the following example.

Worked example
Use the substitution x = u² to solve the equation x – 3 x = −2.
Solution
Substituting x = u² in the equation x – 3 x = −2 gives u² – 3u = −2
⇒ u² – 3u + 2 = 0
Factorising ⇒(u – 1)(u – 2) = 0
⇒u = 1 or u = 2
Checking these Since x = u², x = 1 or x = 4.
values When x = 1, 1 − 3 1 = −2, so x = 1 is a valid solution.
When x = 4, 4 − 3 4 = −2, so x = 4 is also a valid solution.

It is always advisable to check possible solutions, since in some cases not

all values of u will give a valid solution to the equation, as shown in the
following example.

Worked example
Solve the equation x − x = 6.

Solution
Substituting x = u² in the equation x − x = 6 gives u² − u = 6
⇒ u² − u – 6 = 0

Factorising ⇒ (u – 3)(u + 2) = 0
⇒ u = 3 or u = −2
Since x = u², x = 9 or x = 4.
Checking these
values When x = 9, 9 −  9  = 6, so x = 9 is a possible solution.
When x = 4, 4 − 4  = 2, so reject x = 4 as a possible solution.
The only solution to this equation is x = 9.

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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

Using graphs to solve cubic inequalities

Cubic graphs have distinctive shapes determined by the coefficient of x³.

Positive x3 term Negative x3 term

The centre part of each of these curves may not have two distinct
turning points like those shown above, but may instead ‘flatten out’
to give a point of inflection. When the modulus of a cubic function is
required, any part of the curve below the x-axis is reflected in that axis.

Worked example
You are asked for a Sketch the graph of y = 3(x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 7). Identify the points where the
curve cuts the axes.
a sketch graph,
so although it b Sketch the graph of y = |3(x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 7)|.
must show the Solution
main features, a The curve crosses the x-axis at −2, 1 and 7. Notice that the distance between
it does not need consecutive points is 3 and 6 units respectively, so the y-axis is between the
to be absolutely points −2 and 1 on the x-axis, but closer to the 1.
accurate. You may The curve crosses the y-axis when x = 0, i.e. when y = 3(2)(−1)(−7) = 42 .
find it easier to y
draw the curve 42
first, with the
positive x³ term –2 1 7 x
determining the
y = 3(x + 2) (x – 1) (x – 7)
shape of the curve,
and then position
the x-axis so
that the distance b To obtain a sketch of the modulus curve, reflect any part of the curve which
between the is below the x-axis in the x-axis.
first and second y
intersections is
about half that y = | 3(x + 2) (x – 1) (x – 7) |
between the
second and third,
since these are 42
3 and 6 units
respectively. –2 1 7 x

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 Using graphs to solve cubic inequalities

Worked example
Solve the inequality 3(x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 7)  −100 graphically.

Solution
Because you are solving the inequality graphically, you will need to draw the
curve as accurately as possible on graph paper, so start by drawing up a table
of values.
y = 3(x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 7)

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(x + 2) −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(x − 1) −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(x − 7) −10 −9 −8 −7 −6   −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
x −120 0 48 42 0 −60 −120 −162 −168 −120 0 210

The solution is given by the values of x that correspond to the parts of the curve
on or below the line y = −100.
y
50

–2.9 2.6 6.2

–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

–50

y = – 100
–100

y = 3(x + 2) (x – 1) (x – 7)
–150

–200
From the graph, the solution is x  −2.9 or 2.6  x  6.2.

Exercise 3.3 1 Where possible, use the substitution x = u² to solve the following
equations:
a x − 4 x = −4 b x+2 x =8
c x − 2 x = 15 d x + 6 x = −5
2 Sketch the following graphs, indicating the points where they cross the
x-axis:
a y = x(x – 2)(x + 2) b y = |x(x – 2)(x + 2)|
c y = 3(2x – 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) d y = |3(2x – 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)|
3 Solve the following equations graphically. You will need to use graph
paper.
a x(x + 2)(x − 3)  1 b x(x + 2)(x − 3)  −1
c (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3) > 2 d (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3) < −2

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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

Exercise 3.3 (cont)

4 Identify the following cubic graphs:

a y b y c y
4 4 12
3 3 11
2 2 10
1 1 9
8
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x –2 –1 1 x
–1 –1 7
–2 –2 6
–3 –3 5
4
3
2
1

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
5 Identify these graphs. (They are the moduli of cubic graphs.)

a y b y c y
12 12 12
11 11 11
10 10 10
9 9 9
8 8 8
7 7 7
6 6 6
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3

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 Equations, inequalities and graphs

6 Why is it not possible to identify the following graph without further

information?

–2 –1 1 2 3 4 x

Past-paper questions
1 (i) Sketch the graph of y = |(2x + 3)(2x − 7)|. [4]
(ii) How many values of x satisfy the equation
|(2x + 3)(2x − 7)| = 2x ? [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 23 Q6 November 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 23 Q6 November 2011
2 (i) On a grid like the one below, sketch the graph of
y = |(x − 2) (x + 3)| for −5  x  4, and state the coordinates of
the points where the curve meets the coordinate axes. [4]
y

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x

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 3 EQUaTIONs, INEQUalITIEs aND gRaphs

(ii) Find the coordinates of the stationary point on the curve

y = |(x − 2) (x + 3)|. [2]
(iii) Given that k is a positive constant, state the set of values of k
for which |(x − 2) (x + 3)| = k has 2 solutions only. [1]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q8 November 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q8 November 2013
3 Solve the inequality 9x2 + 2x − 1 < (x + 1)2. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 22 Q2 November 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 22 Q2 November 2014

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H solve graphically or algebraically equations of the type
|ax + b| = c (c  0) and |ax + b| = |cx + d|
H solve graphically or algebraically inequalities of the type
|ax + b| > c (c  0), |ax + b|  c (c > 0)and |ax + b|  (cx + d)
H use substitution to form and solve a quadratic equation in order to
solve a related equation
H sketch the graphs of cubic polynomials and their moduli, when
given in factorised form y = k(x – a)(x – b)(x – c)
H solve cubic inequalities in the form k(x – a)(x – b)(x – c)  d
graphically.

Key points
✔ For any real number x, the modulus of x is denoted by |x|| and is
defined as:
|x| = x if x  0
|x| = −x if x < 0.
✔ A modulus equation of the form |ax + b| = b can be solved either
graphically or algebraically.
✔ A modulus equation of the form |ax + b| = |cx + d| can be solved
graphically by first drawing both graphs on the same axes and
then, if necessary, identifying the solution algebraically.

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 Equations, inequalities and graphs

✔ A modulus inequality of the form |x − a| < b is equivalent to the

inequality a – b < x < a + b and can be illustrated on a number line
with an open circle marking the ends of the interval to show that
these points are not included. For |x − a|  b, the interval is the
same but the end points are marked with solid circles.
✔ A modulus inequality of the form |x − a| > b or |x − a|  b is
represented by the parts of the line outside the intervals above.
✔ A modulus inequality in two dimensions is identified as a region
on a graph, called the feasible region. It is common practice to
shade out the region not required to keep the feasible region
clear.
✔ It is sometimes possible to solve an equation involving both x and
x  by making a substitution of the form x = u². You must check all
answers in the original equation.
✔ The graph of a cubic function has a distinctive shape determined
by the coefficient of x³.

Positive x3 term Negative x3 term

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 4 Indices and surds
An estate had seven houses;
Each house had seven cats;
Each cat ate seven mice;
Each mouse ate seven grains of wheat.
Wheat grains, mice, cats and houses,
How many were there on the estate?

Ancient Egyptian problem

Discussion point
How can you write down the answer to this problem without doing any
calculations?

Indices
The word ‘index’ (plural indices) has many meanings in real life
including a list of names, the index for a book and a price index, but the
focus in this chapter is, of course, related to numbers. 2 is the base
Rule: To multiply Index notation is a shorthand way of writing numbers. number.
numbers in index 5 is the index
For example, 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 can be written as 25.
form where the or power.
base number is Operations using indices
the same, add the
indices. There are a number of rules that you need to learn when you are
working with indices.
am x an = am+n
Multiplying
Rule: To divide
54 × 53 = (5 × 5 × 5 × 5) × (5 × 5 × 5)
numbers in index
form where the = 57
base number is the
same, subtract the
Dividing
second index from 3× 3× 3× 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
3 7 ÷ 3 4 = 
the first. 3×3×3×3
am ÷ an = am-n = 33
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 Operations using indices

A power raised to a power

Rule: To raise a ( 2 3 )4 = ( 2 × 2 × 2 ) × ( 2 × 2 × 2 ) × ( 2 × 2 × 2 ) × ( 2 × 2 × 2 )
power to a power,
= 2 12
multiply the indices.
n
(am) = am×n Index zero
Using the rule for division, 6 3   ÷  6 3 =  6 3− 3
Rule: Any number = 60
with an index zero However, dividing a number by itself always gives the result 1, so 60 = 1.
equals one. a0 = 1
Negative indices
4 2   ÷  4 5 =   4 × 4 ×4 ×4 ×4 4 × 4
1
=
43
Using the rule for division, 4 2   ÷  4 5 =  4 2 − 5
Rule: a1m = a-m
= 4 −3

Worked example
( 3)
−3
Write 2 as a fraction.
Solution

( 23 ) ()
−3 3
= 1  ÷   23

= 1  ×  ( 23 )
3

8
=   27

Fractional indices
What number multiplied by itself equals 5?
The answer to this is usually written as 5 , but it can also be written in
index form.
p p
Let 5 × 5 = 5
= 5 1 so p  =   12
2p
Using the rule for multiplication, 5
1
This gives 5 = 5 2
1 1
Rule: n a = a n Similarly, 3 5 = 5 3
These rules can be combined further to give other rules.
1
Replacing n by n in the rule ( a m ) n =   a mn gives the result
1 m
(a m ) n = a n
This can also be written as ( a n ) or
1 m
( n a )m
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 4 INDICEs aND sURDs

Worked example
3
Calculate 25 2 It is usually more
Solution straightforward to use
the fractional index
25 2 = ( 25 2 )
3 1 3

first since you are then

=   ( 25 )
3
using smaller numbers
=  5 3 and are more likely to
= 125 recognise the values.

Worked example
Simplify the following, leaving your answers in standard form:

a (5 × 10 5 ) × (4 × 10 2 ) b (8 × 10 5 ) ÷ (4 × 10 2 )

Solution
a (5 × 10 5 ) × (4 × 10 2 ) = (5 × 4) × (10 5 × 10 2 )
= 20 × 10 7
= 2 × 10 8
b (8 × 10 5 ) ÷ (4 × 10 2 ) = (8 ÷ 4) × (10 5 ÷ 10 2 )
= 2 × 10 3

Exercise 4.1 Use a calculator to check your results only.

1 Simplify the following, giving your answers in the form xn:
a 23 × 27 b 5−3 × 54 c 36 ÷ 33
d 6 ÷6
5 −4 e (4 )
2 3 f (52)−2
2 Simplify the following, leaving your answers in standard form:
a (3 × 105) × (2 × 109) b (2 × 104) × (3 × 10−3)
c (8 × 10 ) ÷ 10
5 3 d (9 × 109) ÷ (3 × 10−3)
3 Rewrite each of the following as a number raised to a positive integer
power:
( 3) ()
−3 −6
a 3−2 b 5−4 c 2 d 13
4 Simplify the following, leaving your answers in standard form:
a (5 × 107) × (3 × 10−3) b (4 × 10−2) × (6 × 104)
c (4 × 107) ÷ (8 × 10−2) d (3 × 103) ÷ (6 × 106)
5 Find the value of each of the following, giving your answer as a whole
number or fraction:
a (34 × 3−2) b 6−6 × 66 c 55 ÷ 52 d (23)4
(4)
−3
e (32)2 f 7−2 g 1 h 2−5

( 43 )
−2 1 1 3
i j 92 k 81 4 l 16 2
2 −5
−1
m 27 3 n 256 4 o 128 7

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 Operations using surds

6 Rank each set of numbers in order of increasing size:

a 35, 44, 53 b 27, 35, 44 c 2−5, 3−4, 4−3
7 Find the value of x in each of the following:
3
a 3 7 × 3 5 = 3 x
3 6
b
(2 2  × 2 4 )  = 2 x
3 ÷3 2 × 2 3

2
( 7 x  × 7 3 ) = 7 3
c 5  ×2 5  ×x 5 = 5 6
4 3 2
d
5  × 5 7   ÷ 7  
4 2

()
x
e 1 =8 f 4 x =  1
2 64
g 2x = 0.125 h 4x = 0.0625
8 Simplify the following:
a 3a2 × 2a5 b 6x4y2 × 2xy−4
c 10b5 ÷ 2b2 d 12p−4q−3 ÷ 3p2q2
e (4m)3 f (2s2t)6
9 Find integers x and y such that 2x × 3y = 64.

Surds
Surds are irrational numbers that cannot be expressed exactly. 2,
3, 2 + 3 and 5 − 3 are all examples of surds.

Discussion point
Why is 4   not a surd?

Although your calculator will simplify expressions containing square

roots of numbers, it is often easier to work with surds in their exact
form. You need to know the rules for manipulating surds so you can
work with them in an algebraic setting such as ( a +  b )( 3 a − 4 b ).

Operations using surds

Simplifying surds
To simplify a surd, start by writing the number under the square root
sign as a product of two factors, one of which is the largest possible
perfect square.

Worked example
Simplify 18 .
Writing Solution
18 =  6 ×  3 18 = 9×2
does not help since
= 9  ×  2
neither 6 nor 3 is a
perfect square. =3 2

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 4 INDICEs aND sURDs

Worked example
Simplify 2 .
9
Solution
2
9
=  2
9
2
= 3

Adding and subtracting surds

You can add and subtract surds using the same methods as for other
algebraic expressions, keeping the rational numbers and the square
roots separate.
For example:
3 +  3 = 2 3
3 5+2 5 = 5 5
48 −   12 = 4 3 − 2 3
=2 3

Expanding brackets containing surds

To expand brackets containing surds, use the same methods that you use
for other algebraic operations.

Worked example
Simplify 3 ( 3 + 2 ).
Solution
3 ( 3 + 2 ) =  ( 3 ) + 2 3
2

= 3+2 3

Worked example
Simplify 2( 6 + 2).
Solution
2 ( 6 +   2 ) =   12 +  ( 2 )
2

= ( 4  ×  3) + 2
= 2 3+2

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 Operations using surds

The same principles apply to expanding a pair of brackets. Use

whichever method/s you feel most comfortable with.

Worked example
Simplify ( 3 + 2 )( 3 +   2 ) .
Solution

( 3 + 2 )( 3 +   2 ) = ( 3 ) + 6 +   6 + ( 2 )
2 2

= 3+2 6 +2
= 5+2 6

When the brackets have the form of the difference of two squares, the
result is a numerical value.

Worked example
Simplify ( 3 + 5 )( 3 − 5 ).
Solution
(3 + 5 )(3 − 5 ) = 32 − ( 5 )
2

= 9−5
=4

Rationalising the denominator

Multiplying both the top line (numerator) and the bottom line
(denominator) of any fraction by the same amount doesn’t change the
value of the fraction. You can use this to rationalise the denominator
of a fraction involving a surd, i.e. eliminate the surd so that the
denominator has an integer value.

Worked example
Simplify 9 .
3
Solution
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by 3
For all values of a, 9 3 9 3
 ×  = 3
a ×  a =a. 3 3
=3 3

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 4 INDICEs aND sURDs

Worked example
Simplify 1 .
( 5 − 1)
Solution
Using the technique for the difference of two squares, multiply the top and
bottom of the fraction by ( 5 + 1).
1 1 ( 5 + 1)
= × 
( 5 − 1) ( 5 − 1)  ( 5 + 1)

=   55−+11

=   54+ 1

=   1 +4 5

Worked example
A right-angled triangle has shorter sides of lengths ( 5 + 3 ) cm and
( 5 − 3 ) cm. Work out the length of the hypotenuse.

(√5 + √3) cm

(√5 − √3) cm
Solution
Let the length of the hypotenuse be h.
Using Pythagoras’
h 2 =  ( 5 + 3 ) + ( 5 − 3 )
2 2
theorem
= ( 5 + 2 15 + 3) + ( 5 − 2 15 + 3)
= 8 + 2 15 + 8 − 2 15
= 16

The length of the hypotenuse is 4 cm.

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 Operations using surds

Worked example
A ladder of length 6 m is placed 2 m from a vertical wall at the side of a house.
How far up the wall does the ladder reach? Give your answer as a surd in its
simplest form.

Using Pythagoras’ Solution

theorem  
6 2 = 2 2 + h2
⇒  36 = 4 + h 2
  6m h
⇒ 32 =   h 2
 
⇒ h = 32
h must be positive.
=4 2
The ladder reaches 4 2 metres up the wall. 2m

Exercise 4.2 1 Write each of the following in its simplest form:

a 12   b 75 c 300
d 3 5+6 5 e 48 +   27 f 3 45 − 2 20
2 Express each of the following as the square root of a single number:
a    3 6 b 5 5    c 12 3 d 10 17
3 Simplify the following:
25 24 12 6
a 49
b 9
c 15 d 121
4 Simplify the following by collecting like terms:
a ( 3 + 2 ) +  ( 5 + 4 2 ) b 4 ( 3 − 1) + 4 ( 3 + 1)
5 Expand and simplify:
a ( 3 + 2 )( 3 − 2 ) b 3 (5 − 3)
c (4 + 2)
2
d ( 6 −   3 )( 6 −   3 )
6 Rationalise the denominators, giving each answer in its simplest form:
a 1 b 12 c 6
6 3 2 2
1 3+ 2 3− 5
d e f
( 5 −  2 ) 4− 2 5+ 5

7 Write the following in the form a + b c where c is an integer and a and b

are rational numbers:
3 5
a  1 + 2 b c 2 6
3− 2 3+ 5 6−2

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 4 INDICEs aND sURDs

Exercise 4.2 (cont) 8 Work out the length of AC.

A

( 3 + √2 ) cm

B C
( 3 − √2 ) cm

9 A square has sides of length x cm and diagonals of length 12 cm. Use

Pythagoras’ theorem to find the exact value of x and work out the area of
the square.
10 An equilateral triangle has sides of length 3 cm.
Work out:
a the height of the triangle
b the area of the triangle in its simplest surd form.

Past-paper questions
1 Without using a calculator, find the positive root of the equation
(5 − 2 2) x 2 − (4 + 2 2) x − 2 = 0
giving your answer in the form a + b 2, where a and b are integers. [6]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 23 Q4 November 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 23 Q4 November 2011
2 (a) Solve the equation 163x−2 = 82x. [3]
4 −2

(b) Given that a 3b 5 = a p b q , find the value of p and of q. [2]

−1 3
a 3b 5
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q4 June 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q4 June 2011
3 (i) 1
Given that 2 5x × 4 y = , show that 5x + 2y = −3. [3]
8
(ii) Solve the simultaneous equations 2 5x × 4 y = 1 and 7x × 492y = 1. [4]
8
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q5 June 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q5 June 2014

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 Indices and surds

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H perform simple operations with indices and with surds, including
rationalising the denominator.

Key points
✔ Use these rules for manipulating indices (powers).
l Multiplication: a m  ×  a n =  a m+ n
l Division: a m   ÷  a n =   a m − n
l Power of a power: ( a m ) n =  a mn
l Power zero: a0 = 1
l Negative indices: a − m =  1m
a
1
l Fractional indices: an =  a
n

✔ Use these rules for simplifying surds (square roots).

l Leave the smallest number possible under the square root sign,
e.g. 32 = 16 × 2 = 4 2
l Expand a surd expression in brackets in the same way any
other algebraic expression.
l To rationalise the denominator of a surd:
(i) If the denominator contains a single term, multiply
numerator and denominator by that term,
7 = 7× 5 =  7 5 5
e.g.
5 5× 5
(ii) If the denominator contains two terms, multiply numerator
and denominator by a similar expression with the opposite

sign, e.g.  7 =  7  ×  
(6 + 2)
= 
7 (6 + 2 )
= 
7 (6 + 2 )
6− 2 (6 − 2) (6 + 2) 6 2 −  ( 2 )
2
32

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 5 Factors of polynomials
There are things of an unknown number which when divided by 3 leave 2,
A quadratic by 5 leave 3, and by 7 leave 2. What is the smallest number?
expression is any
Sun-Tzi (544 BC - 496 BC)
expression of
the form
ax2 + bx + c,
where x is a
variable and a, b
and c are constants
with a ≠ 0.
An expression of
the form
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
that includes a
term in x3 is called
a cubic expression.
A quartic has a
term in x4 as its
highest power, a
quintic one with x5
and so on.
All of these are Discussion point
polynomials and
Sun Tzi posed his problem in the Chinese Han dynasty and it is seen as
the highest power the forerunner of the Remainder Theorem, which you will meet in this
of the variable is chapter. What is the answer? What is the next possible answer to Sun-
called the order of Tzi’s problem? How do you find further answers?
the polynomial.
It is believed that the way that numbers were written during the Han
dynasty laid the foundation for the abacus, an early form of hand
calculator.
In Chapter 2 you met quadratic expressions like x 2 − 4 x − 12 and solved
quadratic equations such as x 2 - 4 x - 12 = 0.

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 Multiplication and division of polynomials

Multiplication and division of polynomials

There are a number of methods for multiplying and dividing
polynomials. One method is shown in the worked example, but if you
already know and prefer an alternative method, continue to use it.

Multiplication

Worked example
This is an extension Multiply ( x 2 − 5 x + 2) by ( 2 x 2 − x + 1).
of the method you
used to multiply Solution
two brackets that (x 2 − 5 x + 2) × ( 2 x 2 − x + 1) = x 2 ( 2 x 2 − x + 1) −  5 x ( 2 x 2 − x + 1) + 2 ( 2 x 2 − x + 1)
each contain two = 2 x 4 − x 3 + x 2 − 10 x 3 + 5 x 2 − 5 x + 4 x 2 − 2 x + 2
terms. If you are
= 2 x 4 + x 3 (−1 − 10 ) + x 2 (1 + 5 + 4 ) + x (−5 − 2 ) + 2
familiar with a
different method, = 2 x 4 − 11 x 3 + 10 x 2 − 7 x + 2
then use that.

Division
Worked example
Divide ( x 3 − x 2 − 2 x + 8) by ( x + 2 ).
Multiplying each Solution
term in the second Let ( x 3 − x 2 − 2 x + 8) = ( x + 2 ) ( ax 2 + bx + c) This bracket
bracket by x and = x ( ax 2 + bx + c) + 2 ( ax 2 + bx + c) must be a
then by 2 quadratic
= ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + 2 ax 2 + 2bx + 2c
expression.
Collecting like = ax 3 + (b + 2 a ) x 2 + (c + 2b) x + 2c
terms Comparing coefficients:
Since a = 1 a=1
b + 2a = −1 ⇒ b = −3
Since b = −3 c + 2b = −2 ⇒ c = 4
Checking the constant term, 2c = 8 which is correct.
This gives ( x 3 − x 2 − 2 x + 8) ÷ (x + 2) = x 2 − 3 x + 4

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 5 FaCTORs OF pOlyNOmIals

Exercise 5.1 1 Multiply (x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 4) by (x + 1).

2 Multiply (x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 2) by (x − 1).
3 Multiply (2x3 − 3x2 + 5) by (2x − 1).
4 Multiply (x2 + 2x − 3) by (x2 − 2x + 3).
5 Multiply (2x2 − 3x + 4) by (2x2 − 3x − 4).
6 Simplify (x2 − 3x + 2)2.
7 Divide (x3 − 3x2 + x + 1) by (x − 1).
8 Divide (x3 − 3x2 + x + 2) by (x − 2).
9 Divide (x4 − 1) by (x + 1).
10 Divide (x2 − 16) by (x + 2).

Solving cubic equations

When a polynomial can be factorised, you can find the points where
the corresponding curve crosses the x-axis either as whole numbers or
simple fractions.
For example, y = x 2 − 3 x − 4 factorises to give y = ( x + 1)( x − 4 ).
The graph of this equation is a curve that crosses the x-axis at the points
where y = 0. These values, x = −1 and x = 4, are called the roots of the
equation x 2 - 3 x - 4 = 0.
y
7
6
y = x2 − 3x − 4
5
4
3
2
1

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
For a polynomial of the form y = f(x), the roots are the solutions of f(x) = 0.

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 Solving cubic equations

Worked example
a Draw the graph of y = x3 − 5x2 + 2x + 8.
b Hence solve the equation x3 − 5x2 + 2x + 8 = 0.
Solution
a Start by setting up a table of values.

x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −24 0 8 6 0 −4 0 18
Then plot the curve.
y
20
(5, 18)
15
10 (0, 8)
(1, 6)
5
(−1, 0) (2, 0) (4, 0)
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–5
The solution is (3, −4)
‘x = −1 or x = 2 or –10

x = 4’ but the roots –15

are ‘−1 and 2 (−2, −24) –20
and 4’. –25

b The graph shows that the curve crosses the x-axis at the values −1, 2 and 4,
giving the solution as x = −1, x = 2 or x = 4.

In some cases, a graph will not find all the roots but will allow you to
find one or possibly two roots, or show you that there is only one root.
The roots may not be whole numbers and may not even be rational as
shown in the following examples.

Worked example
Draw the graph of y = 2x3 − 7x2 + 2x + 3 and hence solve the equation
2x3 − 7x2 + 2x + 3 = 0.
Solution
As before, start by setting up a table of values and then draw the curve.

x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y −45 −8 3 0 −5 0 27

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 5 FaCTORs OF pOlyNOmIals

y
30
(4, 27)
25
20
15
10
5
(0, 3) (1, 0) (3, 0)

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 x
–5
(−1, −8) (2, −5)
–10
–15
–20
–25
–30
–35
–40
(−2, −45)
–45
–50

The graph shows that the curve crosses the x-axis at 1, at 3 and again between
−0.5 is chosen as x −1 and 0. You can find this root using trial and improvement.
since it is half way In this case, you were
Let x = −0.5
between −1 and 0. lucky and found the
f ( 0.5) = 2 (−0.5) 3 − 7 (−0.5) 2 + 2 (−0.5) + 3 
=0 final root, −0.5, with
So the roots of the equation are −0.5, 1 and 3. only one iteration.

Finding factors and the factor theorem

The equation in the example above has roots that are whole numbers or
exact fractions. This implies that it could have been factorised. Roots at
− 1 , 1 and 3 suggest the factorised form:
2

( x + ) ( x − 1)( x − 3)
1
2
However multiplying the x terms from all the brackets should give 2x3
so one of the brackets must be multiplied by 2.
2 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 2 x + 3 = ( 2 x + 1)( x − 1)( x − 3)
It is not possible to factorise all polynomials. However, when a
polynomial can be factorised, the solution to the corresponding
equation follows immediately.
( 2 x + 1)( x − 1)( x − 3) = 0    ⇒     ( 2 x + 1) = 0 or ( x − 1) = 0 or ( x − 3) = 0
⇒     x = −0.5 or x = 1 or x = 3

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 Finding factors and the factor theorem

This leads to an important result known as the factor theorem.

If (x − a) is a factor of f(x), then f(a) = 0 and x = a is a root of the
equation f(x) = 0.
Conversely, if f(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of f(x).
It is not necessary to try all integer values when you are looking for
possible factors. For example, with x 3 − 3 x 2 − 2 x + 6 = 0 you need only
try the factors of 6 as possible roots, i.e. ±1,  ± 2,  ± 3  and ± 6.

Worked example
a Show that x = 2 is a root of the equation  x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x + 12 = 0 and hence
solve the equation.
b Sketch the graph of y = x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x + 12 .

Alternatively, you Solution

could factorise by a f ( 2 ) = 2 3 − 3 ( 2 2 ) − 4 ( 2 ) + 12 = 0
long division. This implies that x = 2 is a root of the equation and hence (x − 2) is a factor
of f(x).
Taking (x − 2)as a factor gives
x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x + 12 = ( x − 2 ) ( x 2 − x − 6 )
=  ( x − 2 ) ( x − 3) ( x + 2 )
The solution to the equation is therefore x = 2, x = 3, or x = −2.
b The graph crosses the x-axis at x = −2,   x = 2  and  x = 3 and the y-axis at
y = 12.
y

12

−2 2 3 x

You will not be able to factorise the expression completely in all cases,
but you may be able to find one factor by inspection as in the following
example.

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 5 FaCTORs OF pOlyNOmIals

Worked example
Given that f ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 − 4 x + 12
a Show that (x − 3) is a factor of f(x).
b Solve the equation f(x) = 0.
To show that
(x − 3) is a factor, Solution
you need to show a f(3) = 33 – 32 – 9(3) + 9
that f(3) = 0. = 27 – 9 – 27 + 9 = 0
This shows that (x − 3) is a factor of f(x).
Check by b Once you have found one linear factor of a cubic expression, the remaining
multiplying out factor is quadratic. With practice you will be able to do this step by
that you agree inspection.
with this answer. x 3 − x 2 − 10 x + 12 = ( x − 3) ( x 2 + 2 x − 4 )
How do you x 2 + 2 x − 4 cannot be factorised so use the quadratic formula for the next
know it can’t be step.
2
factorised? ax 2 + bx + c = 0 → x = −b ± b − 4 ac
2a
−2 ± 2 2 − 4 (1)(−4 )
In this example, a = 1,  b = 2,  c = −4 →   x = 2 (−1)

→ x = −2 ± 20
−2
→ x =1± 5

The solution to the equation is therefore x = 3 or x = 1 ± 5 .

Using the factor theorem to solve a cubic equation

This is very similar to earlier work except that the first step is to find a
linear factor by inspection.

Worked example
a Work systematically to find a linear factor of x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24.
b Solve the equation x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 = 0 .
c Sketch the graph of y =   x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 .
d Sketch y = x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 on a separate set of axes.
Solution
a Let f ( x ) =   x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 .
Start by working f (1) = 1 − 5 − 2 + 24 = 18
systematically
f (−1) = −1 − 5 + 2 + 24 = 20
through all factors
f ( 2 ) = 8 − 20 − 4 + 24 = 8
of 24 until you find
one giving f(x) = 0. f (−2 ) = −8 − 20 + 4 + 24 = 0

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 Finding factors and the factor theorem

This shows that ( x + 2 ) is a linear factor of x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24.

b Factorising by inspection:
x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 = ( x + 2 ) ( x 2 + ax + 12 )
The second
bracket starts with Looking at the x2 term on both sides: -5 x 2 = 2 x 2 + ax 2
→ a = −7
x2 to get the x3
x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 = 0 → ( x + 2 ) ( x 2 − 7 x + 12 ) = 0
term and finishes
with 12 since → ( x + 2 ) ( x − 3) ( x − 4 ) = 0
2 × 12 = 24. → x = −2,  x = 3  or x = 4
c The graph is a cubic curve with a positive x3 term that crosses the x-axis at
−2, 3 and 4 and crosses the y-axis when y = 24.
y
24

−2 3 2 x

d To sketch the curve y = x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 , first sketch the curve as above,

then reflect in the x-axis any part of the curve which is below it.
y
24

−2 3 4 x

Exercise 5.2 1 Determine whether the following linear functions are factors of the
given polynomials:
a x 3 − 8 x + 7; (x − 1) b x 3 + 8 x + 7; (x + 1)
c 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 − 4 x − 1; ( x − 1) d 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 4 x + 1; ( x + 1)
2 Use the factor theorem to find a linear factor of each of the following
functions. Then factorise each function as a product of three linear
factors and sketch its graph.
a x 3 − 7x − 6 b x 3 − 7x + 6
c x + 5x − x − 5
3 2
d x 3 − 5x 2 − x + 5

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 5 FaCTORs OF pOlyNOmIals

Exercise 5.2 (cont) 3 Factorise each of the following functions completely:

a x3 + x2 + x + 1 b x3 − x2 + x − 1
c x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 2 d x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 2
4 For what value of a is (x − 2) a factor of x 3 − 2 ax + 4?
5 For what value of c is (2x + 3) a factor of 2 x 3 + cx 2 − 4 x − 6?
6 The expression x 3 − 6 x 2 + ax + b is exactly divisible by (x − 1) and (x − 3).
a Find two simultaneous equations for a and b.
b Hence find the values of a and b.

The remainder theorem

Worked example
Is there an integer root to the equation x 3 − 2 x 2 + x + 1 = 0 ?

Solution
Since the first term is x3 and the last term is +1, the only possible factors are
(x + 1) and (x − 1).
This leads us to
the remainder f(1) = 1 and f(−1) = −3 so there is no integer root.
theorem.
Any polynomial can be divided by another polynomial of lesser order
using either long division or inspection. However, there will sometimes
be a remainder. The steps for algebraic long division are very similar to
those for numerical long division as shown below.
Look at ( x 3 − 2 x 2 + x + 1)  ÷ ( x + 1).
Taking the first
term from each x 2 − 3x + 4 −3x2 ÷ x gives −3x.
x + 1) x 3 − 2 x 2 + x + 1
(the dividend and Similarly 4x ÷ x = 4
the divisor) gives − x3 + x2
x3 ÷ x = x2, the first −3 x 2 + x
term on the top in − −3 x 2 − 3 x
the quotient. 4x + 1
− − 4x + 4
−3
This result can be written as:

x 3 − 2 x 2 + x + 1 = ( x + 1) ( x 2 − 3 x + 4 ) − 3 .
Substituting x = −1 into both sides gives a remainder of −3.
This means that f(−1) will always be the remainder when a function f(x)
is divided by (x + 1).

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 The remainder theorem

Generalising this gives the remainder theorem.

For any polynomial f(x), f(a) is the remainder when f(x) is divided by
(x − a).

f ( x) = ( x − a) g ( x) + f (a)

Worked example
Find the remainder when f ( x ) =  2 x 3 + 3 x − 5 is divided by (x − 2).

Solution
Using the remainder theorem, the remainder is f(2).
f ( 2 ) = 2 ( 2 ) 3 + 3 ( 2 ) − 5 = 17

Worked example
When 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + ax − 5 is divided by x − 2, the remainder is 7. Find the value of a.

Solution
To find the remainder, substitute x = 2 into 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + ax − 5 .

2 (2) 3 − 3 (2) 2 + a (2) − 5 = 7

→ 16 − 12 + 2 a − 5 = 7
→   −1 + 2 a = 7
a=4

Exercise 5.3 1 For each function, find the remainder when it is divided by the linear
factor shown in brackets:
a x 3 + 2 x 2 − 3 x − 4; ( x − 2 ) b 2 x 3 + x 2 − 3 x − 4; ( x + 2 )
c 3 x − 3 x − x − 4; ( x − 4 )
3 2
d 3 x 3 + 3 x 2 + x + 4; ( x + 4 )
2 When f ( x ) = x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 10 is divided by (x + 1), there is no remainder.
When it is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is 4. Find the values of a and b.
3 The equation f ( x ) = x 3 + 4 x 2 + x − 6 has three integer roots.
Solve f ( x ) = 0.
4 (x − 2) is a factor of x 3 + ax 2 + a 2 x − 14. Find all possible values of a.
5 When x 3 + ax + b is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is −12. When it is
divided by (x − 2), the remainder is also −12. Find the values of a and b
and hence solve the equation x 3 + ax + b = 0 .
6 Sketch each curve by first finding its points of intersection with the axes:
a y = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 b y = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
c y = 4x − x3 d y = 2 + 5x + x 2 − 2 x 3  

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 5 FaCTORs OF pOlyNOmIals

Past−paper questions
1 The polynomial f(x) = ax3 − 15x2 + bx − 2 has a factor of 2x − 1 and a
remainder of 5 when divided by x − 1.
(i) Show that b = 8 and find the value of a. [4]
(ii) Using the values of a and b from part (i), express f(x) in the form
(2x − 1) g(x), where g(x) is a quadratic factor to be found. [2]
(iii) Show that the equation f(x) = 0 has only one real root. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q6 June 2015
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q6 June 2015
2 A function f is such that f(x) = 4x3 + 4x2 + ax + b. It is given that 2x − 1
is a factor of both f(x) and f′(x).
(i) Show that b = 2 and find the value of a. [5]
Using the values of a and b from part (i),
(ii) find the remainder when f(x) is divided by x + 3, [2]
(iii) express f(x) in the form f(x) = (2x − 1)(px2 + qx + r), where p,
q and r are integers to be found, [2]
(iv) find the values of x for which f(x) = 0. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q10 November 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q10 November 2012
3 It is given that f(x) = 6x3 − 5x2 + ax + b has a factor of x + 2 and leaves
a remainder of 27 when divided by x − 1.
(i) Show that b = 40 and find the value of a. [4]
(ii) Show that f(x) = (x + 2)(px2 + qx + r), where p, q and r are
integers to be found. [2]
(iii) Hence solve f(x) = 0. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q7 June 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q7 June 2013

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H multiply two polynomials when the degree (i.e. the highest
power) of at least one of them is greater than 2
H divide one polynomial by another when the division gives no
remainder
H solve a cubic equation by first drawing the graph
H know and use the remainder and factor theorems
H find factors of polynomials
H solve cubic equations.

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 Factors of polynomials

Key points
4 An expression of the form ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d where a ≠ 0 is
called a cubic expression.
4 The graph of a cubic expression can be plotted by first calculating the
value of y for each value of x in the range.
4 The solution to a cubic equation is the set of values for which the
corresponding graph crosses the x-axis.
4 The factor theorem states: if (x − a) is a factor of f(x), then f(a) = 0
and x = a is a root of the equation f(x) = 0.
4 The remainder theorem states: for any polynomial f(x), f(a) is the
remainder when f(x) is divided by (x − a). This can be generalised to
f ( x ) = ( x − a ) g ( x ) + f ( a ).

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 6 Simultaneous equations
There is no branch of mathematics, however abstract, which may not
someday be applied to the phenomena of the real world.
Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792 – 1856)

Sometimes, in Mathematics, it is necessary to use two or more variables

to describe a situation. In such cases, you need more than one equation
to find the individual values of the variables: two equations for two
variables, three for three variables and so on. Although the focus of this
chapter is on solving two equations to find the values of two variables,
the techniques introduced can be extended to cover situations involving
more than two variables.
The following problem can be solved using simultaneous equations.
A school has two netball teams and there is great rivalry between
them. Last season, each team played 16 games and their positions in
the league were tied with 26 points each. A team is awarded points for
a win or a draw only. Team A wins 6 games and draws 8; team B wins
8 games and draws 2. How many points are awarded for:
a a win b a draw?
Let w denote the number of points for a win and d denote the number
of points for a draw. Each team’s results can be expressed as an
equation, but unlike equations you have met previously, each one
contains two variables.
6w + 8d = 26
8w + 2d = 26

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 Solving linear simultaneous equations

In this case, since the values of w and d will be small integers, you could
find the answer by trial and improvement, but in this chapter we will
look at some structured methods for solving simultaneous equations.
Simultaneous equations can be solved graphically or algebraically
using elimination or substitution. Graphical methods often give only
approximate answers and so the main focus of this is algebraic methods.

Solving linear simultaneous equations

You will have already used graphs to solve simultaneous equations. The
example below shows that this method does not always give an accurate
solution. This is why it is not the focus of this chapter.

Worked example
Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations graphically and comment
on your answers.
a x+ y= 4 b x+ y= 4
y = 2x + 1 y = 4x + 2

Solution
a y b y
6 8

5 7
x+y=4 y = 4x + 2
4 6

3 5

2 4

1 3
2
x+y=4
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x 1
–1
y = 2x + 1
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2

Here you can see that the two It is not clear from the graph exactly
lines intersect at the point (1, 3) where these two lines intersect.
so the solution is x = 1,  y = 3.

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 6 sImUlTaNEOUs EQUaTIONs

The elimination method

Worked example
Solve the following simultaneous equations by elimination.
2 x + y = 10
x-y=2

Solution
Since one equation contains +y and one contains −y adding them will eliminate y.

2 x + y = 10
The rule Same
x-y = 2
Signs, Subtract
3x = 12
(and opposite signs,
add) is useful here. ⇒   x = 4

Substitute this value into one of the equations.

You would 4-y=2

 
generally choose ⇒     y = 2
the simpler one, Check these values in the other equation.
in this case 2x + y = 8 + 2
x − y = 2.
= 10

The solution to the simultaneous equations is x = 4,  y = 2.

Sometimes you need to multiply one of the equations before you can
eliminate a variable, as in the example below.

Worked example
Solve the following simultaneous equations by elimination.
3 x + y = 13
x + 2 y = 11

Solution
Start by multiplying the first equation by 2 so that the coefficient of y is the
Subtract to same in both equations.
eliminate y
6 x + 2 y = 26
x + 2 y = 11
5x = 15
⇒x=3

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 Solving linear simultaneous equations

An alternative Substitute this into the second equation (since it is the simpler one).
starting point is to 3 + 2 y = 11
multiply the second ⇒ 2y = 8
equation by 3 so ⇒y=4
that the coefficient
of x is the same in The solution is therefore x = 3,  y = 4.
both equations. Try
it and show that Sometimes it is necessary to manipulate both of the original equations
it gives the same in order to eliminate one of the variables easily, as in the following
answer. example.

Worked example
Solve the following simultaneous equations by elimination.
3x + 2 y = 1
2 x + 3y = 4
Solution
Here you need to multiply each equation by a suitable number so that either
the coefficients of x or the coefficients of y are the same.

3× the first equation 3 x + 2 y = 1    ⇒   9 x + 6 y = 3

2 x + 3 y = 4    ⇒    4 x + 6 y = 8
2× the second 9x + 6y = 3
equation 4x + 6y = 8
 
Subtracting ⇒    5 x = −5
 
⇒     x = −1
You could choose
Substitute x = −1 into the first of the two original equations.
either one.
−3 + 2 y = 1
Remember to
⇒    2 y = 4
check these values
⇒     y = 2
in the second
of the original The solution is therefore x = −1,  y = 2.
equations.

The substitution method

Worked example
Solve the following simultaneous equations by substitution:
3 x - y = -10
x=2−y

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 6 sImUlTaNEOUs EQUaTIONs

Solution
Substitute the expression for x from the second equation into the first.
3 ( 2 − y) − y = −10
⇒    6 − 3 y − y = −10
Since it is the
⇒    16 = 4 y
simpler one
⇒     y = 4

It is a good idea Substitute y = 4 into the second equation.

to check these x =2−4
values using the ⇒   x = −2
equation you did The solution is therefore x = −2,  y = 4. 
not substitute into.
Since each of these equations can be represented by a straight line, solving them
simultaneously gives the coordinates of their point of intersection.
y
15
14
13
3x − y = −10
12
11
x=2−y
10
9
8
7
6
5
(–2, 4) 4
3
2
1

–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2

Sometimes simultaneous equations may arise in everyday problems as

in the following example.

Worked example
A taxi firm charges a fixed amount plus so much per kilometre. A journey of
three kilometres costs $4.60 and a journey of seven kilometres costs $9.40. How
much does a journey of six kilometres cost?

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 Solving linear simultaneous equations

Solution
Let $f be the fixed amount and $m be the cost per kilometre. Writing this
information as a pair of simultaneous equations:
f + 3m = 4.6
f + 7 m = 9.4
Subtracting the first equation from the second:
4 m = 4.8
 
⇒ m = 1.2
Substituting into the first equation:
At this stage you f + 3 × 1.2 = 4.6
must remember  
⇒                 f = 1.0
to answer the
A journey of six kilometres will cost 1.0 + 6(1.2) = $8.20.
question as it is set.

Exercise 6.1 1 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations graphically:

a y= x+2 b x + 2y = 3
y = 2x − 3 2 x - y = -4
Use the substitution method to solve the simultaneous equations in
Questions 2–5.
2 a 2 x + y = 13 b x + 2 y = 13
y = 2x + 1 x = 2y + 1
3 a 3x + 4 y = 2 b  4 x + 3 y = 2
y = 4 x + 10 x = 4 y + 10
4 x - 3 y = -2
y = 3x − 2
5 x + 4 y = −13
x = 3y + 1
Use the elimination method to solve the simultaneous equations in
questions 6–9.
6 a x+ y= 4 b x + 2y = 4
x - y = 2  x - 2y = 2
7 a 3x + y = 9 b 3x + 2 y = 9
2x - y = 1 x - y = 0.5
8 2 x + 3 y = −4
4x + 2y = 0
9 5 x - 2 y = -23
3 x + y = −5
10 3 pencils and 4 rulers cost $5.20. 5 pencils and 2 rulers cost $4. Find the
cost of 6 pencils and a ruler.
11 At the cinema, 3 packets of popcorn and 2 packets of nuts cost $16 and
2 packets of popcorn and 1 packet of nuts cost $9. What is the cost of
one packet of each?
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 6 sImUlTaNEOUs EQUaTIONs

Exercise 6.1 (cont) 12 Two adults and one child paid $180 to go to the theatre and one adult
and three children paid $190. What it is the cost for two adults and five
children?
13 A shop is trying to reduce their stock of books by holding a sale. $20 will
buy either 8 paperback and 4 hardback books or 4 paperbacks and 7
hardbacks. How much change would I get from $40 if I bought
10 paperbacks and 10 hardbacks?

Solving non-linear simultaneous equations

The substitution method is particularly useful when one of the
equations represents a curve, as in the following example.

Worked example
a Sketch the graphs of y = x 2 + 3 x + 2 and 2 x = y − 8 on the same axes.
b Use the method of substitution to solve these equations simultaneously
Solution
a y
15

y = x2 + 3x + 2
10

5
y = 2x + 8

–10 –5
0
5 10 x

Substituting –5
x 2 + 3x + 2 for y b y = x 2 + 3x + 2
in the second 2x = y − 8
equation 2 x = ( x 2 + 3x + 2) − 8
 
⇒ 0 = x2 + x − 6
 
⇒ ( x + 3)( x − 2 ) = 0
Collecting all the  
⇒ x = −3 or x = 2
terms on one side
Take each of these values in turn, and substitute into the linear equation to find
the corresponding values of y.
 
When x = −3,  −6 = y − 8    ⇒     y = 2.
This means that one possible solution is x = −3,  y = 2.
When x = 2 , 4 = y − 8     ⇒   y = 12 .
This gives the other solution as x = 2,  y = 12.
The full solution is therefore x = −3,  y = 2 or  x = 2,  y = 12 .

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 Solving non-linear simultaneous equations

The original equations represent a curve and a line, so the two solutions
give the coordinates of their points of intersection as in the graph above.

Note
1 It is equally acceptable to start by substituting for x from the second equation
into the first. This gives 2 x + 8 = x 2 + 3 x + 2 and leads to the same result.
2 Once you have found values of one variable, you must substitute into the
linear equation. If you substitute into the non-linear equation, you could find
other ‘rogue’ values appearing erroneously as solutions (but not in this case).

In the previous example, it would also have been possible to solve the
two equations by simply drawing graph because the solution had integer
values. However, this is often not the case so this method will not always
give an accurate answer.

Worked example
a Use an algebraic method to find the points of intersection of the curve
x 2 + y 2 = 5 and the line y = x + 1.
b Given that the curve is the circle with centre the origin and radius 5,
illustrate your answer on a graph.

Substituting from Solution

the line equation
a In this case you should use the substitution method.
into the equation
for the curve  
   x 2 + ( x + 1) 2 = 5
⇒ x + ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) = 5
2
 
⇒ 2x2 + 2x − 4 = 0
 
Dividing by 2 to ⇒ x2 + x − 2 = 0
 
simplify ⇒ ( x + 2 )( x − 1) = 0 
 
⇒ x = −2 or x = 1
Substituting each
of these values in When x = −2,  y = −2 + 1 = −1.
turn into the line When x = 1,  y = 1 + 1 = 2 .
equation
The points of intersection are therefore (−2, −1) and (1, 2).
b y
y=x+1
4
3
2 (1, 2)
y2 + x2 = 5
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
(−2, −1) –2
–3

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 6 sImUlTaNEOUs EQUaTIONs

Exercise 6.2 1 Solve this pair of simultaneous equations algebraically:

x 2 + y 2 = 13
x=2
2 Solve this pair of simultaneous equations algebraically and sketch a
graph to illustrate your solution:
y = x2 − x + 8
y = 5x
3 Solve this pair of simultaneous equations:
xy = 4
y= x−3
4 Solve this pair of simultaneous equations:
y = 8 x 2 − 2 x − 10
4x + y = 5

5 The diagram shows the circle x 2 + y 2 = 25 and the line x − 7 y + 25 = 0 .

Find the coordinates of A and B.
y
6
x − 7y + 25 = 0
5
B
4
A
3
2
1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
–3
–4 x2 + y2 = 25
–5
–6

6 The diagram shows a circular piece of card

of radius r cm, from which a smaller circle
of radius x cm has been removed. The area r x
of the remaining card is 209π cm2. The
circumferences of the two circles add up
to 38π . Write this information as a pair of
simultaneous equations and hence find the
values of r and x.

7 a Solve this pair of simultaneous equations:

y = x2 + 1
y = 2x
b Why is there only one solution? Illustrate this using a sketch.

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 Simultaneous equations

8 a Explain what happens when you try to solve this pair of simultaneous
equations:
y = 2 x 2 − 3x + 4
y = x−1
b Illustrate your explanation with a sketch graph.

Past−paper questions
1 The line y = 2x + 10 intersects the curve 2x2 + 3xy − 5y + y2 = 218 at
the points A and B.
Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB. [9]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 23 Q10 November 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 23 Q10 November 2011
2 The curve y = xy + x2 − 4 intersects the line y = 3x − 1 at the points A and
B. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line AB. [8]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q5 June 2015
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q5 June 2015
3 Find the set of values of k for which the line y = 3x − k does not meet
the curve y = kx2 + 11x − 6. [6]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 23 Q3 November 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 23 Q3 November 2013

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H solve simple simultaneous equations in two unknowns by
elimination or substitution.

Key points
Simultaneous equations may be solved using these methods.
4 Graphically: This method may be used for any two simultaneous
equations. The advantage is that it is generally easy to draw
graphs, although it can be time-consuming. The disadvantage is
that it may not give an answer to the level of accuracy required.
4 Elimination: This is the most useful method when solving two
linear simultaneous equations.
4 Substitution: This method is best for one linear and one non-
linear equation. You start by isolating one variable in the linear
equation and then substituting it into the non-linear equation.

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 7 Logarithmic and
exponential functions
To forget one’s ancestors is to be a brook without a source, a tree without
a root.
Chinesepr overb

Discussion point
You have two parents and each of them has (or had) two parents so you
have four grandparents. Going back you had 23 = 8 great grandparents,
24 = 16 great great grandparents and so on going backwards in time.
Assuming that there is one generation every 30 years, and that all your
ancestors were different people, estimate how many ancestors you had
living in the year 1700. What about the year 1000?
The graph below shows an estimate of the world population over
the last 1000 years. Explain why your answers are not realistic. What
assumption has caused the problem?
World Population
10.0
9.0
8.0
Population (billions)

7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1050 1150 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050
Year
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 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Recent DNA analysis shows that almost everyone in Europe is

descended from just seven women. Arriving at different times during
the last 45 000 years, they survived wolves, bears and ice ages to form
different clans that eventually became today's population. Another 26
maternal lineages have been uncovered on other continents.
Researching family history is a popular hobby and there are many
Internet sites devoted to helping people find out details of their
ancestry. Most of us only know about parents, grandparents, and
possibly great-grandparents, but it is possible to go back much further.

Worked example
Assuming that a new generation occurs, on average, every 30 years,
how many direct ancestors will be on your family tree if you go back
120 years? What about if you were able to go back 300 years?
Solution
30 years ago, you would have information about your two parents.
Each of these would have had two parents, so going back a further
30 years there are also four grandparents, another 30 years gives eight
great-grandparents and so on.
If you tabulate these results, you can see a sequence starting to form.
Number of years Number of people This is a geometric
30 2 sequence of numbers.
60 4 = 22 You will meet these
90 8 = 23 sequences in Chapter 12.
120 16 = 24
For each period of 30 years, the number of direct ancestors is double the
number in the previous generation. After 120 years, the total number of
ancestors is 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 30.
300 years ago is ten periods of 30 years, so following the pattern, there
are 210 = 1024 direct ancestors in this generation.

In practice, family trees are much more complicated, since most families
have more than one child. It gets increasingly difficult the further back
in time you research.

Discussion point
How many years would you expect to need to go back to find over
1 billion direct ancestors?
What date would that be?
Look at the graph on the previous page and say why this is not a
reasonable answer.
Where has the argument gone wrong?

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You may have answered the discussion point by continuing the pattern
in the table at the top of the page. Or you may have looked for the
smallest value of n- for which 2n is greater than 1 billion. You can find
this by trial and error but, as you will see, it is quicker to use logarithms
to solve equations and inequalities like this.

Logarithms
Logarithm is another word for index or power.
For example, if you want to find the value of x such that 2x = 8, you
can do this by checking powers of 2. However, if you have 2x = 12, for
example, it is not as straightforward and you would probably need to
resort to trial and improvement.
The equation 23 = 8 can also be written as log2 8 = 3. The number 2 is
referred to as the base of the logarithm.
Read this as
Similarly, 2x = 12 can be written as log2 12 = x. ‘log to base 2
In general, of 8 equals 3’.
a x = y ⇔ x = log a y.

Most calculators have three buttons for logarithms.

» log which uses 10 as the base.
» ln which has as its base the number 2.718…, denoted by the letter e,
which you will meet later in the chapter.
» log which allows you to choose your own base.

Worked example
Find the logarithm to base 2 of each of these numbers. Do not use a calculator.
a 32 b 1 c 1 d √2
4
Solution
This is equivalent to being asked to find the power when the number is written
as a power of 2.
a 32 = 25, so log 2 32 = 5
b 1 = 2−2, so log 2 1 =   −2 
4 4
c 1 = 20, so  log 2 1 = 0
logn 1 = 0 for all
1 positive values of n.
d 2= 22 , so log 2 2 = 12

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Graphs of logarithms
The graph of y = log a x   has the same general shape for all values of the
base a where a > 1.
y

y = loga x

1 a x

The graph has the following properties:

» The curve only exists for positive values of x.
» The gradient of the graph is always positive. As the value of x
increases, the gradient of the curve decreases.
» It crosses the x-axis at (1, 0).
» The line x = 0 is an asymptote, i.e. the curve approaches it ever more
closely but never actually touches or crosses it.
» The graph passes through the point (a, 1).
» loga x is negative for 0 < x < 1.
Graphs of other logarithmic functions are obtained from this basic
graph by applying one or more transformations – translations, stretches
or reflections – as shown in the following examples.

Note
● A translation moves the graph – horizontally, vertically or in both
directions – to a different position. It does not change in shape.
When a > 0:
m replacing x by (x − a) moves the graph a units to the right (the
positive direction)
m replacing x by (x + a) moves the graph a units to the left (the negative
direction)
m replacing y by (y − a) moves the graph a units upwards (the positive
direction)
m replacing y by (y + a) moves the graph a units downwards (the
negative direction).
● A reflection gives a mirror image. In this book only reflections in the
coordinate axes are considered.
m Replacing x by (− x) reflects the graph in the y-axis.
m Replacing y by (− y) reflects the graph in the x-axis.

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Worked example
Sketch each pair of graphs and describe the transformation shown. In each pair,
join (2, log 2) and (3, log 3) to their images.
a y = log x and y = log ( x − 3)
b y = log x and y = log ( x + 2 )
c y = log x and y = − log x
d y = log x and y = log ( − x )

Solution
a The graph of y = log ( x − 3)  is a translation of the graph of
y = log x 3 units to the right.
y

(3, log 3)
(2, log 2) (6, log 3)
(5, log 2)

1 3 4 x

y = log x y = log(x − 3)

b The graph of y = log ( x + 2 ) is a translation of the graph of y = log x

2 units to the left.
y

(1, log 3)
(0, log 2) (3, log 3)
(2, log 2)

–2 –1 1 x

y = log(x + 2) y = log x

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 Logarithms

c The graph of y = − log x  (which is the same as - y = log x) is a reflection of

the graph of y = log x in the x-axis.
y

y = log x
(2, log 2) (3, log 3)

1 x
(2, –log 2) (3, –log 3)

y = –log x

d The graph of y = log ( − x )  is a reflection of the graph of y = log x in the

y-axis.

y = log(−x) y = log x

(−3, log 3) (3, log 3)

(−2, log 2) (2, log 2)

−1 1 x

Worked example
You are given the curve of y = log x and told that log 3 = 0.48 (2 d.p.).
a Sketch the graph of y = log 3 + log x.
b What is the relationship between the graphs of y = log x and y = log 3 + log x?
c Sketch the graphs of y = log x and y = log 3x on the same axes.
d What do you notice?

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Solution
a y

y = log 3x
y = log x

1 x

b The graph of y = log 3 + log x is a translation of the graph of y = log x

c upwards by a distance of log 3.
y

y = log 3x
y = log x
You can use graphing
software to show
that the graph of 1 x
y = log 3x is the same
as the graph of
y = log 3 + log x.
This confirms
one of the ‘laws
of logarithms’
introduced below.
d The graph of y = log 3x looks the same as the graph of y = log 3 + log x.

If a logarithmic
expression is true for Laws of logarithms
any base, the base is There are a number of rules for manipulating logarithms. They are
often omitted. derived from the rules for manipulating indices. These laws are true for
all logarithms to any positive base.
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 Logarithms

Operation Law for indices Law for logarithms

Multiplication a x × a y = a x+ y log a xy = log a x + log a y
Division a x ÷ a y = a x− y log a x = log a x − log a y
y

Powers (a ) x n
=   a nx log a x n = n log a x

Roots 1 x
log a n x = 1 log a x
(a x ) n = a n n

Logarithm of 1 a0 = 1 log a 1 = 0
Reciprocals
log a 1 = log a 1 − log a x = − log a x
1
= a−x
ax x
Log to its own base a1 = a log a a = 1

You can use these laws, together with the earlier work on translations,
to help you sketch the graphs of a range of logarithmic expressions by
breaking them down into small steps as shown below.

Worked example
Sketch the graph of y = 3log ( x − 2 ).
Solution
Transforming the graph of the curve y = log x into y = 3log ( x − 2 ) involves two
stages. Translating the graph of y = log x two units to the right gives the graph of
y = log ( x − 2 ).

1 3 x

y = log x y = log (x − 2)

y = 3 log(x − 2)
Multiplying log(x − 2) by 3 y
stretches the new graph in the y
direction by a scale factor of 3.

y = log(x − 2)

3 x

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Logarithms to different bases

All the graphs you have met so far in the chapter could have been
drawn to any base a greater than 1.
» When a logarithm is to the base 10 it can be written either as log10 or
as lg. So, for example lg7 means log107.
» Base e is the other common base for logarithms.
Notice that The graphs of logarithms with a base number that is not 10 are very
when you use a similar to the graphs of logarithms with base 10.
different base for y
the logarithm, the
graph has a similar
shape and still
passes through the y = ln x
point (1, 0).
y = log x

1 x

Change of base of logarithms

It is sometimes useful to change the base of a logarithm.
x = log a b ⇔ a x = b Some calculators
can manipulate
⇔ log c a x = log c b 
logarithms to
⇔ x log c a = log c b any positive base.
log c b
Check whether
⇔x=
log c a yours is one of
them.
This question does Using logarithms to solve equations
not ask for any Logarithms can be used to solve equations involving powers, to any level of
particular base. In accuracy.
this case base 10 is
used but you could Worked example
alternatively have Solve the equation 3x = 2000.
used base e. These
are the two bases Solution
Taking logarithms to the base 10 of both sides:
for logarithms
on nearly all lg 3 x = lg 2000 ⇒    x lg 3 = lg 2000
   
calculators. lg 2000
⇒x=  = 6.92 (3 s.f.)
lg 3

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 Logarithms

Logarithms can also be used to solve more complex equations.

Worked example
Solve the equation 4e3x = 950.

Solution
When there is a
4e3x = 950 term of the form
⇒ e3x = 237.5 ex, it is easier to
Taking the
use logarithms to
logarithms to base ⇒ 3x = ln 237.5
base e, i.e. the ln
e of both sides ⇒ 3x = 5.470 167 … button on your
⇒ x = 1.82 (3 s.f.) calculator.

Worked example
Use logarithms to solve the equation 3 5 − x =  2 5 + x . Give your answer correct
to 3 s.f.

Solution
No base is mentioned, so you can use logarithms to any base. Using base 10:

3 5− x = 2 5+ x  
⇒    lg 3 5− x =  lg 2 5+ x
⇒     ( 5 − x ) lg 3 = ( 5 + x ) lg 2
⇒    5 lg 3 − x lg 3 = 5 lg 2 + x lg 2
⇒    5 lg 3 − 5 lg 2 = x lg 2 + x lg 3
⇒    5 ( lg 3 − lg 2 ) = x ( lg 2 + lg 3)
5 ( lg 3 − lg 2 )
⇒     x =
( lg 2 + lg 3)
⇒     x = 1.13 
Note that any base will yield the same answer. Using base 2:

35− x = 2 5+ x  
⇒     log 2 3 5 − x =  log 2 2 5 + x
Remember,
⇒    ( 5 − x ) log 2 3 = ( 5 + x ) log 2 2
log2 2 = 1.  
⇒    5 log 2 3 − x log 2 3 = 5 + x
⇒    5 log 2 3 − 5 = x + x log 2 3
⇒   5 ( log 2 3 − 1) = x (1 + log 2 3)

5(log 2 3 − 1)
⇒     x =
1 + log 2 3
⇒    x = 1.13 (3 s.f.)

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Discussion point
Did you find one of these methods easier than the other?
If so, which one?

Using logarithms to solve inequalities

Logarithms are also useful to solve inequalities occurring, for example,
in problems involving interest or depreciation.
When an inequality involves logs, it is often better to solve it as an
equation first and then address the inequality. If you choose to solve
it as an inequality, you may need to divide by a negative quantity and
will therefore need to reverse the direction of the inequality sign. Both
methods are shown in the example below.

Worked example
A second-hand car is bought for $20 000 and is expected to depreciate at a rate
of 15% each year. After how many years will it first be worth less than $10 000?

Solution
The rate of depreciation is 15% so after one year the car will be worth 85% of
the initial cost.
At the end of the second year, it will be worth 85% of its value at the end of
Year 1, so (0.85)2 × $2 0 000.
Continuing in this way, its value after n years will be (0.85)n × $20 000.

Method 1: Solving as an equation

Solving the equation ( 0.85) n × 20 000 = 5000

⇒    ( 0.85 ) n   = 0.5

⇒    lg 0.85 n = lg 0.5
⇒     n lg 0.85 = lg 0.5

lg 0.5
⇒     n =
lg 0.85
⇒     n = 4.265…
The car will be worth $10 000 after 4.265 years, so it is 5 years before it is first
worth less than $10 000.

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 Logarithms

Method 2: Solving as an inequality

Remember
Solving the inequality ( 0.85) n × 20 000 < 10 000
that lg 0.85 is
negative and ⇒    ( 0.85 ) n   < 0.5
when you divide
⇒    lg 0.85 n < lg 0.5
an inequality by a
negative number, ⇒     n lg 0.85  < lg 0.5
you must change lg 0.5
the direction of ⇒     n >
lg 0.85
the inequality. ⇒ n > 4.265…
The car will be worth less than $10 000 after 5 years.

Exercise 7.1 In some of the following questions you are instructed not to use your
calculator for the working, but you may use it to check your answers.
1 By first writing each of the following equations using powers, find the
value of y without using a calculator:
1
a y = log 2 8 b y = log 3 1 c y = log 5 25       d y = log 2   
4
2 32 = 9 can be written using logarithms as log3 9 = 2. Using your
knowledge of indices, find the value of each of the following without
using a calculator:
a log 2 16 b log 3 81 c log 5 125 d log 4 1
64
Remember that lg 3 Find the following without using a calculator:
means log10. a lg100 b lg(one million)
1
c lg 1000 d lg(0.000 001)
4 Using the rules for manipulating logarithms, rewrite each of the following
as a single logarithm. For example, log 6 + log 2 = log(6 × 2) = log 12.
a log 3 + log 5 b 3log 4
c log12 −  log 3 d 1 log 25
2
e 2 log 3 + 3log 2 f 4 log 3 − 3log 4 
g 1 log 4 + 4 log 1
2 2
5 Express each of the following in terms of log x:
a log x 5 − log x 2 b log x 3 + 3log x   c 5log x − 3log 3 x      
6 This cube has a volume of 800 cm3.

a Use logarithms to calculate the side length correct to the nearest

millimetre.
b What is the surface area of the cube?
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Exercise 7.1 (cont) 7 Starting with the graph of y = ln x, list the transformations required, in
order when more than one is needed, to sketch each of the graphs. Use
the transformations you have listed to sketch each graph.
a y = 3ln x b y = ln ( x + 3) c y = 3ln 2 x
d y = 3ln x + 2 e y = −3ln ( x + 1) f y = ln ( 2 x + 4 ) 

8 Match each equation from i to vi with the correct graph a to f.

i y = log ( x + 1) ii y = log ( x − 1) iii y = − ln x
iv y = 3ln x v y = log ( 2 − x ) vi y = ln ( x + 2 )

a b y
y
6
2
5

4
1
3

2
−1 1 2 3 4 x
1

−1 x
−2 −1 1 2 e3 4 5 6
−1

−2

c y d y
3 3

2 2

1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−1
−1

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 Logarithms

e y f y
3

2
1

1
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

−1

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−2

−1

9 Solve the following equations for x, given that ln a = 3 :

a a 2x = e3
b a 3x = e 2
c a 2 x − 3a x + 2 = 0
10 Before photocopiers were commonplace, school examination papers
were duplicated using a process where each copy produced was only c%
as clear as the previous copy. The copy was not acceptable if the writing
was less than 50% as clear as the original. What is the value of c if the
machine could produce only 100 acceptable copies from the original?
11 Use logarithms to solve the equation 5 2 x − 1 = 4 x + 3 . Give the value of x
correct to 3 s.f.
12 a $20 000 is invested in an account that pays interest at 2.4% per annum.
The interest is added at the end of each year. After how many years
will the value of the account first be greater than $25 000?
b What percentage interest should be added each month if interest is to
be accrued monthly?
c How long would the account take to reach $25 000 if the interest was
added:
i every month
ii every day?

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Exponential functions
The expression y = loga x can be written as x = ay. Therefore, the graphs
of these two expressions are identical.
For any point, interchanging the x- and y-coordinates has the effect of
reflecting the original point in the line y = x, as shown below.
y
y=x
(3, 5)

(1, 2) (5, 3)

(2, 1)
x

Interchanging x and y for the graph y = log a x   (shown in red) gives the
curve x = log a y (shown in blue).
y x = loga y

y=x

1 y = loga x

1 x

When rewritten with y as the subject of the equation, x = log a y

becomes y = ax.
The function y = ax is called an exponential function and is the inverse
of the logarithm function.
The most commonly used exponential function, known as the
exponential function, is ex, where e is the base of the logarithmic
function ln x and is approximately equal to 2.718. You can manipulate
exponential functions using the same rules as any other functions
involving powers.
» e a+b = e a  × e b
» e a−b = e a   ÷ e b
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 Exponential functions

Graphs of ex and associated exponential functions

The graph of y = ex has a similar shape to the graph of y = ax for positive
value of a. The difference lies in the steepness of the curve.

y = 4x

y = 2x
y = ex
y

As the base number increases (i.e. 2, e and 4 in the equations above),

the curve becomes steeper for positive values of x. All the y-values are
positive and all the curves pass through and ‘cross over’ at the point (0, 1).
For positive integer values of n, curves of the form y = enx are all related
as shown below. Notice again, that the graphs all pass through the point
(0, 1) and, as the value of n increases, the curves become steeper.
y
y = e3x

y = e2x

y = ex

The graph of y = e−x is a reflection in the y-axis of the graph of y = ex.

The graphs of y = enx and y = e−nx are related in a similar way for any
integer value of n.
y
y = e−2x y = e2x

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The family of curves y = kex, where k is a positive integer, is different set

of transformations of the curve y = ex. These represent stretches of the
curve y = ex in the y-direction.

y = 6 ex
y = 3ex

y = ex
y

6
Notice that the
curve y = kex 3
crosses the y-axis
1
at (0, k).
x

Similarly, for a fixed value of n, graphs of the family y = kenx are

represented by stretches of the graph y = enx by scale factor k in the
y-direction.
One additional transformation gives graphs of the form y = kenx + a.

Worked example
Sketch the graph of y = 3e 2 x + 1. y y = ex
Solution
Start with y = ex.

Transform to y = e2x = (ex)2. y y = e2x

The y values are squared, giving
smaller values for x < 0 (where
y < 1) and larger values for
x > 0.

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 Exponential functions

Stretch in the y-direction with a y y = 3e2x

scale factor of 3 to give the graph
of y = 3e2x.

Translate 1 unit upwards to y y = 3e2x + 1

give y = 3e2x + 1.

Worked example
a Solve the equation e 2 x − 5e x + 6 = 0
b Hence solve the equation e 4 x − 5e 2 x + 6 = 0

Solution
a e 2 x − 5e x + 6 = 0 
⇒   (e x − 2 )(e x − 3) = 0

⇒  e x = 2 or e x = 3
⇒ x = ln 2 or x = ln 3
⇒ x = 0.693 or x = 1.099 (3 d.p.)
b e 4 x − 5e 2 x + 6 = (e 2 x − 2 )(e 2 x − 3)
So, either 2 x = ln 2 ⇒ x = 0.347 (3 d.p.)
or 2 x = ln 3 ⇒ x = 0.549 (3 d.p.)

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Exponential growth and decay

The word ‘exponential’ is often used to refer to things that increase or
decrease at a very rapid rate.
y = ex is called
the exponential Any function of the form y = ax is referred to as an exponential function.
function. When x > 0, the function y = ax is referred to as exponential growth;
when x < 0 it is exponential decay.

Worked example
During the growth of an organism, a cell divides into two approximately every
6 hours. Assuming that the process starts with a single cell, and none of the cells
die, how many cells will there be after 1 week?

Solution
It is possible to work this out without any special formulae:
2 cells after 6 hours
4 cells after 12 hours
8 cells after 18 hours…
However as the numbers get larger, the working becomes more tedious.
Notice the pattern here using 6 hours as 1 time unit.
21 cells after 1 time unit
22 cells after 2 time units
23 cells after 3 time units…
1 day of 24 hours is 4 time units, so 1 week of 7 days is 28 time units. So after
1 week there will be 228 =268 435 456 cells.

Worked example
A brand of ‘invisible’ ink fades rapidly once it is applied to paper. After each
minute the intensity is reduced by one quarter. It becomes unreadable to the
naked eye when the intensity falls below 5% of the original value.

a What is the intensity, as a percentage of the original value, after 3 minutes?

b After how many minutes does it become unreadable to the naked eye? Give
your answer to the nearest whole number.

Solution
a After 1 minute it is 3 of the original value.
4

() ()
2
3
After 2 minutes it is 43 43 = of the original value.
4

()=
3
After 3 minutes it is 3 27 or approximately 42% of the original value.
4 64

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 Exponential functions

It would be very b Using the pattern developed above:

tedious to continue ( 43 ) of the original value.
t
After t minutes it is approximately
the method in
( 43 ) < 1005
t
used above until The situation is represented by: 5
5% = 100
the ink becomes
Using logarithms to solve the inequality as an equation:
unreadable.
() () ( )
t
lg 3 =  lg 5 ⇒ t lg 3 = lg 5
4 100 4 100
 
⇒     t lg 0.75 = lg 0.05
  lg 0.05
⇒     t =
lg 0.75
 
⇒     t = 10.4

Since the question asks for the time as a whole number of minutes, and the time
is increasing, the answer is 11 minutes.

Exercise 7.2 It is a good idea to check the graphs you draw in Questions 1–4 using any
available graphing software.

1 For each set of graphs:

i Sketch the graphs on the same axes.
ii Give the coordinates of any points of intersection with the axes.
a y = e x, y = e x + 1 and y = e x + 1
b y = e x ,  y = 2e x  and y = e 2 x
c y = e x ,   y = e x − 3 and y = e x − 3   

2 Sketch the graphs of y = e 3 x and y = e 3 x − 2 .

3 Sketch the graphs of y = e 2 x ,  y = 3e 2 x and y = 3e 2 x − 1.
4 Sketch each curve and give the coordinates of any points where it cuts
the y-axis.
a y = 2 + ex b y = 2 − ex c y = 2 + e− x d y = 2 − e− x
5 Solve the following equations:
a 5e 0.3t = 65 b 13e 0.5t = 65 c e t + 2 = 10 d e t − 2 = 10
6 The value, $V, of an investment after t years is given by the formula
V = Ae 0.03t , where $A is the initial investment.
a How much, to the nearest dollar, will an investment of $4000 be worth
after 3 years?
b To the nearest year, how long will I need to keep an investment for it
to double in value?
7 The path of a projectile launched from an aircraft is given by the equation
h = 5000 − e 0.2 t , where h is the height in metres and t is the time in seconds.
a From what height was the projectile launched?
The projectile is aimed at a target at ground level.
b How long does it take to reach the target?

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Exercise 7.2 (cont)

8 Match each equation from i to vi to the correct graph a to f.
i y = e2x ii y = e x + 2 iii y = 2 − e x
−x
iv y = 2 − e v y = 3e − x − 5 vi y = e −2 x − 1
a y b y
6 5

4
5

3
4
2
3
1

2
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x

1 −1

−2

−3 −2 −1 1 2 x

−1

c y d y
5 5

4
4

3
3
2
2
1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2
−2

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 Exponential functions

e y f y
3 5

2 4

1 3

x 2
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1 1

−2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−3 −1

−4 −2

−5

−6

9 A radioactive substance of mass 100 g is decaying such that after t days

the amount remaining, M, is given by the equation M = 100e −0.002 t .
a Sketch the graph of M against t.
b What is the half-life of the substance (i.e. the time taken to decay to
half the initial mass)?
10 When David started his first job, he earned $15 per hour and was
promised an annual increment (compounded) of 3.5%.
a What is his hourly rate be in his 5th year?
After 5 years he was promoted. His hourly wage increased to $26 per
hour, with the same compounded annual increment.
b For how many more years will he need to work before his hourly rate
reaches $30 per hour?
11 a Solve 2 ( 3 ) − 5 ( 3 ) + 2 = 0
2x x

b Solve e x e x+1 = 10
c Solve 2 2 x − 5 ( 2 x ) + 4 = 0

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 7 lOgaRIThmIC aND ExpONENTIal FUNCTIONs

Past−paper questions
1 Given that loga pq = 9 and loga p2q = 15, find the value of
(i) loga p and of loga q, [4]
(ii) logp a + logq a. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q4 November 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q4 November 2012
2 Solve the simultaneous equations
log3 a = 2 log3 b,
log3 (2a − b) = 1. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 13 Q5 November 2010
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 13 Q5 November 2010
3 The number of bacteria B in a culture, t days after the first
observation, is given by
B = 500 + 400e0.2t
(i) Find the initial number present. [1]
(ii) Find the number present after 10 days. [1]
(iv) Find the value of t when B = 10 000. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 22 Q5 November 2014
(Part question: part (iii) omitted)
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 22 Q5 November 2014
(Part question: part (iii) omitted)

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H recognise simple properties and graphs of the logarithmic and
exponential functions including ln x and ex and graphs of kenx + a
and k ln(ax + b) where n, k, a and b are integers
H recognise and use the laws of logarithms (including change of base
of logarithms)
H solve equations of the form ax = b.

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 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Key points
4 Logarithm is another word for index or power.
4 The laws for logarithms are valid for all bases greater than 0 and
are related to those for indices.

Operation Law for indices Law for logarithms

Multiplication a ×a =a
x y x+ y log a xy = log a x + log a y

Division a x ÷ a y = a x− y log a x = log a x − log a y

y

Powers (a ) x n
=   a nx log a x n = n log a x

log a n x = 1 log a x
1 x
Roots (a x ) n = a n n
Logarithm of 1 a =1
0 log a 1 = 0
1
Reciprocals = a−x log a 1 = log a 1 − log a x = − log a x
ax x
Log to its own base a1 = a log a a = 1

4 The graph of y = log x: is only defined for x > 0

has the y-axis as an asymptote
has a positive gradient
passes through (0, 1) for all bases.
4 Notation.
The logarithm of x to the base a is written logax.
The logarithm of x to the base 10 is written lg x or log x.
The logarithm of x to the base e is written ln x.
4 An exponential function is of the form y = ax.
4 The exponential function is the inverse of the log function.
y = loga x ⇔ ay = x
4 For a > 0, the graph of y = ax: has the x-axis as an asymptote has
a positive gradient passes through
(0, 1).
4 For a > 0, the graph of y = a−x: has the x-axis as an asymptote has
a negative gradient passes through
(0, 1).

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 8 Straight line graphs
Every new body of discovery is mathematical in form because there is no
other guidance we can have.
Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)

Discussion point
If you do a bungee jump, you will want to be certain that the rope won’t
stretch too far.
In an experiment a rope is tested by hanging different loads on it and
measuring its length. The measurements are plotted on this graph.
y
40

30
Length (m)

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 x

Load (kg)

You will have met straight line graphs frequently in abstract

algebraic problems, but they can also be used to find information in a
practical situation such as this.
What does the graph tell you about the rope?

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 The straight line y = mx + c

When a load of 200 g is attached to a spring, its stretched length is 40 cm.

With a load of 300 g, its length is 50 cm. Assuming that the extension is
proportional to the load, draw a graph to show the relationship between
the load and the length of the spring and use it to find the natural length
of the spring.
Since the load is the variable that can be directly controlled, it is plotted
on the horizontal axis and the length of the spring on the vertical axis.
Plotting the points (200, 40) and (300, 50) and joining them with a
straight line gives the graph below.
y The information
70 that the extension
The graph shows 60 is proportional to
that the natural 50 the load tells you
Length (cm)

(200, 40)
length of the 40
(300, 50)
that the graph of
spring, i.e. the the relationship will
30
length when be a straight line.
20
there is no load
10
attached, is 20 cm.
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 x
Load (g)

The straight line y = mx + c

When the equation of a straight line is written in the form y = mx + c, m
represents the gradient of the line and the line crosses the y−axis at (0, c).
You can use this to find the equation of a straight line given the graph.

Worked example
Find the equation of this straight line.
y
5
4
3
2
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
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 8 sTRaIghT lINE gRaphs

Solution
The gradient of The line crosses the y-axis at ( 0, −4 ) so c = −4 .
the line joining the To find the gradient of the line, choose two points on the line and call them
points (x1, y1) and ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2, y2 ). The points of intersection with the axes, ( 0, −4 ) and
(x2, y2) is given by (2, 0), are obvious choices.
y −y
Gradient = x2 − x1 Using the gradient formula:
2 1
Gradient (m) = 0 − ( −4 ) = 2
2−0
So the equation of the line is y = 2 x − 4.

Worked example
Find the equation of the line shown.
y

(3, 4)

x
(−1, −2)

Solution
Substitute each pair of coordinates into the equation y = mx + c.
Point (−1, −2): −2 = m ( −1) + c (1)
Point (3, 4): 4 = m ( 3) + c (2)
Subtract equation (1) from equation (2).

4 − ( −2 ) = ( 3m + c ) − ( − m + c )
⇒    6 = 3m + c + m − c
⇒    6 = 4m

Equation 2 ⇒     m = 1.5

is the more Substitute m = 1.5 into equation (2).
straightforward
4 = 3 (1.5 ) + c
equation because  
it has no negative ⇒     c = −0.5
signs. So the equation of the line is y = 1.5 x − 0.5.

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 The straight line y = mx + c

As well as y = mx + c, there are several other formulae for the equation of a straight
line. One that you are likely to find useful deals with the situation where you know
the gradient of the line, m, and the coordinates of one point on it, (x1, y1).
The equation is y – y1 = m(x – x1).
y

(x, y)

(x1, y1)

O x

Midpoint of a line
When a line has a fixed length, the midpoint, i.e. the point half way
between the two ends of the line, has as its coordinates the average of
the individual x- and y-coordinates.

Worked example
The midpoint of
the line joining Find the midpoint of the line joining (2, 5) and (4, 13).
the points (x1, y1) Solution
and (x2, y2) is given (
The coordinates of the midpoint are 2 + 4 , 5 + 13 = (3, 9).
2 2 )
by midpoint =
( x1 +2 x2 , y1 +2 y2 ). Length of a line
To find the length of the line joining two points, use Pythagoras’ theorem.
y The length of the line
(x2, y2) joining the points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
is given by length =
y2 − y1
(( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 )
(x1, y1)
x2 − x1

Worked example
Work out the length of the line joining the points A(−2, 5) and B(2, 2).

Solution
You can either:
» sketch the triangle and then use Pythagoras’ theorem or
» use the formula given above. 117

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 8 sTRaIghT lINE gRaphs

(−2, 5)
A

C B
(−2, 2) (2, 2)

x
From the triangle: AC = 3 units
BC = 4 units
So AB2 = 32 + 42
= 25
AB = 5 units
Alternatively, substituting directly into the formula (without drawing a diagram)
gives:
length = ((2 − (−2) 2 + (2 − 5) 2 )
= 5 units

Parallel lines
Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient. If you are given
the equations of two straight line graphs in the form y = mx + c, you can
immediately identify whether or not the lines are parallel. For example,
y = 3x − 7 and y = 3x + 2 are parallel since they both have a gradient of 3.
If one or both of the equations are given in a different form, you will need
to rearrange them in order to find out whether or not they are parallel.

Worked example
Show that the two lines y = 1 x − 4 and x - 2 y - 6 = 0 are parallel.
2
Solution
Start by rearranging the second equation into the form y = mx + c.

x − 2 y − 6 = 0  ⇒ x - 6 = 2 y
⇒  2 y = x − 6

⇒  y = 1 x − 3
2

Both lines have a gradient of 1 so are parallel.

2

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 The straight line y = mx + c

Perpendicular lines
Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect at an angle of 90°.

Activity
The diagram shows two congruent right-angled triangles where
p and q can take any value.
y B

q
p
A
p E

D q C
O x
1 Copy the diagram onto squared paper.
2 Explain why ∠ABC = 90°.
3 Calculate the gradient of AB ( m1 ) and the gradient of BC ( m2 ) .
4 Show that m1 m2 = −1.

Worked example
y
B(4, 6) C(9, 6)

A(1, 2) D(6, 2)

0 x
a Explain why ABCD is a rhombus.
b Show that the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular. (This result is always
true for a rhombus.)

Solution
a A rhombus is a parallelogram with all sides equal in length.
AD and BC are both parallel to the x-axis and have length 5 units.
increase in y   4
gradient of AB = gradient DC = =
increase in x 3
AB = DC = 3 2 + 4 2 = 5 units
So ABCD is a rhombus.

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 8 sTRaIghT lINE gRaphs

y −y
b Using the formula gradient = x2 − x1
2 1

gradient of AC = 69 −− 12 =   12
2−6
gradient of BD = =   −2
6−4
1
× ( −2 ) = −1 so diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular.
2

Exercise 8.1 1 For each of the following pairs of points A and B, calculate:
i the gradient of the line AB
ii the gradient of the line perpendicular to AB
iii the length of AB
iv the coordinates of the midpoint of AB.
a A(4, 3) B(8, 11)
b A(5, 3) B(10, –8)
c A(6, 0) B(8, 15)
d A(–3, –6) B(2, –7)
2 A(0, 5), B(4, 1) and C(2, 7) are the vertices of a triangle. Show that the
triangle is right angled:
a by working out the gradients of the sides
b by calculating the lengths of the sides.
3 A(3, 5), B(3, 11) and C(6, 2) are the vertices of a triangle.
a Work out the perimeter of the triangle.
b Sketch the triangle and work out its area using AB as the base.
4 A quadrilateral PQRS has vertices at P(–2, –5), Q(11, – 7), R(9, 6)
and S(–4, 8).
a Work out the lengths of the four sides of PQRS.
b Find the coordinates of the midpoints of the diagonals PR and QS.
c Without drawing a diagram, show that PQRS cannot be a square.
What shape is PQRS?
5 The points A, B and C have coordinates (2, 3), (6, 12) and (11, 7)
respectively.
a Draw the triangle ABC.
b Show by calculation that the triangle is isosceles and write down the
two equal sides.
c Work out the midpoint of the third side.
d By first calculating appropriate lengths, calculate the area of
triangle ABC.
6 A triangle ABC has vertices at A(3, 2), B(4, 0) and C(8, 2).
a Show that the triangle is right angled.
b Find the coordinates of point D such that ABCD is a rectangle.
7 P(–2, 3), Q(1, q) and R(7, 0) are collinear points (i.e. they lie on the same
straight line).
a Find the value of Q.
b Write down the ratio of the lengths PQ : QR.

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 Relationships of the form y = axn

8 A quadrilateral has vertices A(–2, 8), B(–5, 5), C(5, 3) and D(3, 7).
a Draw the quadrilateral.
b Show by calculation that it is a trapezium.
c ABCE is a parallelogram. Find the coordinates of E.
9 In each part, find the equation of the line through the given point that is:
i parallel and ii perpendicular to the given line.
a y = 2 x + 6 ; (5, −3)
b x + 3 y + 5 = 0; (−4, 7)
c 2 x = 3 y + 1; (−1, −6)
10 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining each
pair of points.
a (2, 3) and (8, −1)
b (−7, 3) and (1, 5)
c (5, 6) and (4, −3)
11 P is the point (2, −1) and Q is the point (8, 2).
a Write the equation of the straight line joining P and Q.
b Find the coordinates of M, the midpoint of PQ.
c Write the equation of the perpendicular bisector of PQ.
d Write down the coordinates of the points where the perpendicular
bisector crosses the two axes.

Relationships of the form y = axn

When you draw a graph to represent a practical situation, in many cases
your points will lie on a curve rather than a straight line. When the
relationships are of the form y = ax n or y = Ab x , you can use logarithms
to convert the curved graphs into straight lines. Although you can take
the logarithms to any positive base, the forms log and ln are used in
most cases.

Worked example
The data in the table were obtained from an experiment. y represents the mass
in grams of a substance (correct to 2 d.p.) after a time t minutes.

t 4 9 14 19 24 29
y 3.00 4.50 5.61 6.54 7.35 8.08
Saira wants to find out if these values can be modelled by the function y = at n.

a By taking logarithms to the base 10 of both sides, show that the model can be
written as log y = n log t + log a.
b Explain why, if the model is valid, plotting the graph of log y against log t will
result in a straight line.
c Plot the graph of log y against log t and use it to estimate the values of a
and t. Hence express the relationship in the form y = at n.
d Assuming that this relationship continues for at least the first hour, after how
long would there be 10 g of the substance?

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 8 sTRaIghT lINE gRaphs

Solution
a y = at n     ⇒    lg y = lg at n
⇒    lg y = lg a + lg t n
⇒    lg y = lg a + n lg t
⇒    lg y = n lg t + lg a

b Comparing this with the equation Y = mX + c gives Y = log y and X = log t .

This shows that if the model is valid, the graph of log y (on the vertical
axis) against log t will be a straight line with gradient n and intercept on the
vertical axis at log a .
c t 4 9 14 19 24 29
y 3.00 4.50 5.61 6.54 7.35 8.08
log t 0.60 0.95 1.15 1.28 1.38 1.46
log y 0.48 0.65 0.75 0.82 0.87 0.91

y
1.2

1.0

NOTE: You cannot 0.8

have a break in
log y

0.6
the horizontal
axis because this 0.4
would lead to an 0.2
incorrect point of
intersection with 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 x
the y−axis. log t

Using the points (0, 0.18) and (1.5, 0.92), the gradient of the line is:
y2 − y1 0.92 − 0.18 = 0.493
gradient = x 2 − x1 1.5 − 0 Since the values from
the graph are only
This is approximately equal to 0.5, so n = 0.5.
Using intercept on approximate, the
the y−axis = lg a 0.18 = lg a results should only
⇒   a = 1.513 ≈ 1.5 be given to 1 or 2 d.p.
Do not go beyond Therefore the relationship is y = 1.5t 0.5 or y = 1.5 t .
the values in the
d There will be 10 g of the substance when y = 10
table unless the
question tells you ⇒    10 = 1.5 t
to. If it doesn’t, you ⇒ 100 = 2.25t
cannot be sure that
the relationship ⇒     t = 100
2.25
you have found is = 44.44
valid outside of
known bounds. So, there will be 10 g after about 44 minutes.

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 Relationships of the form y = Abx

Relationships of the form y = Abx

These are often referred to as exponential relationships since the
variable is the power.

Worked example
The table shows the temperature, θ , recorded in degrees Celsius to the nearest
degree, of a cup of coffee t minutes after it is poured and milk is added.

t 0 4 8 12 16 20
θ 80 63 50 40 32 25
Seb is investigating whether the relationship between temperature and time can
be modelled by an equation of the form θ = Ab t.
a By taking logarithms to base e of both sides, show that the model can be
written as ln θ = ln A + t ln b.
b Explain why, if the model is valid, plotting the graph of ln θ against t will
result in a straight line.
c Plot the graph of ln θ against t and use it to estimate the values of A and b.
Hence express the relationship in the form θ = Ab t .
d Why will this relationship not continue indefinitely?

Solution
a θ = Ab t ⇒   ln θ = ln Ab t
⇒   ln θ = ln A + ln b t
⇒   ln θ = ln A + t ln b 
b Rewriting ln θ = ln A + t ln b as ln θ = ( ln b) t + ln A and comparing it with the
equation y = mx + c shows that plotting ln θ against t will give a straight
line with gradient ln b and intercept on the vertical axis at ln A.
c t 0 4 8 12 16 20
θ 80 63 50 40 32 25
ln θ 4.38 4.14 3.91 3.69 3.47 3.22

In θ
5

4 8 12 16 20 t

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 8 sTRaIghT lINE gRaphs

Using the points (0, 4.40) and (20, 3.22), the gradient of the line is:
3.22 − 4.38
20 − 0
= −0.058

−0.058 = ln b  ⇒   b = 0.94 (2 d.p.)

The intercept on the vertical axis is at ln θ = 4.40.
From the table, this corresponds θ = 80.
Therefore, the relationship is θ = 80 × 0.94 t .
d The relationship will not continue indefinitely since the coffee will not cool
below room temperature.

Exercise 8.2 1 Match the equivalent relationships.

i y = pr x   ii y = rp x
iii y = px r iv y = xp r
a log y = log p + r log x b log y = log r + x log p
c lg y = lg p + x lg r d lg y = lg x + r lg p
2 For each of the following models, k, a and b are constants. Use
logarithms to base e to rewrite them in the form y = mx + c, stating the
expressions equal to x, y, m and c in each case.
a y = ka x   b y = kx a  
c y = ak x d y = ax k
3 The table below shows the area, A, in square centimetres of a patch of
mould t days after it first appears.
t 1 2 3 4 5 6
A 1.8 2.6 3.6 5.1 7.2 10.3

It is thought that the relationship between A and t is of the form

A = kb t .
a Show that the model can be written as log A = ( log b) t + log k.
b Plot the graph of log A against t and explain why it supports the
assumption that A = kb t .
c Use your graph to estimate the values of b and k.
d Estimate: i the time when the area of the mould was 6 cm2
ii the area of the mould after 4.5 days.
4 It is thought that the relationship between two variables, a and b, is of
the form b = Pa n .
An experiment is conducted to test this assumption. The results are
shown in the table.

a 2 4 6 8 10 12
b 9.8 12.1 13.7 14.9 16.0 16.9

a Show that the model can be written as ln b = n ln a + ln P.

b Plot the graph of ln b against ln a and say why this supports the
assumption b = Pa n.
c Estimate the values of n and p.

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 Straight line graphs

5 With the exception of one, all the results in table satisfy, to one decimal
place, the relationship y = ax n .

x 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8

y 5.8 8.2 14.9 21.5 29.6 39.4

a Use a suitable logarithmic method to find the values of a and n.

b If the values of x are correct, identify the incorrect value of y and
estimate the correct value to 1 d.p.
6 The population P (in thousands) of a new town is modelled by the
relationship P = ka t  where t is the time in years. Its growth over the first
five years is shown in the table below.

Year (t) 1 2 3 4 5
Population (P ) 3.6 4.3 5.2 6.2 7.5
a Explain why you would expect that the graph of ln P against t to be a
straight line.
b Draw up a table of values, plot the graph and use it to estimate values
for a and k to 1 d.p.
c Using these values, calculate an estimate for the population after
20 years. How accurate is this likely to be?

Past−paper questions
1 Solutions to this question by accurate drawing will not be accepted.
The points A(p, 1), B(1, 6), C(4, q) and D(5, 4), where p and q are
constants, are the vertices of a kite ABCD. The diagonals of the kite,
AC and BD, intersect at the point E. The line AC is the perpendicular
bisector of BD. Find
(i) the coordinates of E, [2]
(ii) the equation of the diagonal AC, [3]
(iii) the area of the kite ABCD. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 21 Q9 June 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q9 June 2014

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 8 sTRaIghT lINE gRaphs

2 Solutions to this question by accurate drawing will not be accepted.

D C (6, 8)

A B
(−5, 4) (8, 4)

O x

The vertices of the trapezium ABCD are the points A(−5, 4), B(8, 4),
C(6, 8) and D. The line AB is parallel to the line DC. The lines AD
and BC are extended to meet at E and angle AEB = 90°.
(i) Find the coordinates of D and of E. [6]
(ii) Find the area of the trapezium ABCD. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q7 November 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q7 November 2012

3 Solutions to this question by accurate drawing will not be accepted.

The points A(−3, 2) and B(1, 4) are vertices of an isosceles triangle
ABC, where angle B = 90°.
(i) Find the length of the line AB. [1]
(ii) Find the equation of the line BC. [3]
(iii) Find the coordinates of each of the two possible positions of C. [6]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q10 November 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q10 November 2013

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 Straight line graphs

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H interpret the equation of a straight line graph in the form
y = mx + c
H solve questions involving midpoint and length of a line
H know and use the condition for two lines to be parallel or
perpendicular, including finding the equation of perpendicular
bisectors
H transform given relationships, including y = ax n  and y = Ab x ,  to
straight line form and hence determine unknown constants by
calculating the gradient or intercept of the transformed graph.

Key points
4 An equation of the form y = mx + c represents a straight line
that has gradient m and intersects the y-axis at (0, c).
4 The midpoint of the line joining the points ( x1 , y1 )  and ( x2 , y2 ) is
given by:
midpoint = ( x +2 x , y +2 y ). 
1 2 1 2

4 The length of the line joining the points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is given

by:
length = (( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 ) .
4 Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient.
4 Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect at an angle of 90°.
4 When the gradients of two parallel lines are given by m1 and
m2 ,  m1 m2 = −1.
4 Logarithms can be used to describe the relationship between two
variables in the following cases:
i y = ax n Taking logs, y = ax n is equivalent to log y = log a + n log x.
Plotting log y against log x  gives a straight line of gradient n
that intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, log a).
ii y = Ab x Taking logs, = Ab x is equivalent to log y = log A + x log b. 
Plotting log y against x gives a straight line of gradient log b that
intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, log A).

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 9 Circular measure

A circle is the reflection of eternity. It has no beginning and no end.

Maynard James Keenan (1964 – )

Discussion point
This is the Singapore Flyer. It has a radius of 75 metres. It takes about
30 minutes to complete one rotation, travelling at a constant speed.
How fast do the capsules travel?

The tradition of measuring angles in degrees, and there being 360 degrees
in one revolution, is thought to have come about because much of
early mathematics was connected to astronomy, and the shepherd-
astronomers of Sumeria believed that there were 360 days in a year.
The following notation is used in this chapter:
C represents the circumference of the circle – the distance round the
circle.
r represents the radius of the circle – the distance from the centre to any
point on the circumference.
θ (the Greek letter theta) is used to represent the angle that an arc
subtends at the centre of the circle.
A represents area – this may be the area of a whole circle or a sector.

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 Arc length and area of a sector

Arc length and area of a sector

A sector of a circle looks similar to a piece of cake – it is the shape
enclosed by an arc of the circle and two radii. If the angle at the centre
is less than 180° it is called a minor sector, and if it is between 180° and
360° it is called a major sector.

Major
sector

θ Minor
sector

Using ratios:
arc length θ
=  area of the sector
circumference of the circle area of the circle
=  360

Worked example
For each sector, calculate:
i the arc length ii the area iii the perimeter.
a
cm
6.5 135º

b
cm
9.8

65º

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 9 CIRCUlaR mEasURE

Solution
a i arc length
=  θ → arc length = 135
360
× 2 × π × 6.5
2 πr  360
= 15.3 cm (3 s.f.)
area = θ
ii 360
→    area = 135 × π × 6.5²
πr 2 360
= 49.8 cm² (3 s.f.)
iii perimeter = arc length + 2 × radius
= 15.3 + 2(6.5) = 28.3 cm (3 s.f.)
b The angle of this sector is 360 – 65 = 295º
arc length
= θ
295
i → arc length = 360 × 2 × π × 9.8
2 πr  360
= 50.5 cm (3 s.f.)
area = θ → 295
ii πr 2 360 area = 360 × π × 9.8²
= 247 cm² (3 s.f.)
iii perimeter = arc length + 2 × radius
= 50.5 + 2(9.8) = 70.1 cm (3 s.f.)

Worked example
A sector of a circle of radius 8 cm has an area of 25 cm2. Work out the angle at
the centre.
Solution

m
8c

25 cm2
θ

Using sector area θ

x 25 = 360 × π × 82
= 360 × πr 2
⇒ θ = 25 × 360
π × 64
= 44.8° (3 s.f.)

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 Radian measure

Radian measure
Radian measure is used extensively in mathematics because it simplifies
many angle calculations. One radian (rad) is the angle in a sector when
the arc length is equal to the radius. 1 rad is approximately 57.3°.
B

r r

1 radian
1 radian can also A r O
be written as 1c.
Since the circumference of a circle is of length 2πr, there are 2π arcs of length
r round the circumference. This means that there are 2π radians in 360°.
Degrees Radians
360 2π
180 π
90 π
2
60 π
3
45 π
4
30 π
6

π
1 degree is the same as 180 radians, therefore:
π
» multiply by 180 to convert degrees to radians
» multiply by 180
π
to convert radians to degrees.

Note
● An angle given as a fraction of π is assumed to be in radians.
● If an angle is a simple fraction of 180°, its equivalent value in radians is
usually expressed as a fraction of π.

Worked example
a Express the following in radians: i 75° ii 49°
b Express the following in degrees: i π radians ii 1.25 radians
10
Solution
π
a i 75° = 75 × 180 = 5 π radians
12
ii 49° = 49 × π = 0.855 radians (3 s.f.)
180
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 9 CIRCUlaR mEasURE

π π 180
b i radians = 10 × = 18°
10 π
ii 1.25 radians = 1.25 ×  180
π
= 71.6° (3 s.f.)

Using your calculator

Your calculator has modes for degrees and for radians, so always make sure
that it is on the correct setting for any calculations that you do. There is
usually a button marked DRG for degrees, radians and grad (you will not
use grad at this stage).
To find the value of sin 2.3c, set your calculator to the radian mode and enter
sin 2.3 followed by = or EXE, depending on your calculator. You should see
the value 0.74570… on your screen.

Arc length and area of a sector in radians

Using the definition of a radian, an angle of 1 radian at the centre of
a circle corresponds to an arc length equal to the radius r of the circle.
Therefore an angle of θ radians corresponds to an arc length of rθ.

arc length rθ

It is accepted practice to
r write rθ, with the Greek
letter at the end, rather
θ than θr.
r

The area of this sector is the fraction 2θπ of the area of the circle (since
2π is the radian equivalent of 360°).
This gives the formula:

area of a sector = 2θπ × πr 2 = 12 r 2θ .

Worked example
Calculate the arc length, area and perimeter of this sector.

cm 3π
10 4

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 Radian measure

Solution
3π
Using arc length = rθ
arc length = 10 × 4
= 15 π cm
2
sector area = × 10² × 3π
1
2
Using area of sector = 21 r 2θ
4
= 75 π cm2 Using perimeter = arc length + 2 × radius
2
perimeter = 2 + 2 × 10 = 152π + 20 cm
15 π

Exercise 9.1 1 Express each angle in radians, leaving your answer in terms of π if
appropriate:
a 120° b 540° c 22° d 150° e 37.5°
2 Express each angle in degrees, rounding your answer to 3 s.f. where
necessary:
a 2π b 5π c 3c d π e 38π
3 9 7
3 The table gives information about some sectors of circles.
Copy and complete the table. Leave your answers as a multiple of π
where appropriate.

Radius, Angle at centre Angle at centre Arc length, Area,

r (cm) in degrees in radians s (cm) A (cm2)
8 120
10 5
60 4
6 12
75 20
4 The table gives information about some sectors of circles. Copy and
complete the table. Leave your answers as a multiple of π where
appropriate.

Radius, Angle at centre Arc length, Area,

r (cm) in radians s (cm) A (cm2)
10 π
3
12 24
π 16
4

5 25
3π 40
5

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 9 CIRCUlaR mEasURE

Exercise 9.1 (cont) 5 OAB is a sector of a circle of radius 6 cm. ODC is a sector of a circle
radius 10 cm. Angle AOB is π .
3
D

m
6c
π
3
O
B C
10 cm

Express in terms of π:
a the area of ABCD
b the perimeter of ABCD.
6

5π
6
O 6 cm B

a Work out the area of the sector AOB.

The shaded area is b Calculate the area of the triangle AOB.
called a segment c Work out the shaded area.
of a circle. 7 The diagram shows the cross-section of a paperweight. The paperweight
is a sphere of radius 5 cm with the bottom cut off to create a circular flat
base with diameter 8 cm.

C
m
5c

A 8 cm B
a Calculate the angle ACB in radians.
b Work out the area of cross-section of the paperweight.

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 Radian measure

8 The perimeter of the sector in the diagram is 6π + 16 cm.

0 8 cm B

Calculate:
a angle AOB
b the exact area of sector AOB
c the exact area of the triangle AOB
d the exact area of the shaded segment.

Past−paper questions
1
O

1.5 rad
10 cm

18 cm

A C

B D
The diagram shows an isosceles triangle OBD in which
OB = OD = 18 cm and angle BOD = 1.5 radians. An arc of the circle,
centre O and radius 10 cm, meets OB at A and OD at C.
(i) Find the area of the shaded region. [3]
(ii) Find the perimeter of the shaded region. [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q8 November 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q8 November 2012

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 9 CIRCUlaR mEasURE

2 The diagram shows a circle, centre O, radius 8 cm. Points P and Q

lie on the circle such that the chord PQ = 12 cm and angle POQ = θ
radians.

12 cm
Q P

θ rad 8 cm

(i) Show that θ = 1.696, correct to 3 decimal places. [2]

(ii) Find the perimeter of the shaded region. [3]
(iii) Find the area of the shaded region. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q7 June 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q7 June 2014

3 Q

5 cm

0.8 rad
O P
R
x cm
The diagram shows a sector OPQ of a circle with centre O and radius
x cm. Angle POQ is 0.8 radians. The point S lies on OQ such that
OS = 5 cm. The point R lies on OP such that angle ORS is a right
angle. Given that the area of triangle ORS is one-fifth of the area of
sector OPQ, find
(i) the area of sector OPQ in terms of x and hence show that the
value of x is 8.837 correct to 4 significant figures, [5]
(ii) the perimeter of PQSR, [3]
(iii) the area of PQSR. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 22 Q11 November 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 22 Q11 November 2014
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 Circular measure

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H solve problems involving the arc length and sector area of a
circle, including knowledge and use of radian measure.

Key points
4 Angles are measured either in degrees or radians.
180° = π radians
4 The angle at the centre of the circle subtended by an arc that is
the same length as the radius is 1 radian.
4 The formulae for area of a circle (A = πr2) and circumference of
a circle (C = 2π) are the same whether the angle is measured in
degrees or radians.
4 You will need to learn these formulae.

Radians
Area πr2
Circumference 2πr

Arc length (θ at centre) rθ

1 r 2θ
Sector area (θ at centre) 2

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 10 Trigonometry
The laws of nature are written in the language of mathematics ... the
symbols are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures without whose
help it is impossible to comprehend a single word.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)

Discussion point
How can you estimate the angle the sloping sides of this pyramid make
with the horizontal?

Using trigonometry in right-angled triangles

The simplest definitions of the trigonometrical functions are given in
terms of the ratios of the sides of a right-angled triangle, for values of
the angle θ between 0° and 90°.

90° – θ
n use
ote
hyp opposite

θ
adjacent

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 Using trigonometry in right-angled triangles

The Greek letter In a triangle:

θ (theta) is often opposite adjacent opposite
used to denote an s in θ = cos θ = tan θ = .
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
angle. The Greek
Sin is an abbreviation of sine, cos of cosine and tan of tangent. The
letters α (alpha) previous diagram shows that:
and β (beta) are
also commonly sin θ = cos (90° − θ) and cos θ = sin (90° − θ).
used for this
purpose. Worked example
Taking the first Work out the length of x in each triangle. Give your answers correct to three
letters of each significant figures.
part gives the word a Solution
‘sohcahtoa’, which x
may help you to a = sin 38°
10
remember the ⇒ x = 10 sin 38°
10 cm x = 6.16 cm
formula. x

38º

b x
b = tan 41°
14
⇒ x = 14 tan 41°
⇒ x = 12.2 cm
14 cm x

41º

c
5 cm c 5 = cos 39°
x
⇒ 5 = x cos 39°
39°
5
⇒  x =
cos 39°
⇒  x = 6.43 cm
x

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Worked example
Work out the angle marked θ in each triangle. Give your answers correct to one
decimal place.
a Solution
8 cm 2.4
2.4 cm a sin θ =  8
  ⇒ θ = sin−1 0.3
θ   ⇒ θ = 17.5°

sin−1 0.3 is shorthand notation for ‘the angle θ where sin θ = 0.3’.
cos−1 0.3 and tan−1 0.3 are similarly defined.
b 4
b cos θ =  
8.2
4 cm   ⇒ θ =  cos −1 4
8.2
  ⇒ θ = 60.8°
θ
8.2 cm

c c The opposite and

adjacent sides are
equal, so tan θ = 1
⇒ θ = 45°.

Special cases
Certain angles occur frequently in mathematics and you will find it
helpful to know the value of their trigonometrical functions.

The angles 30° and 60°

Triangle ABC is an equilateral triangle with side 2 units, and AD is a
line of symmetry.
A

30°
2

60°
B C
1 D

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 Using trigonometry in right-angled triangles

Using Pythagoras’ theorem

AD2 + 12 = 22 ⇒ AD = 3.
From triangle ABD,
° =603°sin
sin 60sin ;= 603
cos;° 60 ° 3=;60
=cos 1
;°cos1
=tan
60 =° 1=;60°3;
° tan
; 60 = 60
tan 3;° = 3;
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 3
° = 30
sin 30sin ;sin 1
° =cos
30 ;°30 °1 =; 30cos
=cos °; = 303
°3 =; 301tan
°; =30tan
tan °. = 301 °. = 1
.
2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3

Worked example
Without using a calculator, find the value of sin² 30° + sin 60°cos 30°.
(Note that sin² 30° means (sin 30°)².)

Solution

(2)
2
sin² 30° + sin 60°cos 30° = 1 + 3× 3
2 2
= 1+ 3
4 4
=1

Note
The equivalent results using radians are

sin π = 3 ; cos π = 1 ; tan π = 3

3 2 3 2 3
π
sin = ;1 π
cos = 3 π
; tan = 1
6 2 3 2 3 3

The angle 45°

PQR is a right-angled isosceles triangle with equal sides of length 1 unit.
Q

45°
P R
1

Using Pythagoras’ theorem, PQ = 2.

This gives
1 1
sin 45° = ; cos 45° = ; tan 45° = 1.
2 2

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Note
In radians
π
sin =
1
; cos
π = 1 ; tan
π =1
4 2 4 2 4

Worked example
Without using a calculator find the value of sin2 
π + cos2  π .
4 4
Solution
sin π = 1 , cos π = 1 When an angle is given
4 2 4 2 in terms of π like this,
it is in radians.
So sin 2 π + cos 2 π = 1 + 1 π radians = 45°
4 4 2 2
=1 4

The angles 0° and 90°

Although you cannot have an angle of 0° in a triangle (because one side
would be lying on top of another), you can still imagine what it might
look like. In the diagram, the hypotenuse has length 1 unit and the angle
at X is very small.
Z
hypotenuse
opposite
X Y
adjacent

If you imagine the angle at X becoming smaller and smaller until it is

zero, you can deduce that
0
sin 0° = = 0; cos 0° = 1 = 1; tan 0° = 0
= 0.
1 1 1
If the angle at X is 0°, then the angle at Z is 90°, and so you can also
deduce that
Remember that in
radians 90° is π . sin 90° = 1 = 1;
1
cos 90° = 0
1
= 0.
2
However when you come to find tan 90°, there is a problem. The triangle
suggests this has value 1 , but you cannot divide by zero.
0
If you look at the triangle XYZ, you will see that what we actually did
was to draw it with angle X not zero but just very small, and to argue:
‘We can see from this what will happen if the angle becomes smaller
and smaller so that it is effectively zero.’
In this case we are looking at the limits of the values of sin θ, cos θ and
tan θ as the angle θ approaches zero. The same approach can be used to
look again at the problem of tan 90°.
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 Positive and negative angles

If the angle X is not quite zero, then the side ZY is also not quite zero,
and tan Z is 1 (XY is almost 1) divided by a very small number and so is
large. The smaller the angle X, the smaller the side ZY and so the larger
the value of tan Z. We conclude that in the limit when angle X becomes
zero and angle Z becomes 90°, tan Z is infinitely large, and so we say

Read these arrows as Z → 90°, tan Z → ∞ (infinity).

as ‘tends to’.
You can see this happening in the table of values below.

Z tan Z
80° 5.67
89° 57.29
89.9° 572.96
89.99° 5729.6
89.999° 57 296

When Z actually equals 90°, we say that tan Z is undef ined.

Positive and negative angles

Unless given in the form of bearings, angles are measured from the
x-axis (as shown below). Anticlockwise is taken to be positive and
clockwise to be negative.
y y

an angle of +135°

x x
an angle of –30°

Worked example
π
In the diagram, angles ADB and CBD are right angles, angle BAD = ,
3
AB = 2l and BC = 3l.
Calculate the value of θ in radians.
B 3l
C
θ

2l

π
3
A
D

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Solution
First, find an expression for BD.
π
In triangle ABD, BD = sin 3
AB π AB = 2l
  ⇒ BD = 2l sin 3

= 2l × 3
2
= 3l

In triangle BCD, tan θ = BD

BC

= 3l
3l
1
=
3
  ⇒  θ  = tan −1 
π
( )
1
3
=
6

Exercise 10.1 1 In the triangle PQR, PQ = 29 cm, QR = 21 cm and PR = 20 cm.

a Show that the triangle is right-angled.
b Write down the values of sin Q, cos Q and tan Q, leaving your answers
as fractions.
c Use your answers to part b to show that:
i sin2 Q + cos2 Q = 1
s inQ
ii tan Q =
cos Q
2 Without using a calculator, show that cos 60°sin 30° + sin 60°cos 30° = 1
3 Without using a calculator, show that cos² 60°cos² 45° = cos² 30°
π π
4 Without using a calculator, show that 3cos² 3 = sin² 3
5 In the diagram, AB = 12 cm, angle BAC = 30°, angle BCD = 60° and
angle BDC = 90°.
B

12 cm

30° 60°
A D
C
a Calculate the length of BD.
b Show that AC = 4 3 cm.

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 Positive and negative angles

π
6 In the diagram, OA = 1 cm, angle AOB = angle BOC = angle COD = 4
and angle OAB = angle OBC = angle OCD = π .
2
D C

π π
4 4 π
4
O A

a Find the length of OD, giving your answer in the form a 2 .

b Show that the perimeter of the pentagon OABCD is 4 + 3 2 cm.
7 In the diagram, ABED is a trapezium with right angles at E and D, and
CED is a straight line. The lengths of AB and BC are ( 2 3 ) d and 2d
respectively, and angles BAD and CBE are 60° and 30° respectively.
a Find the length of CD in terms of d. C

b Show that angle CAD = tan–1 ( )

2
3
.
2d

30°
B E

(2 3)d

60°
A D

8 In the diagram, ABC is a triangle in which AB = 6 cm, BC = 4 cm and

angle ABC = 2 π . The line CX is perpendicular to the line ABX.
3
C

4 cm

2π
3
A 6 cm B x

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Exercise 10.1 (cont) a Work out the exact length of BX.

3  
b Show that angle CAB = tan–1  4 
 
c Show that the exact length of AC is 76 cm.

Reciprocal trigonometrical functions

As well as sin, cos and tan there are three more trigonometrical ratios
that you need to be able to use. These are the reciprocals of the three
functions you have already met: cosecant (cosec), secant (sec) and
cotangent (cot).
cosec θ = 1
sin θ
sec θ = 1
cos θ
1
cot θ = tan θ   (= cos
sin θ )
θ

Each of these functions is undefined for certain values of θ. For

example, cosec θ is undefined for θ = 0°, 180°, 360°… since sin θ is zero
for these values.

Worked example
Solve the following equations for 0° < x < 90° rounding your answers to one
decimal place where necessary.
a sec x = 2 b cosec x = 2 c cot x = 2

Solution
1
a sec x = 2 ⇒ =2
cos x
⇒ cos x = 1
2
⇒ x = 60°

b cosec x = 2 ⇒ 1  = 2
sin x
⇒ sin x = 1
2
⇒ x = 30°

1
c cot x = 2 ⇒  = 2
tan x
⇒ tan x = 1
2
⇒ x = 26.6°

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 Reciprocal trigonometrical functions

Exercise 10.2 1 Write each value in exact form. Do not use a calculator.
a i sin 30° ii cos 30° iii tan 30°
‘Exact form’ means b i cosec 30° ii sec 30° iii cot 30°
give the answer 2 Write each value in exact form. Do not use a calculator.
using fractions and a i sin 45° ii cos 45° iii tan 45°
surds. b i cosec 45° ii sec 45° iii cot 45°
3 Write each value in exact form. Do not use a calculator.
π π π
a i sin ii cos iii tan
3 3 3
π π π
b i cosec ii sec iii cot
3 3 3
4 In the triangle ABC, angle A = 90° and sec B = 2.
a Work out the size of angles B and C.
b Find tan B.
c Show that 1 + tan2 B = sec2 B.
5 In the triangle ABC, angle A = 90° and cosec B = 2.
a Work out the size of angles B and C.
AC = 2 units
b Work out the lengths of AB and BC.
6 Given that sin θ = 3 and θ is acute, find the values of sec θ and cot θ.
4
π
7 In the triangle LMN, angle M = and cot N = 1.
2
a Find the angles L and N.
b Find sec L, cosec L and tan L.
c Show that 1 + tan2 L = sec2 L.
8 Malini is 1.5 m tall. At 8 o’clock one evening, her shadow is 6 m long.
Given that the angle of elevation of the sun at that moment is α :
a show that cot α = 4,
b find the value of α.
9 a For what values of α are sin α, cos α and tan α all positive? Give your
answers in both degrees and radians.
b Are there any values of α for which sin α, cos α and tan α are all
negative? Explain your answer.
c Are there any values of α for which sin α, cos α and tan α are all
equal? Explain your answer.

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Trigonometrical functions for angles

of any size
Is it possible to extend the use of the trigonometrical functions to angles
greater than 90°, like sin 120°, cos 275° or tan 692°? The answer is yes
− provided you change the definition of sine, cosine and tangent to one
that does not require the angle to be in a right-angled triangle. It is not
difficult to extend the definitions, as follows.
First look at the right-angled triangle below, which has hypotenuse of
unit length.
y

P(x, y)

1
y

θ
P O x x

1
y

θ
O
x

This provides the definitions:

y x y
sin θ = = y; cos θ = = x; tan θ = .
1 1 x

Now think of the angle θ being situated at the origin, as in the diagrams
above, and allow θ to take any value. The vertex marked P has
coordinates (x, y) and can now be anywhere on the unit circle.
This shows that the definitions above can be applied to any angle θ, whether
it is positive or negative, and whether it is less than or greater than 90°:
y
sin θ = y, cosθ = x, tan θ =
.
x
For some angles, x or y (or both) will take a negative value, so the signs
of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ will vary accordingly.

Worked example
The x- and y-axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants. Draw a
diagram showing the quadrants for values of x and y from −1 to 1. Label each
quadrant to show which of the trigonometrical functions are positive and which
are negative in each quadrant.

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 Trigonometrical functions for angles of any size

Solution
y
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
1
sin positive All positive
cos, tan negative

x
−1 1
3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

tan positive −1 cos positive

sin, cos negative sin, tan negative

Worked example
Find the value of: a sin 120° b cos 210° c tan 405°.

Solution y
a 120° is in the second quadrant, so sin 120° is positive.
The line at 120° makes an angle of 60° with the x-axis,
3
so sin 120° = +sin 60° = 60º 120º
2
O x

b 210° is in the third quadrant, so cos 210° is negative. y

The line at 210° makes an angle of 30° with the x-axis,
so cos 210° = −cos 30° = − 3 210º
2
30º
30º O x

c 405° is in the first quadrant, so tan 405° is y

positive. The line at 405° makes an angle of
45° with the x-axis, so tan 405° = tan 45° = 1.

45º
405º
O x

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Note
Look at this diagram. It gives you a useful aid for x
remembering the values for which sin, cos and tan are
S A
positive and negative.
A means all are positive.
S means sin is positive but the other two, cos and tan, y
T C
are negative, and so on.
Starting from C and working anticlockwise this spells
‘CAST’. Consequently, it is often referred to as ‘The
CAST Rule’.

Graphs of trigonometrical functions

The sine and cosine graphs
The diagram on the left below shows angles at intervals of 30° in
the unit circle. The resulting coordinate, θ and y, are plotted relative
to the axes in the diagram on the right. They have been joined with
a continuous curve to give the graph of sin θ for 0°  θ  360°. The
resulting wave is called the sine curve.
y sin θ
P3 P3
P4 P2 +1 P4
P2
P5 P1 P5
P1
P0 P6 P12
P6 O
P12 x P0 90° 180° 270° 360° θ
P7
P7 P11
P8 P11
P8 P10 P10
–1
P9 P9

The angle 390° gives the same point P1 on the circle as the angle 30°,
the angle 420° gives point P2 and so on. You can see that for angles from
360° to 720° the sine wave will simply repeat itself, as shown below. This
is true also for angles from 720° to 1080° and so on.
Since the curve repeats itself every 360° the sine function is described as
periodic, with period 360° or 2π radians.
The amplitude of such a curve is the largest displacement from the
central position, i.e. the horizontal axis.
sin θ

+1
Amplitude

O 180° 360° 540° 720° θ

–1
Period
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 Graphs of trigonometrical functions

You can transfer the x-coordinates on to a set of axes in a similar way to

obtain the graph of cos θ. This is most easily illustrated if you first rotate
the circle through 90° anticlockwise. The diagram shows the circle in this
new orientation, together with the resulting graph.
cos θ

P12 x
P0 P12

P0

P11
+1

P1

P10
P2 P1 P11
P2 P10
P3 P9
P3

P9
90° 180° 270° 360° θ
y

P4
P8

P8
P5
P4

–1 P7
P7
P5

P6
P6

The cosine curve repeats itself for angles in the interval 360°  θ  720°.
This shows that the cosine function is also periodic with a period of 360°.
Notice that the graphs of sin θ and cos θ have exactly the same shape.
The cosine graph can be obtained by translating the sine graph 90° to
the left, as shown below.
y

y = cos θ
+1

110° 210°
O 20° 90° 120° 180° 270° 360° θ
y = sin θ
–1

The diagram shows that, for example,

cos 20° = sin 110°, cos 90° = sin 180°, cos 120° = sin 210°, etc.
In general:
cos θ ≡ sin (θ + 90°), and in radians cos θ = sin θ + π . ( 2 )
Discussion point
1 What do the graphs of sin θ and cos θ look like for negative angles?
2 Draw the curve of sin θ for 0°  θ  90°.
Using only reflections, rotations and translations of this curve, how
can you generate the curves of sin θ and cos θ for 0°  θ  360°?

The tangent graph

y
The value of tan θ can be worked out from the definition tan θ = x
or by
sin θ
using tan θ = .
cos θ
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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

You have already seen that tan θ is undefined for θ = 90°. This is also the
case for all other values of θ for which cos θ = 0, namely 270°, 450°, …,
and −90°, −270°, …
The graph of tan θ is shown below.
The dotted lines θ = ±90° and θ = 270° are asymptotes.
Asymptotes
y
are not part of
the curve. The
branches get
increasingly close
to them but never –90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° θ
actually touch
them.

Note
The graph of tan θ is periodic, like those for sin θ and cos θ, but in this case
the period is 180°. Again, the curve for 0  θ  90° can be used to generate
the rest of the curve using rotations and translations.

Solving trigonometrical equations using graphs

You can use these graphs when you solve trigonometric equations.
If you use the inverse function on your calculator to solve the equation
cos θ = 0.5, the answer is given as 60°. However, the graph of y = cos θ
shows that this equation has infinitely many roots.
y

0.5
–420° –300° –60° 0 60° 300° 420° 270° 660° 780° θ

–1

This graph of y = cos θ shows that the roots for cos θ = 0.5 are:
θ = ..., −420°, −300°, −60°, 60°, 300°, 420°, 660°, 780°, ...

The functions cosine, sine and tangent are all many-one mappings, so
their inverse mappings are one-many. In other words, the problem ‘Find
cos 60°’ has only one solution (0.5), whilst ‘Find θ such that cos θ = 0.5’
has infinitely many solutions.
Remember that a function has to be either one-one or many-one. This
means that in order to define inverse functions for cosine, sine and

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 Solving trigonometrical equations using graphs

tangent, a restriction must be placed on the domain of each so that it

becomes a one-one mapping. This is why your calculator will always
give the value of the solution between:
0°  θ  180° (cos)
−90°  θ  90° (sin)
−90°  θ  90° (tan).
Your calculator
only gives one of The following diagrams are the graphs of cosine, sine and tangent
the infinitely many together with their principal values. The graphs show you that the
principal values cover the whole of the range (y values) for each
roots. This is called
function.
the principal value.
y
1 y = cos
principal values
0.5

–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°

–0.5

–1

y
1

0.5 y = sin
principal
values

–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°

–0.5

–1

y
3 y = tan
principal
2
values
1

–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°

–1

–2

–3

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Discussion point
How are the graphs of sinθ, cosθ and tanθ changed if θ is measured in
radians rather than degrees?

Worked example
3
Find values of θ in the interval −360°  θ  360° for which sin θ = .
2
Solution
3  
sin θ = ⇒θ= sin −1  3  = 60°. The graph of sin θ is shown below.
2 2
sin θ

1
0.5
O
−300º −240º 60º 120º
−1

So, the values of θ are −300°, −240°, 60°, 120°.

Worked example
Solve the equation 2tan θ +1 = 0 for −180°  θ  180°.

Solution
2tan θ + 1 = 0 ⇒ tan θ = − 1
2

Using a calculator
⇒ 1
θ = tan −1 − 2 ( )
= −26.6° (1 d.p.)

y
y = tan θ

−26.6° 153.4°
O
−270° −180° −90° 90° 180° 270° θ

From the graph, the other answer in the range is:

θ = −26.6° + 180° = 153.4°

So, the values of θ are −26.6°, 153.4°.
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 Solving trigonometrical equations using graphs

Exercise 10.3 1 a Sketch the curve y = cos x for 0°  x  360°.

b Solve the equation cos x = 0.5 for 0°  x  360°, and illustrate the two
roots on your sketch.
c State two other roots of cos x = 0.5, given that x is no longer restricted
to values between 0° and 360°.
d Write down, without using your calculator, the value of cos 240°.
2 a Sketch the curve of y = sin x for −2 π  x  2 π.
b Solve the equation sin x = 0.6 for −2 π  x  2 π, and illustrate all the
roots on your sketch.
c Sketch the curve y = cos x for −2 π  x  2 π.
d Solve the equation cos x = 0.8 for −2 π  x  2 π, and illustrate all the
roots on your sketch.
e Explain why some of the roots of sin x = 0.6 are the same as those for
cos x = 0.8, and why some are different.
3 Solve the following equations for 0°  x  2 π.
3
a tan x = 3 b sin x = 0.5 c cos x = − 2
1
d tan x = e cos x = −0.7 f cos x = 0.3
3
g sin x = − 1 h sin x = −1
3
4 Write the following as integers, fractions, or using square roots. You
should not need your calculator.
a sin 45° b cos 60° c tan 45°
d sin 120° e cos 150° f tan 180°
g sin 405° h cos (−45°) i tan 225°
5 In this question all the angles are in the interval −180° to 180°.
Give all answers correct to one decimal place.
a Given that cos α  0 and sin α = 0.5, find α.
b Given that tan β = 0.3587 and sin β  0, find β.
c Given that cos γ = 0.0457 and tan γ  0, find γ.
6 a Draw a sketch of the graph y = sin x and use it to demonstrate why
sin x = sin (180° − x).
b By referring to the graphs of y = cos x and y = tan x, state whether the
following are true or false.
i cos x = cos (180° − x) ii cos x = −cos (180° − x)
iii tan x = tan (180° − x) iv tan x = −tan (180° − x)
7 a For what values of α are sin α, cos α and tan α all positive given that
0°  α  360°?
b Are there any values of α for which sin α, cos α and tan α are all
negative? Explain your answer.
c Are there any values of α for which sin α, cos α and tan α are all
equal? Explain your answer.
8 Solve the following equations for 0°  θ  360°.
a cos (θ − 20°) = 1 b tan (θ + 10°) = 3 c sin (θ + 80°) = 2
2 3 2
d tan 2θ = 3 e sin (1 θ ) = 1 f cos 2θ = − 3
2 2 2
g sin 3θ = 1 h sin 2θ = 0 i tan 3θ = 1
2
9 Solve the following equations for −2 π  x  2 π.
a 10 sin x = 1 b 2 cos x – 1 = 0 c tan x + 2 = 0
d 5 sin x + 2 = 0 e cos² x = 1 − sin x
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Transformations of trigonometrical graphs

Now that you are familiar with the graphs of the sine, cosine and
tangent functions, you can see how to transform these graphs.

y = a sin x where a is a positive integer

How are the graphs of y = sin x and y = 2 sin x related?
To investigate this question, start by drawing graphs of the two
functions using a graphical calculator or graph-drawing package.
y
2
y = 2 sin x
1
y = sin x

90° 180° 270° 360° 450° x

−1

−2

Looking at the graphs:

» y = sin x has an amplitude of 1 unit and a period of 360°.
» y = 2sin x has an amplitude of 2 units and a period of 360°.
The graphs of y = sin x and y = 2 sin x illustrate the following general
result.
The graph of y = a sin x is a sine curve that has an amplitude of a
units and a period of 360°.
The transformation is a stretch of scale factor a parallel to the
y-axis.

y = sin bx where b is a simple fraction or integer

What is the relationship between the graph of y = sin x and y = sin 2x?
Again, start by drawing the graphs. The table of values, calculated to one
decimal place, is given below, but you can also draw the graphs using
suitable software.

x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
sin x 0 0.5 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.9 −1.0 −0.9 −0.5 0
sin 2 x 0 0.9 0.9 0 −0.9 −0.9 0 0.9 0.9 0 −0.9 −0.9 0

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 Transformations of trigonometrical graphs

y
1
y = sin 2x
y = sin x

90° 180° 270° 360° x

−1

Looking at the graphs:

» y = sin x has an amplitude of 1 unit and a period of 360°.
» y = sin 2x has an amplitude of 1 unit and a period of 180°.
Similarly, the graph of y = sin 3 x has a period of 360 ÷ 3 = 120°, the
graph of y = sin ( ) has a period of 360 ÷
x
2
 
1
2
= 720, and so on.
The graphs of y = sin x and y = sin 2 x illustrate the following general results.

The graph of y = sin b x is a sine curve that has amplitude 1 unit

and period ( ) °.
360
b
The transformation is a stretch of scale factor 1 parallel to the x-axis.
b

y = sin x + c where c is an integer

How are the graphs of y = sin x and y = sin x + 3 related?
Again, start by drawing the graphs.
y
4
y = sin x + 3
3

1
y = sin x
90° 180° 270° 360° x
−1

Looking at the graphs, y = sin x + 3 has the same amplitude and period
as y = sin x but is 3 units above it.
Similarly, the graph of y = sin x – 2 is 2 units below the graph of y = sin x.
The graphs of y = sin x and y = sin x + 3 illustrate the following general result.
The graph of y = sin x + c is the same shape as the graph of y = sin x
but is translated vertically upwards through c units.
0
The transformation is a translation of   .
c

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Combining transformations
The graph of y = a sin bx + c is a transformation of the graph of y = sin x
effected by:
» a stretch parallel to the y-axis, scale factor a
» a stretch parallel to the x-axis, scale factor b1
» a translation parallel to the y-axis of c units.

Discussion point
When drawing the graph of y = a sin bx + c using a series of
transformations of the graph y = sin x, why is it necessary to do the
translation last?

All the transformations in this section have been applied to the

graph of y = sin x. The same rules can be applied to the graphs of all
trigonometric functions, and to other graphs as well as those shown in
these examples.

Worked example
The diagram shows the graph of a function y = f(x).
y
2 y = f(x)
1

1 2 3 4 x

Sketch the graph of each of these functions.

a y = f(2x) b y = 3f(x) c y = 3f(2x)

Solution
a y = f(2x) is obtained from y = f(x) by applying a stretch of scale factor 1
2
parallel to the x-axis.
y
2 y = f(x)
1
y = f(2x)
1 2 3 4 x

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 Transformations of trigonometrical graphs

b y = 3f(x) is obtained from y = f(x) by applying a stretch of scale factor 3

parallel to the y-axis.
y
7
6
5
4 y = 3f(2x)
3
2 y = f(x)
1

1 2 3 4 x

The order of the c y = 3f(2x) is obtained from y = f(x) by applying a stretch of scale factor 1
2
transformations parallel to the x-axis and a stretch of scale factor 3 parallel to the y-axis.
is not important y
in this example 7

because the two 6

directions are 5 y = 3f(2x)
independent. 4
3
2
y = f(x)
1

1 2 3 4 x

Worked example
Starting with the graph of y = cos x
i State the transformations that can be used to sketch each curve.
ii Sketch each curve for 0°  x  360°.
a y = cos 2x b y = 3 cos 2x c y = 3 cos 2x − 1
y
3

1 y = cos x

−360° −270° −180° −90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

−1

−2

−3

−4
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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Solution
a i The graph of y = cos 2x is a stretch of y = cos x by scale factor 1 in the
2
x-direction.
ii y
3

2
y = cos x 1 y = cos 2x

−360° −270° −180° −90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

−1

−2

−3

−4
b i The graph of y = 3 cos 2x is a stretch of y = cos x by scale factor 1 in the
2
x-direction and by scale factor 3 in the y-direction.
ii y
3 y = 3 cos 2x

y = cos x 1

−360° −270° −180° −90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

−1

−2

−3

−4
c i The graph of y = 3 cos 2x – 1 is a stretch of y = cos x by scale factor 1
2
in the x-direction and scale factor 3 in the y-direction, followed by a
translation of 1 unit vertically downwards.
ii y
3
y = 3 cos 2x − 1
2

y = cos x 1

−360° −270° −180° −90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

−1

−2

−3

−4

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 Transformations of trigonometrical graphs

The curve y = tan x can also be translated and stretched. However,

because y = tan x has no finite boundary in the y-direction, it is not as
straightforward to show such stretches when the graphs approach the
asymptotes.

Worked example
a Sketch the curve y = tan x for 0°  x  180°.
b On the same axes, sketch the curve y = tan x + 2.

Solution
y

2
y = tan x + 2
90° 180° x
y = tan x

Exercise 10.4 1 For each transformation (i) to (iv):

a Sketch the graph of y = sin x and on the same axes sketch its image
under the transformation.
b State the amplitude and period of the transformed graph.
c What do you notice about your answers for iii and iv?
i a stretch, scale factor 2, parallel to the y-axis
ii a translation of 1 unit vertically downwards
iii a stretch, scale factor 2, parallel to the y-axis followed by a
translation of 1 unit vertically downwards.
iv a translation of 1 unit vertically downwards followed by a stretch
of scale factor 2 parallel to the y-axis
2 a Apply each set of transformations to the graph of y = cos x.
b Sketch the graph of y = cos x and the transformed curve on the same
axes.
c State the amplitude and period of the transformed graph.
d What do you notice about your answers for iii and iv.
i a stretch, scale factor 2, parallel to the x-axis.
ii a translation of 180° in the negative x-direction
iii a stretch, scale factor 2, parallel to the x-axis followed by a
translation of 180° in the negative x-direction
iv a translation of 180°in the negative x direction followed by a
stretch of scale factor 2 parallel to the x-axis

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Exercise 10.4 (cont) 3 a Apply these transformations to the graph of y = sin x.

b Sketch the graph of y = sin x and the transformed curve on the same
axes.
c State the amplitude and period of the transformed graph.
d What do you notice about your answers for iii and iv?
i a stretch, scale factor 2, parallel to the x-axis
ii a translation of 1 unit vertically upwards
iii a stretch, scale factor 2, parallel to the x-axis followed by a
translation of 1 unit vertically upwards
iv a translation of 1 unit vertically upwards followed by a stretch,
scale factor 2, parallel to the x-axis
4 State the transformations needed, in the correct order, to transform the
first graph to the second graph.
a y = tan x, y = 3 tan 2x
b y = tan x, y = 2 tan x + 1
c y = tan x, y = 2 tan (x − 180°)
π
d y = tan x, y = 3 tan (x +  ) + 3
2
5 State the transformations required, in the correct order, to obtain this
graph from the graph of y = sin x.
y
3

−90° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

−1

6 State the transformations required, in the correct order, to obtain this

graph from the graph of y = tan x.
y

22.5° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360° x

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 Identities and equations

7 State the transformations required, in the correct order, to obtain this

graph from the graph of y = cos x.
y
1

π π 3π 2π x
2 2
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

Identities and equations

sin, cos and tan
y

P(x, y)

1
y

θ
O x x

Look at the diagram of the unit circle. It shows you that

y
x = cos θ, y = sin θ and x
= tan θ.
It follows that
sin θ
tan θ = cos θ
.
However, it more accurate to use the identity sign here because the
relationship is true for all values of θ, so
sin θ
tan θ ≡ cos θ
Remember that an equation is only true for certain values of the
variable, called the solution of the equation.
For example, tan θ = 1 is an equation: in the range 0°  θ  360°, it is
only true when θ = 45° or 225°.

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

In this book, as By contrast, an identity is true for all values of the variable. For
in mathematics example,
generally, an sin 75° sin (−300°) sin π
equals sign is tan 45° ≡ sin 45°
, tan 75° ≡ cos 75°
, tan (−300°) ≡ cos (−300°)
, tan π = 6
cos 45° 6
cos π
often used where and so on for all values of the angle. 6
it would be more
The identity below is found by applying Pythagoras’ theorem to any
correct to use point P(x, y) on the unit circle.
an identity sign. P
The identity y2 + x2 ≡ OP2
sign is kept for (sin θ )2 + (cos θ )2 ≡ 1. 1
y
situations where This is written as:
it is particularly O
θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1. x
important to
sin θ
emphasise that the You can use the identities tan θ ≡ cos θ and sin2 θ+ cos2 θ ≡ 1 to prove
relationship is an other identities are true.
identity and not an There are two methods you can use to prove an identity; you can use
equation. either method or a mixture of both.
Method 1
When both sides of the identity look equally complicated you can work
with both the left-hand side (LHS) and the right-hand side (RHS) and
show that LHS – RHS = 0 (as shown in the example below).

Worked example
Prove the identity cos² θ – sin² θ ≡ 1 − 2 sin² θ.
Solution
You need to show that cos² θ − sin² θ − 1 + 2 sin² θ ≡ 0.
Both sides look equally complicated, so show
LHS – RHS = cos² θ – sin² θ –1 + 2 sin² θ
Simplifying:
≡ cos² θ + sin² θ − 1
Using
  ≡1−1
sin² θ + cos² θ = 1
  ≡ 0 as required

Method 2
When one side of the identity looks more complicated than the other
side, you can work with this side until you end up with the same as the
simpler side, as shown in the next example. In this case you show
LHS = RHS.

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 Identities and equations

Worked example
sin θ 1 1
Prove the identity
1 − cos θ
− sin θ
≡ .
tan θ

Solution

LHS = sin θ − 1
1 − cosθ sin θ
sin 2 θ − (1 − cosθ )
≡
Since (1 − cosθ ) sin θ
sin² θ + cos² θ = 1, (1 −  cos 2 θ ) +  cos θ   −  1
≡
sin² θ = 1 − cos² θ (1 − cos θ ) sin θ
≡ cosθ   − cos θ  
2

(1 − cos θ ) sin θ
cos θ (1  −  cos θ ) 
≡
(1 − cos θ ) sin θ
≡ cos θ    = RHS
sin θ
1 
≡ as required
tan θ

cosec, sec and cot

The reciprocal of the relationship tan θ ≡ sin θ is
cos θ
1 ≡ 1 ÷ sin θ
tan θ cos θ
⇒ cotθ ≡ cosθ .
sinθ
Similarly, dividing the relationship sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ ≡ 1 through by sin2 θ
gives
sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
+ ≡ 1
sin 2 θ sin 2 θ sin 2 θ
⇒ cosec2θ ≡ 1 + cot2θ
This is usually presented as cosec2θ ≡ 1 + cot2θ
If instead you divide sin2θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1 by cos2 θ you get
sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
+ ≡ 1
cos 2 θ cos 2 θ cos 2 θ
⇒ tan2 θ + 1 ≡ sec2 θ
This is usually presented as sec2θ ≡ 1 + tan2θ

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Worked example
a Show that sec2 x − cosec2 x ≡ tan2 x − cot2 x.
sec θ
b Prove that ≡ cosec θ.
tan θ

Solution
Using a Start with the left-hand side since this looks more complicated.
tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x LHS ≡ sec2 x − cosec2 x ≡ (1 + tan² x) − (1 + cot² x)
and ≡ 1 + tan² x – 1 – cot² x
1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x ≡ tan2x – cot2x ≡ RHS

It is often more b Again, start with the left-hand side since this looks more complicated.
straightforward sec θ
LHS ≡  tan θ ≡ sec θ ÷ tan θ
to go back
1 sin θ
to the basic ≡   ÷
cos θ cos θ
trigonometric 1 cos θ
functions sin θ and ≡ 
cos θ
 ×  
sin θ
cos θ. 1
≡ 
sin θ
≡ cosec θ ≡ RHS

You can also use this approach to solve equations involving the
reciprocal functions. This involves using the definitions of the functions
to find equivalent equations using sin, cos and tan. You will usually be
given a range of values within which your solution must lie, so a sketch
graph is useful to ensure that you find all possible values.

Worked example
Solve the following equations for
a cosec θ = 2 for 0°  θ  360°
b sec² θ + 2tan² θ = 4 for 0  θ  2π

Solution
a cosec x = 2 ⇒ 1   = 2
sin x
  ⇒ 1 = 2 sin x
  ⇒ sin x = 1
2
  ⇒ x = 30°
This is called the
principal value. To find any other values in the interval 0° < θ < 360°, sketch the graph.

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 Identities and equations

y
1

0.5

30° 90° 150°180° 270° 360° θ

−1

The graph shows that sin θ is also 1 when θ = 150°.

2
The solution is therefore θ = 30° or θ = 150°.
b sec² θ + 2 tan² θ = 4 ⇒ (1 + tan2 θ) + 2 tan² θ = 4
⇒ 1 + 3 tan² θ = 4
⇒ 3 tan² θ = 3
⇒ tan² θ = 1
⇒ tan θ = ± 1
π π
tan−¹ 1 = and tan−¹ (−1) = − 
4 4
To find the values in the interval 0  θ  2π, sketch the graph.
y y = tanθ
1

π 3π 7π
−
4 4 4
π 0 π π π 5π 3π 2π
x
− 4
2 2 4 2

−1

5π
The graph shows the value of tanθ is also 1 when θ = .
4
The principal value for tan θ = −1 is outside the required range. The graph
shows that the values in the required range are 3 π and 7 π .
4 4
π 3π 5π 7π
The solution is therefore θ = ,θ = ,θ = and θ = .
4 4 4 4

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Exercise 10.5 1 Prove that sin 2 θ − cos 2 θ = 3 − 2 sin 2 θ − 4 cos 2 θ .

2 Prove that 1 + 12 = 12 .
tan θ sin θ
3 Prove that 4cos2 θ + 5sin2 θ = sin2 θ + 4.
2
1 − (sin θ − cos θ )
4 Prove that = 2.
sin θ cos θ
5 Solve the equation cosec2 θ + cot² θ = 2 for 0° < x < 180°.
cosec A
6 Show that = sec2 A.
cosec A  −  sin A
7 Solve the equation sec2 θ = 4 for 0  θ  2π.
8 Prove the identity cot θ + tan θ ≡ sec θ cosec θ.
9 This is the graph of y = sec θ .
y

1 y = cos x

−2π −π 0 π 2π x
−1

y = sec x

a Solve the equation sec θ = 1 for −2π

− 360
 °θθ 2π.
 360°
b What happens if you try to solve sec θ = 0.5?
10 Solve the equation tan θ = sec θ for − 360°  θ  360°.
11 a Show that 12 sin 2 x + cos x − 1 = 11 + cos x − 12 cos 2 x.
b Solve 12 sin 2 x + cos x − 1 = 0 for 0°  x  360°.
12 a Show that sin 2 θ + 1 − sin θ − cos 2 θ = 2 sin 2 θ − sin θ .
b Solve sin 2 θ + 1 − sin θ − cos 2 θ = 0 for 0  θ  2 π .

Past-paper questions
1 (a) Solve 4 sin x = cosec x for 0°  x  360°. [3]
(b) Solve tan23y − 2 sec 3y − 2 = 0 for 0°  y  180°. [6]
(c) ( 3 )
Solve tan z − π = 3 for 0  z  2π radians. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q10 June 2015
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q10 June 2015

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 Trigonometry

2
y

(0, 3) ( π , 3)
2

O x

(a) (i) The diagram shows the graph of y = A + C tan(Bx) passing

A and of B.
( )
through the points (0, 3) and π , 3 . Find the value of
2
[2]

value of C.
( )
(ii) Given that the point π , 7 also lies on the graph, find the
8
[1]
(b) Given that f (x) = 8 − 5 cos 3x, state the period and the amplitude
of f. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 23 Q4 November 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 23 Q4 November 2013

3 Show that 1 + 1 = 2cosec 2θ . [3]

1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q1 June 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q1 June 2011

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H recall and use the six trigonometric functions of angles of any
magnitude (sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant, cotangent)
H understand amplitude and periodicity and the relationship
between graphs of related trigonometric functions, e.g. sin x
and sin 2x
H draw and use the graphs of
y = a sin bx + c
  y = a cos bx + c
  y = a tan bx + c
where a is a positive integer, b is a simple fraction or integer
(fractions will have a denominator 2, 3, 4, 6 or 8 only) and c is an
integer
H use the relationships

sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
sec2 A = 1 + tan2 A
cosec2 A = 1 + cot2 A
sin A
= tan A
cos A
cos A
= cot A
sin A
H solve simple trigonometric equations involving the six trigonometric
functions and the above relationships (not including the general
solution of trigonometric equations)
H prove simple trigonometric identities.

Key points
4 In a right-angled triangle
opposite adjacent opposite 90° – θ
s in θ = cos θ = se θ =
tan .
hypotenuse hypotenuse nu adjacent
ote
opposite adjacent opposite hyp opposite
s in θ = cos θ = tan θ = .
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

opposite adjacent opposite θ

s in θ = cos θ = tan θ = .
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent adjacent

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 Trigonometry

4 The graphs of the three main trigonometric functions have distinctive

shapes as shown below.
y
1 y = cos
principal values
0.5

–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°

–0.5

–1

y
1

0.5 y = sin
principal
values

–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°

–0.5

–1

y
3 y = tan
principal
2
values
1

–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°

–1

–2

–3

If θ is in radians, the shapes of these curves are exactly the same but
the scale on the horizontal axis goes from −2π to 2 π instead of from
−360° to 360°.
4 The reciprocal trigonometric functions are defined as:
1 1 1
cosec θ = sec θ = cot θ = tan θ  
sin θ cos θ
4 The amplitude of an oscillating graph such as y = sin x or y = cos x is
the largest displacement from the equilibrium position. For y = sin x or
y = cos x, the equilibrium position is the x-axis.
4 The period of the oscillations is the interval over which the graph
does one complete oscillation.

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 10 TRIgONOmETRy

4 The graph of y = a sin bx + c is a transformation of the graph of

y = sin x by:
i a stretch of scale factor a in the y-direction
1
ii a stretch of scale factor b in the x-direction
iii a translation of c units in the y-direction
Operation (i) must precede (iii) but otherwise the order of the
transformations can be varied.
The same rules apply if sin is replaced by cos or tan.
4 The following relationships are referred to as trigonometric
identities.
sin² A + cos² A ≡ 1
sec² A ≡ 1 + tan² A
cosec² A ≡ 1 + cot2 A
sin A
≡ tan A
cos A
cos A
≡ cot A
sin A

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 11 Permutations and
combinations

It always seems impossible until it is done.

Nelson Mandela (1918 – 2013)

Discussion point
The combination lock has four numbers to be found and six choices for
each number: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. Suppose you have no idea what the code is,
but you need to open the lock. It may seem like an impossible situation
initially, but what if you try every possible combination of numbers
systematically? How many possible combinations are there? Estimate
how long it will take you to open the lock.

6
5
6
5

4
6
5

3 2 1
6
5

3 2 1
4

3 2 1
3 2 1

Factorials
Worked example
Winni is tidying her bookshelf and wants to put her five maths books together.
In how many different ways can she arrange them?

Solution
There are 5 possible books that can go in the first space on the shelf.
There are 4 possible books for the second space.

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 11 pERmUTaTIONs aND COmbINaTIONs

There are 3 for the third space, 2 for the fourth and only 1 book left for the fifth
space.
The total number of arrangements is therefore
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
Book 1 Book 2 Book 3 Book 4 Book 5
This number, 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1, is called 5 factorial and is written 5!

This example illustrates a general result. The number of ways of placing

n must be a positive n different objects in a line is n!, where n! = n × (n – 1) × (n – 2) … ×
3 × 2 × 1.
integer.
By convention, a special case is made for n = 0. The value of 0! is taken
to be 1.

Worked example
Find the value of each of the following:
a 2! b 3! c 4! d 5! e 10!
Solution
a 2! = 2 × 1 = 2
b 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
c 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
You can see that
factorials go up d 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
very quickly in size. e 10! = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3 628 800

Worked example
7!
a Calculate 5!

× 4!× 3!
b Calculate 5!6!× 2!
Solution
a 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 and 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
7! 7×6× 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
This result can be generalised as
So 5! = = 42 n! =   n × (n - 1) × (n - 2) × … × (m +1) × m!
5× 4 × 3× 2 ×1
m! m!
You can also write 7! as 7 × 6 × 5!
= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × …
n>m 7! =  7  ×  6  ×  5! = 7 × 6 = 42
Using this, 5! × (m + 1)
5!
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 12
b 6×5×4×3×2×1 × 2×1

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 Factorials

Worked example
a Find the number of ways in which all six letters in the word FOURTH can be
arranged.
b In how many of these arrangements are the letters O and U next to each other?

Solution
a There are six choices for the first letter (F, O, U, R, T, H). Then there are five
choices for the next letter, then four for the fourth letter and so on. So the
number of arrangements of the letters is
6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 6! = 720
b The O and the U are to be together, so you can treat them as a single letter.
So there are five choices for the first letter ‘(F, OU, R, T or H)’, four choices
for the next letter and so on.
So the number of arrangements of these five ‘letters’ is
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5! = 120

However OU F R T H
Notice that the
total number of is different from UO F R T H
ways of arranging So each of the 120 arrangements can be arranged into two different orders.
the letters with the
U and the O apart The total number of arrangements with the O and U next to each other is
is 720 – 240 = 480 2 × 5! = 240

Exercise 11.1 1 Calculate: a 7! b 9!

7! c 4! × 6!
7! × 2!
( n  −  2 )!
2 Simplify: a ( n  n+! 1)! b ( n  −  3)!

3 Simplify: a ( n  +n! 2 )! b (( nn   +−  1 )!

 1)!

4 Write in factorial notation:

a 96 ×× 85 ×× 47 b 5 ×144 ×× 15
3×2
c ( n +4 2×)(3n×+21) n

5 Factorise: a 6! + 7! b n! + (n – 1)!
6 Write the number 42 using factorials only.
7 How many different four-letter arrangements can be formed from the
letters P, Q, R and S if letters cannot be repeated?
8 How many different ways can seven books be arranged in a row on a
shelf?
9 There are five drivers in a motoring rally.
How many different ways are there for the five drivers to finish?

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 11 pERmUTaTIONs aND COmbINaTIONs

Exercise 11.1 (cont) 10 There are five runners in a 60-metre hurdles race, one from each of the
nations Japan, South Korea, Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand.
How many different finishing orders are there?
11 Toben listens to 15 songs from a playlist. If he selects ‘shuffle’ so the
songs are played in a random order, in how many different orders could
the songs be played?
12 How many different arrangements are there of the letters in each word?
a ASK b QUESTION c SINGAPORE
d GOVERN e VIETNAM f MAJORITY
13 How many arrangements of the letters in the word ARGUMENT are
there if:
a there are no restrictions on the order of the letters
b the first letter is an A
c the letters A and R must be next to each other
d the letters G and M must not be next to each other.

Permutations
In some situations, such as a race, the finishing order matters. An
ordered arrangement of a number of people, objects or operations is
called a permutation.

Worked example

I should be one of the judges! When I saw the 10 contestants in the

cookery competition, I knew which ones I thought were the best
Joyeeta three. Last night they announced the results and I had picked the
same three contestants in the same order as the judges!

What is the probability of Joyeeta’s result?

Solution
The winner can be chosen in 10 ways.
The second contestant can be chosen in 9 ways.

The third contestant can be chosen in 8 ways.

Thus the total number of ways of placing three contestants in the first three
positions is 10 × 9 × 8 = 720. So the probability that Joyeeta’s selection is
correct is 1 .
720

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 Combinations

In this example attention is given to the order in which the contestants

are placed. The solution required a permutation of three objects from ten.
In general the number of permutations, nPr, of r objects from n is given by
nP
r = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × (n − r + 1).
This can be written more compactly as

Pr =
n n!
( n − r )!

Worked example
Five people go to the theatre. They sit in a row with eight seats. Find how many
ways can this be done if:
a they can sit anywhere
b all the empty seats are next to each other.

Solution
a The first person to sit down has a choice of eight seats.
The second person to sit down has a choice of seven seats.
The third person to sit down has a choice of six seats.
The fourth person to sit down has a choice of five seats.
The fifth person to sit down has a choice of four seats.
So the total number of arrangements is 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 6720.
This is a permutation of five objects from eight, so a quicker way to work this
out is:
number of arrangements = 8P5 = 6720.
b Since all three empty seats are to be together you can consider them to be a
single ‘empty seat’, albeit a large one!
So there are six seats to seat five people.
So the number of arrangements is 6P5 = 720.

Combinations
In other situations, order is not important, for example, choosing five of
eight students to go to the theatre. You are not concerned with the order
in which people or objects are chosen, only with which ones are picked.
A selection where order is not important is called a combination.
A maths teacher is playing a game with her students. Each student
selects six numbers out of a possible 19 (numbers 1, 2, . . . , 19). The maths
teacher then uses a random number machine to generate six numbers. If
a student’s numbers match the teacher’s numbers then they win a prize.

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 11 pERmUTaTIONs aND COmbINaTIONs

Discussion point
You have the six winning numbers. Does it matter in which order the
machine picked them?

The teacher says that the probability of an individual student picking the
winning numbers is about 1 in 27 000. How can you work out this figure?
The key question is, how many ways are there of choosing six numbers
out of 19?
If the order mattered, the answer would be 19P6, or 19 × 18 × 17 × 16 × 15 × 14.
However, the order does not matter. The selection 1, 3, 15, 19, 5 and 18
is the same as 15, 19, 1, 5, 3, 18 and as 18, 1, 19, 15, 3, 5, and lots more. For
each set of six numbers there are 6! arrangements that all count as being
the same.
So, the number of ways of selecting six numbers, given that the order
does not matter, is
19 P
19 × 18 × 17 × 16 × 15 × 14
6! . This is 6!
6

This is called the number of combinations of 6 objects from 19 and is

denoted by 19C6.

Discussion point
Show that 19C6 can be written as 19! .
6! 13!

Returning to the maths teacher’s game, it follows that the probability of a

1
student winning is .
This is about
19
C6

27 000.
Discussion point
How does the probability change if there are 29, 39 and 49 numbers to
choose from?

This example shows a general result, that the number of ways of

selecting r objects from n, when the order does not matter, is given by
n
n! Pr
Cr =
n
=
r!(n − r )! r!

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 Combinations

Discussion point
How can you prove this general result?

n
()
Another common notation for nCr is r . Both notations are used in this
book to help you become familiar with them.
n
()
Caution: The notation r looks exactly like a column vector and so
there is the possibility of confusing the two. However, the context will
usually make the meaning clear.

Worked example
A student representative committee of five people is to be chosen from nine
applicants. How many different selections are possible?

Solution
 9 9! 9×8×7×6
Number of selections =  5  = 5! × 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 126

Worked example
In how many ways can a committee of five people be selected from five applicants?

Solution
Common sense tells us that there is only one way to make the committee, that is by
appointing all applicants. So 5 C 5 = 1. However, if we work from the formula
5! = 1
C 5 = 5!0!
5
0!
for this to equal 1 requires the convention that 0! is taken to be 1.

Discussion point
Use the convention 0! = 1 to show that nC0 = nCn = 1 for all values of n.

Exercise 11.2 1 a Find the values of i 7P3 ii 9P4 iii 10P8

b Find the values of i 7C3 ii 9C4 iii 10C8 nP
c Show that, for the values of n and r in parts a and b, n C r = r
.
r!
2 There are 15 competitors in a camel race. How many ways are there of
guessing the first three finishers?
3 A group of 6 computer programmers is to be chosen to work the
night shift from a set of 14 programmers. In how many ways can the
programmers be chosen if the 6 chosen must include the shift-leader
who is one of the 14?

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 11 pERmUTaTIONs aND COmbINaTIONs

Exercise 11.2 (cont) 4 Zaid decides to form a band. He needs a bass player, a guitarist, a
keyboard player and a drummer. He invites applications and gets
6 bass players, 8 guitarists, 4 keyboard players and 3 drummers.
Assuming each person applies only once, in how many ways can Zaid
put the band together?
5 A touring party of cricket players is made up of 6 players from each of
India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and 3 from Bangladesh.
a How many different selections of 11 players can be made for a team?
b In one match, it is decided to have 3 players from each of India,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka and 2 from Bangladesh. How many different
team selections can now be made?
6 A committee of four is to be selected from ten candidates, five men and
five women.
a In how many distinct ways can the committee be chosen?
b Assuming that each candidate is equally likely to be selected,
determine the probabilities that the chosen committee contains:
i no women
ii two men and two women.
7 A committee of four is to be selected from four boys and six girls. The
members are selected at random.
a How many different selections are possible?
b What is the probability that the committee will be made up of:
i all girls
ii more boys than girls?
8 A factory advertises six positions. Nine men and seven women apply.
a How many different selections are possible?
b How many of these include equal numbers of men and women?
c How many of the selections include no men?
d How many of the selections include no women?
9 A small business has 14 staff; 6 men and 8 women. The business is
struggling and needs to make four members of staff redundant.
a How many different selections are possible if the four staff are
chosen at random?
b How many different selections are possible if equal numbers of men
and women are chosen?
c How many different selections are possible if there are equal
numbers of men and women remaining after the redundancies?
10 A football team consists of a goalkeeper, two defense players, four
midfield players and four forwards. Three players are chosen to collect a
medal at the closing ceremony of a competition.
How many selections are possible if one midfield player, one defense
player and one forward must be chosen?
11 Find how many different numbers can be made by arranging all nine
digits of the number 335 688 999 if:
i there are no restrictions
ii the number made is a multiple of 5.

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 Permutations and combinations

12 Nimish is going to install 5 new game apps on her phone. She has
shortlisted 2 word games, 5 quizzes and 16 saga games. Nimish wants to
have at least one of each type of game. How many different selections of
apps could Nimish possibly choose?
13 A MPV has seven passenger seats – one in the front, and three in each
of the other two rows.

Back

Front
a In how many ways can all 8 seats be filled from a party of 12 people,
assuming that they can all drive?
b In a party of 12 people, 3 are qualified drivers. They hire an MPV
and a four-seater saloon car. In how many ways can the party fill the
MPV given that one of the drivers must drive each vehicle?
14 Iram has 12 different DVDs of which 7 are films, 3 are music videos and
2 are documentaries.
a How many different arrangements of all 12 DVDs on a shelf are
possible if the music videos are all next to each other?
b Iram makes a selection of 2 films, 2 music videos and 1 documentary.
How many possible selections can be made?
15 A string orchestra consists of 15 violins, 8 violas, 7 cellos and 4 double
basses. A chamber orchestra consisting of 8 violins, 4 violas, 2 cellos and
2 double basses is to be chosen from the string orchestra.
a In how many different ways can the chamber orchestra be chosen?
b Once the chamber orchestra is chosen, how many seating
arrangements are possible if each instrument group has their own set
of chairs?
c The violinists work in pairs. How many seating arrangements are
possible for the violinists if they must sit with their partner?
16 An office car park has 12 parking spaces in a row. There are 9 cars to be
parked.
a How many different arrangements are there for parking the 9 cars
and leaving 3 empty spaces?
b How many different arrangements are there if the 3 empty spaces are
next to each other?

Past-paper questions
1 A school council of 6 people is to be chosen from a group of
8 students and 6 teachers. Calculate the number of different ways
that the council can be selected if
(i) there are no restrictions, [2]
(ii) there must be at least 1 teacher on the council and more
students than teachers. [3]
After the council is chosen, a chairperson and a secretary have
to be selected from the 6 council members.

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 11 pERmUTaTIONs aND COmbINaTIONs

(iii) Calculate the number of different ways in which a chairperson

and a secretary can be selected. [1]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 23 Q5 November 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 23 Q5 November 2011
2 (a) (i) Find how many different 4-digit numbers can be formed
from the digits 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9 if each digit may be used
only once. [1]
(ii) Find how many of these 4-digit numbers are even. [1]
(b) A team of 6 people is to be selected from 8 men and 4 women.
Find the number of different teams that can be selected if
(i) there are no restrictions, [1]
(ii) the team contains all 4 women, [1]
(iii) the team contains at least 4 men. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q7 November 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q7 November 2013
3 Arrangements containing 5 different letters from the word
AMPLITUDE are to be made. Find
(a) (i) the number of 5-letter arrangements if there are no
restrictions, [1]
(ii) the number of 5-letter arrangements which start with the
letter A and end with the letter E. [1]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 June 2012
(Part question: part b omitted)
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 June 2012
(Part question: part b omitted)

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H recognise and distinguish between a permutation case and a
combination case
H recall and use the notation n! (with 0! = 1), and expressions for
permutations and combinations of n items taken r at a time
H answer simple problems on arrangement and selection.

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 Permutations and combinations

Key points
✔ The number of ways of arranging n different objects in a line is n!
This is read as n factorial.
✔ n! = n × (n – 1) × (n – 2) … × 3 × 2 × 1 where n is a positive integer.
✔ By convention, 0! = 1.
n!
✔ The number of permutations of r objects from n is nPr = ( n − r )!
n!
✔ The number of combinations of r objects from n is nCr = ( n − r )!r !
✔ The order matters for permutations, but not for combinations.

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 12 Series
I would like one grain of wheat to be put on the first square of my board,
two on the second square, four on the third square, eight on the fourth
and so on.
Attributed to Sissa ben Dahir (6th century)

Discussion point
The origin of the game of chess is uncertain, both in time and place.
According to one legend it was invented by Sissa ben Dahir, Vizier to
Indian king Shirham. The king asked Sissa ben Dahir what he would
like for a reward, and his reply is quoted above. The king agreed without
doing any calculations.
Given that one grain of wheat weighs about 50 mg, what mass of wheat
would have been placed on the last square?

Definitions and notation

A sequence is a set of numbers in a given order, for example

1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , ….
2 4 8 16

Each of these numbers is called a term of the sequence. When the terms
of a sequence are written algebraically, the position of any term in the
sequence is usually shown by a subscript, so that a general sequence is
written:
u1, u2, u3, …, with general term uk.

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 The binomial theorem

1
For the previous sequence, the first term is u1 = 12 , the second term is u2 = 4 ,
and so on.
When the terms of a sequence are added together, for example,
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +…
2 4 8 16
the resulting sum is called a series. The process of adding the terms
together is called summation and indicated by the symbol ∑ (the
Greek letter sigma), with the position of the first and last terms
involved given as limits.
k =5 5
So u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 is written ∑ uk or ∑ uk .
k =1 k =1

In cases like this one, where there is no possibility of confusion, the sum
5
is normally written more simply as ∑ uk.
1
If all the terms are to be summed, it is usually denoted even more simply
as ∑ uk, or even ∑ uk.
k
A sequence may have an infinite number of terms, in which case it is
called an infinite sequence. The corresponding series is called an infinite
series.
The phrase ‘sum Although the word series can describe the sum of the terms of any
of a sequence’ sequence in mathematics, it is usually used only when summing the
is often used to sequence provides a useful or interesting overall result.
mean the sum of
For example:
the terms of a This series has a finite
sequence (i.e. the (1 + t)4 = 1 + 4t + 6t2 + 4t3 + t4 number of terms (5).
series). 1 − 1 (0.01) − 1 (0.01) 2 − 1 (0.01) 3 …
11 = 10
3  2 8 16 

This series has an infinite

number of terms.
The binomial theorem
A special type of series is produced when a binomial (i.e. two-part)
expression such as (x + 1) is raised to a power. The resulting expression
is often called a binomial expansion.
Expressions like these,
The simplest binomial expansion is consisting of integer powers
(x + 1) itself. This and other powers of x and constants are called
of (x + 1) are given below. polynomials.

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(x + 1)1 = 1x + 1
(x + 1)2 = 1x 2 + 2x + 1
(x + 1)3 = 1x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1
(x + 1)4 = 1x 4 + 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 4x + 1
(x + 1)5 = 1x 5 + 5x 4 + 10x 3 + 10x 2 + 5x + 1
If you look at the coefficients on the right-hand side you will see that
they form a pattern.
These numbers are called
(1) binomial coefficients.
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
This is called Pascal’s triangle, or the Chinese triangle. Each number is
obtained by adding the two above it, for example
4 + 6
gives 10
This pattern of coefficients is very useful when you need to write down
the expansions of other binomial expressions. For example,
Notice how in each
term the sum of (x + y) = 1x + 1y
the powers of x and (x + y)2 = 1x 2 + 2xy + 1y 2
y is the same as the
(x + y)3 = 1x 3 + 3x 2y + 3xy 2 + 1y 3
power of (x + y).

This is a binomial These numbers are binomial

expression. coefficients.

Worked example
Write out the binomial expansion of (a + 3)5.
Solution
The binomial coefficients for power 5 are 1 5 10 10 5 1.
In each term, the sum of the powers of a and 3 must equal 5.
So the expansion is:
1 × a5 + 5 × a4 × 3 + 10 × a3 × 32 + 10 × a2 × 33 + 5 × a × 34 + 1 × 35

i.e. a5 + 15a4 + 90a3 + 270a2 + 405a + 243.

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 The binomial theorem

Worked example
Write out the binomial expansion of (3x − 2y)4.
Solution
The binomial coefficients for power 4 are 1 4 6 4 1.
The expression (3x − 2y) is treated as (3x + (−2y)).
So the expansion is

1 × (3x)4 + 4 × (3x)3 × (–2y) + 6 × (3x)2 × (–2y)2 + 4 × (3x) × (–2y)3+ 1 × (–2y)4

i.e. 81x4 − 216x3y + 216x2y2 − 96xy3 + 16y4

Pascal’s triangle (and the binomial theorem) had actually been

discovered by Chinese mathematicians several centuries earlier, and can
be found in the works of Yang Hui (around ad1270) and Chu Shi-kie
(in ad1303). However, Pascal is remembered for his application of the
triangle to elementary probability, and for his study of the relationships
between binomial coefficients.

Tables of binomial coefficients

Values of binomial coefficients can be found in books of tables. It can
be helpful to use these when the power becomes large, since writing out
Pascal’s triangle becomes progressively longer and more tedious, row
by row. Note that since the numbers are symmetrical about the middle
number, tables do not always give the complete row of numbers.

Worked example
Write out the full expansion of ( a  +  b) 8 .
Solution
The binomial coefficients for the power 8 are
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
and so the expansion is
a 8 + 8 a 7 b + 28 a 6 b 2 + 56 a 5 b 3 + 70 a 4 b 4 + 56 a 3b 5 + 28 a 2 b 6 + 8 ab 7 + b 8 .

The formula for a binomial coefficient

You may need to find binomial coefficients that are outside the range
of your tables. The tables may, for example, list the binomial coefficients
for powers up to 20. What happens if you need to find the coefficient of
x17 in the expansion of (x + 2)25? Clearly you need a formula that gives
binomial coefficients.
The first thing you need is a notation for identifying binomial coefficients.
It is usual to denote the power of the binomial expression by n, and the

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position in the row of binomial coefficients by r, where r can take any

value from 0 to n. So, for row 5 of Pascal’s triangle
n = 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1
r=0 r=1 r=2 r=3 r=4 r=5
The general binomial coefficient corresponding to values of n and r is
Note that 0! is  
written as  n  . An alternative notation is nCr, which is said as ‘N C R’.
defined to be 1. r
You will see the 5
need for this Thus   = 5C3 = 10.
when you use the  3  n
  The next step is to find a formula for the general binomial coefficient   .
formula for n  . r
r 
Real-world activity
The table shows an alternative way of laying out Pascal’s triangle.

Column (r)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 … r
Row (n) 1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
… … … … … … … … …
… … … … … … … … … …
n 1 n ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

 
Show that  n = n!
r !( n − r )!
, by following the procedure below.
 r
The numbers in column 0 are all 1.
To find each number in column 1 you multiply the 1 in column 0 by
the row number, n.
1 Find, in terms of n, what you must multiply each number in
column 1 by to find the corresponding number in column 2.
2 Repeat the process to find the relationship between each number
in column 2 and the corresponding number in column 3.
3 Show that repeating the process leads to
 n n( n − 1)( n − 2)…( n − r + 1)
 r  = 1 × 2 × 3 ×…× r
for r  1.

4 Show that this can also be written as

 n n!
 r  = r !( n − r )!

and that it is also true for r = 0.

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 The binomial theorem

Worked example
 n n!
Use the formula   = to calculate these.
 r  r !( n − r )!
 7  7  7  7
a   b   c   d  
0  1  2  3
 7  7  7  7
e   f  5  g   h  
 4  6  7

Solution
 7 7!  7
a  = = 5040 = 1 b   = 7! = 5040 = 7
 0  0!(7 − 0)! 1 × 5040  1  1!6! 1 × 720

 7  
c   = 7! = 5040 = 21 d  7  = 7! = 5040 = 35
 2  2!5! 2 × 120  3  3!4! 6 × 24

 7  7 7! 5040
e   = 7! = 5040 = 35 f   = 5!2! = 120 × 21 = 21
 4  4!3! 24 × 6  5

 7 7! 5040  7
g   = 6!1! = 720 × 1 = 7 7! 5040
h   = 7!0! = 5040 × 1 = 1
 6  7

Note
Most scientific calculators have factorial buttons, e.g. x! . Many also have
r buttons. Find out how best to use your calculator to find binomial
nC

coefficients, as well as practising non-calculator methods.

Worked example
Notice how 19! Find the coefficient of x19 in the expansion of (x + 3)25.
was cancelled in Solution
working out  25  .
   25 
(x + 3)25 =   x 25 +  25  x 24 31 +  25  x 23 32 + … +  25  6x19 36 + …  25  325
 6  0  1   2   8   25 
Factorials become
large numbers  25 
So the required term is   × x19 36
very quickly and  6

you should keep  25 

  = 25! = 25 × 24 × 23 × 22 × 21 × 20 × 19!
 6  6!19!
a look-out for   6! × 19!
such opportunities   = 177 100.
to simplify So the coefficient of x 19 is 177 100 × 36 = 129 105 900.
calculations.

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The expansion of (1 + x)n

 n
When deriving the result for   you found the binomial coefficients in
 r
the form
n( n – 1) n( n – 1)( n – 2) n( n – 1)( n – 2)( n – 3)
1 n 2! 3! 4!
…

This form is commonly used in the expansion of expressions of the type

(1 + x)n.
The first few (1 + x) n = 1 + nx +
n( n – 1) x 2
+
n( n – 1)( n – 2) x 3
+
n( n – 1)( n – 2)( n – 3) x 4
+…
1×2 1×2×3 1×2×3×4
terms
The last few terms +
n( n – 1) n –2
1×2
x + nx n –1 + 1x n

Worked example
Use the binomial expansion to write down the first four terms, in ascending
powers of x, of (1 + x)8.
The power of x is the
Solution
same as the largest
(1 + x)8 = 1 + 8 x + 18 ×× 27 x 2 + 81 ×× 27 ×× 36 x 3 + … number underneath.

Two numbers on top, Three numbers on top,

two underneath. three underneath.
= 1 + 8x + 28x2 + 56x3 + …

An expression like 1 + 8x + 28x2 + 56x3 ... is said to be in ascending

powers of x, because the powers of x are increasing from one term to
the next.
An expression like x8 + 8x7 + 28x6 + 56x5 ... is in descending powers of x,
because the powers of x are decreasing from one term to the next.

Worked example
Use the binomial expansion to write down the first four terms, in ascending
powers of x, of (1 − 2x)6. Simplify the terms.
Solution
Think of (1 − 2x)6 as (1 + (−2x))6. Keep the brackets while you write out the
terms.
(1 + (–2 x)) 6 = 1 + 6(–2 x) + 6 × 5 (–2 x) 2 + 6 × 5 × 4 (–2 x) 3 + …
1×2 1×2×3
  = 1 – 12x + 60x2 – 160x 3 + … Notice how the
signs alternate.

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 The binomial theorem

Exercise 12.1 1 Write out the following binomial expressions:

a (1 + x ) 4 b (1 + 2 x ) 4 c (1 + 3 x ) 4
2 Write out the following binomial expressions:
a (2 + x) 4 b  (3 + x) 4 c (4 + x) 4
3 Write out the following binomial expressions:
4
a ( x + y) 4 b ( x + 2 y) 4 c ( x + 3 y)
4 Use a non-calculator method to calculate the following binomial
coefficients. Check your answers using your calculator’s shortest method.
5  7  7
a   b   c  
3
  2
  4
 7 5  13 
d   e   f  
5 0 3
5 Find the coefficients of the term shown for each expansion:
a x4 in (1 + x)6 b x5 in (1 + x)7 c x6 in (1 + x)8
6 Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of x, in the expansion of
(3 + kx)5.
7 Find the first three terms, in descending powers of x, in the expansion of
( )
6
3x − 3x .
8 a Simplify (1 + t ) 3 − (1 − t ) 3 .
b Show that x 3 − y 3 = ( x − y) ( x 2 + xy + y 2 ) .
c Substitute x = 1 + t and y = 1 − t in the result in part b and show that
your answer is the same as that for part a.
9 Find the coefficients of x3 and x4 for each of the following:
a (1 + x )(1 − x ) 6 b (1 − x )(1 + x ) 6
10 Write down the first four terms, in ascending powers of x, of the
following binomial expressions:
a (1 − 2 x ) 6 b (2 − 3x) 6 c (3 − 4 x) 6
11 Find the first four terms, in descending powers of x, of the following
binomial expressions:

(x ) (x ) (x )
5
(x )
5 5 5
a 2 +   1x b 2 −   1x c 3 +   1x d 3 −  1x
12 The first three terms in the expansion of ( 2 − ax ) n in ascending powers
of x are 32, −240 and 720. Find the values of a and n.

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Arithmetic progressions
The smallest
square shape in
this toy has sides
1 cm long, and the
lengths of the sides
increase in steps of
1 cm.

Any ordered set of numbers, like the areas of the squares in this toy,
form a sequence. In mathematics, we are particularly interested in
sequences with a well-defined pattern, often in the form of an algebraic
formula linking the terms. The area of the squares in the toy, in cm2, are
12, 22, 32, 42, … or 1, 4, 9, 16….
A sequence in which the terms increase by the addition of a fixed
amount (or decrease by the subtraction of a fixed amount) is described
as an arithmetic sequence or arithmetic progression (A. P.). The
increase from one term to the next is called the common difference.
Thus the sequence 8 11 14 17… is arithmetic with
)
)
)

+3 +3 +3
common difference 3. This sequence can be written algebraically as
uk = 5 + 3k for k = 1, 2, 3, …
When k = 1, u1 = 5 + 3 = 8 This version has the
k = 2, u2 = 5 + 6 = 11 advantage that the right-
hand side begins with the
k = 3, u3 = 5 + 9 = 14 and so on. first term of the sequence.
(You can also write this as uk = 8 + 3(k − 1) for k = 1, 2, 3, … .)
As successive terms of an arithmetic progression increase (or decrease)
by a fixed amount called the common difference, d, you can define each
term in the sequence in relation to the previous term:
uk+1 = uk + d.
When the terms of an arithmetic progression are added together, the
sum is called an arithmetic series.

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Notation
The following conventions are used in this book to describe arithmetic
progressions and sequences:
» first term, u1 = a
» number of terms = n
» last term, un = l
» common difference = d
» the general term, uk, is that in position k (i.e. the k th term).
Thus in the arithmetic progression 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19
a = 7, l = 19, d = 2 and n = 7.
The terms are formed as follows:

u1 = a =7
u2 = a + d =7+2 =9
u3 = a + 2d = 7 + 2 × 2 = 11
u4 = a + 3d = 7 + 3 × 2 = 13
The 7th term is the 1st
u5 = a + 4d = 7 + 4 × 2 = 15 term (7) plus six times the
u6 = a + 5d = 7 + 5 × 2 = 17 common difference (2).
u7 = a + 6d = 7 + 6 × 2 = 19
This shows that any term is given by the first term plus a number of
differences. The number of differences is, in each case, one less than the
number of the term. You can express this mathematically as
uk = a + (k − 1)d.
For the last term, this becomes
l = a + (n − 1)d.
These are both general formulae so apply to any arithmetic progression.

Worked example
Find the 19th term in the arithmetic progression 20, 16, 12, …
Solution
In this case a = 20 and d = −4.
Using uk = a + (k − 1)d, you obtain
u19 = 20 + (19 − 1) × (−4)
= 20 − 72
= −52.
The 19th term is −52.

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Worked example
How many terms are there in the sequence 12, 16, 20, …, 556?
Solution
This is an arithmetic sequence with first term a = 12, last term l = 556 and
common difference d = 4.
Using the result l = a + (n − 1)d, you have
556 = 12 + 4(n − 1)
  ⇒ 4n = 556 − 12 + 4
  ⇒ n = 137
There are 137 terms.

Note
The relationship l = a + (n − 1)d may be rearranged to give

n= l –a +1
d

This gives the number of terms in an A.P. directly if you know the first term,
the last term and the common difference.

The sum of the terms of an arithmetic progression

When Carl Friederich Gauss (1777−1855) was at school he was always
quick to answer mathematics questions. One day his teacher, hoping
for half an hour of peace and quiet, told his class to add up all the
whole numbers from 1 to 100. Almost at once the 10-year-old Gauss
announced that he had done it and that the answer was 5050.
Gauss had not of course added the terms one by one. Instead he wrote
the series down twice, once in the given order and once backwards, and
added the two together:

S = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 98 + 99 + 100
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + … + 3 + 2 + 1.
Adding, 2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + … + 101 + 101 + 101.
Since there are 100 terms in the series,
2S = 101 × 100
S = 5050.
The numbers 1, 2, 3, … , 100 form an arithmetic sequence with common
difference 1. Gauss’ method can be used for finding the sum of any
arithmetic series.
It is common to use the letter S to denote the sum of a series. When
there is any doubt as to the number of terms that are being summed, this
is indicated by a subscript: S 5 indicates five terms, Sn indicates n terms.

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Worked example
Find the value of 6 + 4 + 2 + … + (−32).
Solution
This is an arithmetic progression, with common difference −2. The number of
terms, n, can be calculated using

n= l –a +1
d

n = –32 – 6 + 1
–2
= 20
The sum S of the progression is then found as follows:
S= 6+ 4 +…− 30 − 32
S = −32 + (−30) − … + 4 + 6
2S = −26 + (−26) + … + (−26) + (−26).
Since there are 20 terms, this gives 2S = −26 × 20, so S = −26 × 10 = −260.

Generalising this method by writing the series in the conventional

notation gives:
Sn = [a] + [a + d] + … + [a + (n − 2)d] + [a + (n − 1)d]
Sn = [a + (n − 1)d] + [a + (n − 2)d] + … + [a + d] + [a]
2Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d] + … + [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d]

Since there are n terms, it follows that

S n = 1 n[ 2 a + ( n − 1) d ] .
2

This result can also be written as

Sn = 1 n(a + l ).
2

Worked example
Find the sum of the first 100 terms of the progression

3 1 , 3 2 , 4, …
3 3

Solution
In this arithmetic progression
1 1
Using a = 3 3 , d = 3 and n = 100.

S n = 21 n  2a +(n – 1)d  (

S n = 1 × 100 6 2 + 99 × 1
2 3 3 )
1
= 1983 3 .

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Worked example
Tatjana starts a part-time job on a salary of $10000 per year, and this increases
by $500 each year. Assuming that, apart from the annual increment, Tatjana’s
salary does not increase, find
a her salary in the 5th year
b the length of time she has been working to receive total earnings of $122500.
Solution
Tatjana’s annual salaries (in dollars) form the arithmetic sequence
10000, 10500, 11000, ...
with first term a = 10000, and common difference d = 500.
a Her salary in the 5th year is calculated using:
uk = a + (k − 1)d
    ⇒ u5 = 10000 + (5 − 1) × 500
= 12000.
b The number of years that have elapsed when her total earnings are $122500
is given by:

S = 1 n[ 2a + ( n – 1)d ]
2
where S = 122500, a = 10000 and d = 500.
1
This gives 122 500 = 2 n [2 × 10000 + 500( n – 1)] .
This simplifies to the quadratic equation:
n 2 + 39n − 490 = 0.
Factorising,
(n − 10)(n + 49) = 0
    ⇒ n = 10 or n = −49.
The root n = −49 is irrelevant, so the answer is n = 10.
Tatjana has earned a total of $122 500 after 10 years.

Exercise 12.2 1 Are the following sequences arithmetic?

If so, state the common difference and the seventh term.
a 28, 30, 32, 34, …
b 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …
c 3, 9, 27, 81, …
d 5, 9, 13, 17, …
e 12, 8, 4, 0, …
2 The first term of an arithmetic sequence is −7 and the common
difference is 4.
a Find the eighth term of the sequence.
b The last term of the sequence is 65. How many terms are there in the
sequence?

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 Arithmetic progressions

3 The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 10, the seventh term is 46 and
the last term is 100.
a Find the common difference.
b Find how many terms there are in the sequence.
4 There are 30 terms in an arithmetic progression.
The first term is −4 and the last term is 141.
a Find the common difference.
b Find the sum of the terms in the progression.
5 The kth term of an arithmetic progression is given by
uk = 12 + 4k.
a Write down the first three terms of the progression.
b Calculate the sum of the first 12 terms of this progression.
6 Below is an arithmetic progression.
118 + 112 + … + 34
a How many terms are there in the progression?
b What is the sum of the terms in the progression?
7 The fifth term of an arithmetic progression is 32 and the tenth term is 62.
a Find the first term and the common difference.
b The sum of all the terms in this progression is 350.
How many terms are there?
8 The ninth term of an arithmetic progression is three times the second
term, and the first term is 5. The sequence has 20 terms.
a Find the common difference.
b Find the sum of all the terms in the progression.
9 a Find the sum of all the odd numbers between 150 and 250.
b Find the sum of all the even numbers from 150 to 250 inclusive.
c Find the sum of the terms of the arithmetic sequence with first term
150, common difference 1 and 101 terms.
d Explain the relationship between your answers to parts a, b and c.
10 The first term of an arithmetic progression is 9000 and the tenth term is
3600.
a Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the progression.
b After how many terms does the sum of the progression become
negative?
11 An arithmetic progression has first term −2 and common difference 7.
a Write down a formula for the nth term of the progression. Which term
of the progression equals 110?
b Write down a formula for the sum of the first n terms of the
progression. How many terms of the progression are required to give
a sum equal to 2050?
12 Luca’s starting salary in a company is $45 000. During the time he stays
with the company, it increases by $1800 each year.
a What is his salary in his sixth year?
b How many years has Luca been working for the company when his
total earnings for all his years there are $531 000?

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Exercise 12.2 (cont) 13 A jogger is training for a 5 km charity run. He starts with a run of 400 m,
then increases the distance he runs in training by 100 m each day.
a How many days does it take the jogger to reach a distance of 5 km in
training?
b What total distance will he have run in training by then?
14 A piece of string 20 m long is to be cut into pieces such that the lengths
of the pieces form an arithmetic sequence.
a If the lengths of the longest and shortest pieces are 2 m and 50 cm
respectively, how many pieces are there?
b If the length of the longest piece is 185 cm, how long is the shortest
piece?
15 The ninth term of an arithmetic progression is 95 and the sum of the first
four terms is −10.
a Find the first term of the progression and the common difference.
The nth term of the progression is 200.
b Find the value of n.
16 Following knee surgery, Adankwo has to do squats as part of her
physiotherapy programme. Each day she must do 4 more squats than
the day before. On the eighth day she did 31 squats. Calculate how many
squats Adankwo completed:
a on the first day
b in total by the end of the seventh day
c in total by the end of the nth day
d in total from the end of the nth day to the end of the (2n)th day.
Simplify your answer.

Geometric progressions

A human being begins life as one cell, which divides into two, then
four…
The terms of a geometric sequence or geometric progression (G.P.) are
formed by multiplying one term by a fixed number, the common ratio,
to obtain the next. This can be written inductively as:
uk+1 = ruk with first term u1.
The sum of the terms of a geometric sequence is called a geometric series.

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 Geometric progressions

Notation
The following conventions are used in this book to describe geometric
progressions:
» first term u1 = a
» common ratio = r
» number of terms = n
» the general term, uk, is that in position k (i.e. the kth term).
Thus in the geometric progression 2, 6, 18, 54, 162
a = 2, r = 3 and n = 5.
The terms of this sequence are formed as follows:
u1 =a =2
u2 =a ×r =2×3 =6
u3 =a × r2 = 2 × 32 = 18
u4 =a × r3 = 2 × 33 = 54
u5 =a × r4 = 2 × 34 = 162.
This shows that in each case the power of r is one less than the number
of the term: u5 = ar 4 and 4 is one less than 5. This can be written
deductively as
uk = ar k–1.
For the last term this becomes
un = ar n–1.
These are both general formulae so apply to any geometric sequence.
Given two consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, you can always
find the common ratio by dividing the later term by the earlier term. For
9
example, the geometric sequence … 7, 9, … has common ratio r = 7 .

Worked example
Find the ninth term in the geometric sequence 7, 28, 112, 448, …
Solution
In the sequence, the first term a = 7 and the common ratio r = 4.
Using uk = ar k–1
u9 = 7 × 48
  = 458 752.

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Worked example
How many terms are there in the geometric sequence 3, 15, 75, … , 29 296 875?

Solution
Since it is a geometric sequence and the first two terms are 3 and 15, you
can immediately write down
First term: a=3
Common ratio: r=5
The third term allows you to check you are right.
15 × 5 = 75 ✓
The nth term of a geometric sequence is ar n–1, so in this case
3 × 5n–1 = 29 296 875
Alternatively,
you could find Dividing by 3 gives
the solution by 5n–1 = 9 765 625
using trial and Using logarithms, lg(5)(n-1) = lg 9765625
improvement and ⇒ (n − 1)lg 5 = lg 9765625
a calculator, since ⇒ n-1 =
lg 9765625
= 10
you know n must   lg 5
be a whole number. So n = 11 and there are 11 terms in the sequence.

Discussion point
How would you use a spreadsheet to solve the equation 5n–1 = 9 765 625?

The sum of the terms of a geometric

progression
This chapter began with the story of Sissa ben Dahir's reward for
inventing chess. In the discussion point on page 184, you were asked
how much grain would have been placed on the last square. This
situation also gives rise to another question:
How many grains of wheat was the inventor actually asking for?
The answer is the geometric series with 64 terms and common ratio 2:
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 263.
This can be summed as follows.
Call the series S:
S = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 263. 1

Now multiply it by the common ratio, 2:
2S = 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + … + 264. 2

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 The sum of the terms of a geometric progression

Then subtract 
1 from 
2:

2
 2S = 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + … + 263 + 264
1
 S = 1+2+4+8 + … + 263
Subtracting: S = –1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + … + 2 .
64

The total number of wheat grains requested was therefore 264 − 1 (which is
about 1.85 × 1019).

Discussion point
How many tonnes of wheat is this, and how many tonnes would you expect
there to be in China at any time?
(One hundred grains of wheat weigh about 2 grams. The world annual
production of all cereals is about 1.8 × 10 9 tonnes.)

Note
The method shown above can be used to sum any geometric progression.

Worked example
Find the sum of 0.04 + 0.2 + 1 + … + 78 125.

Solution
This is a geometric progression with common ratio 5.
Let S = 0.04 + 0.2 + 1 + … + 78 125. 1

Multiplying by the common ratio, 5, gives:
5S = 0.2 + 1 + 5 + … + 78 125 + 390 625. 2

Subtracting 
1 from 
2 :

5S = 0.2 + 1 + 5 + … + 78 125 + 390 625

S = 0.04 +  0.2 + 1 + 5 + … + 78 125
4S = −0.04 + 0 + … + 0 + 390 625
This gives 4S = 390 624.96
⇒ S = 97 656.24

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 12 sERIEs

The same method can be applied to the general geometric progression

to give a formula for its value:
Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + … + ar n–1. 1

Multiplying by the common ratio, r, gives:
rSn = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + … + ar n. 2

Subtracting 
1 from  2 , as before, gives:
rS n - S n = ar n - a
S n ( r − 1) = a ( r n − 1)
a(r n − 1).
so Sn = (r − 1)

This can also be written as:

n
Sn = a(1 – r )
.
(1 – r )

Worked example
a Solve the simultaneous equations ar 2 = 6
ar 4 = 54
b Find in each case the sum of the first five terms of the geometric progression.

Solution
a ar 2 = 6 ⇒ a = 62
r
Substituting into ar 4 = 54 gives 62 × r 4 = 54
r
⇒ r2 = 9
⇒     r = ±3
2
Substituting in ar = 6 gives a = in both cases.
2
3
b When r = +3 terms are 2 , 2, 6, 18, 54 Sum = 80 2
3 3
2 ,  −2, 6,  −18, 54
When r = −3 terms are 3 Sum = 40 2
3

Infinite geometric progressions

1 +… is geometric, with common ratio 1 .
The progression 1 + 12 + 14 + 1 + 16
8 2

Summing the terms one by one gives 1, 1 12 , 1 43 , 1 87 , 1 16

15 …

Clearly the more terms you add, the nearer the sum gets to 2. In the
limit, as the number of terms tends to infinity, the sum tends to 2.
As n → ∞, Sn → 2.

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 The sum of the terms of a geometric progression

This is an example of a convergent series. The sum to infinity is a finite

number.
You can see this by substituting a = 1 and r = 1 in the formula for the
2
sum of the series:
a (1 – r n )
Sn =
1–r

giving Sn =
(
1 × 1 – (1)
2
n
)
(1 – 12 )
(
= 2 × 1 – ( 12 ) .
n
)
The larger the number of terms, n, the smaller ( 12 ) becomes and so the
n

nearer Sn is to the limiting value of 2, as shown on the left. Notice that ( 2 )

1 n

can never be negative, however large n becomes; so Sn can never exceed 2.

n 31
1––
32
6 T
15
1––
Notice how 5 7
16 H
1–8 E
representing all 4 –12
of the terms of 3
1–34 L
I
the geometric 2
1–12
M
1 1
–18
progression as in 1
1 I –41
these diagrams T –1
16

shows that the sum 1 1–12 2 s 2

can never exceed 2.
In the general geometric series a + ar + ar 2 + … the terms become
progressively smaller in size if the common ratio r is between −1 and 1.
In such cases, the geometric series is convergent.
If, on the other hand, the value of r is greater than 1 (or less than −1), the
terms in the series become larger and larger in size and so the series is
described as divergent.
A series corresponding to a value of r of exactly +1 consists of the first term
a repeated over and over again. A sequence corresponding to a value of
r of exactly −1 oscillates between +a and −a. Neither of these is convergent.
It only makes sense to talk about the sum of an infinite series if it is
convergent. Otherwise the sum is undefined.

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 12 sERIEs

The condition for a geometric series to converge, −1 < r < 1, ensures that
as n → ∞, r n → 0, and so the formula for the sum of a geometric series:
a(1 – r n )
Sn =
(1 – r )
can be rewritten for an infinite series as:
a
S∞ = .
1–r

Worked example
Find the sum of the terms of the infinite progression 0.4, 0.04, 0.004, …
Solution
This is a geometric progression with a = 0.4 and r = 0.1.
Its sum is given by:

S∞  = a
1–r
= 0.4
1 – 0.1
= 0.4
0.9
= 4.
9

Note
You may have noticed that the sum of the series 0.4 + 0.04 + 0.004 + …
is 0.4̇, and that this recurring decimal is the same as 4 .
9

Worked example
The first three terms of an infinite geometric progression are 75, 45 and 27.
a Write down the common ratio.
b Find the sum of the terms of the progression.
Solution
a The common ratio is 45 = 3.
75 5
using S∞ = a .
b S∞ = 75 = 187.5
1–r 1– 3
5

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 The sum of the terms of a geometric progression

Discussion point
A paradox
Consider the following arguments.
i        S = 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32 + 64 − …
  ⇒    S = 1 − 2(1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32 + …)
= 1 − 2S
  ⇒  3S = 1
  ⇒ S = 1.
3
ii S = 1 + (−2 + 4) + (−8 + 16) + (−32 + 64) + …
  ⇒ S = 1 + 2 + 8 + 32 + …
  So S diverges towards +∞.
iii S = (1 − 2) + (4 − 8) + (16 − 32) + …
  ⇒ S = –1 − 4 − 8 − 16 …
  So S diverges towards −∞.
What is the sum of the series: 1 , + ∞, −∞, or something else?
3

Exercise 12.3 1 Are the following sequences geometric?

If so, state the common ratio and calculate the seventh term.
a 3, 6, 12, 24, …
b 3, 6, 9, 12, …
c 10, −10, 10, −10, 10, …
d 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, …
e 15, 10, 5, 0, −5, …
f 10, 5, 5 , 5 , 5 , ...
2 4 8
g 2, 2.2, 2.22, 2.222, …
2 A geometric sequence has first term 5 and common ratio 2.
The sequence has seven terms.
a Find the last term.
b Find the sum of the terms in the sequence.
3 The first term of a geometric sequence of positive terms is 3 and the
fifth term is 768.
a Find the common ratio of the sequence.
b Find the eighth term of the sequence.
1 and common ratio 4.
4 A geometric sequence has first term 16
a Find the fifth term.
b Which is the first term of the sequence that exceeds 1000?
5 a Find how many terms there are in the following geometric sequence:
7, 14, …, 3584.
b Find the sum of the terms in this sequence.

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Exercise 12.3 (cont) 6 a Find how many terms there are in the following geometric sequence:
100, 50, …, 0.390 625.
b Find the sum of the terms in this sequence.
7 The fourth term of a geometric progression is 36 and the eighth term
is 576. All the terms are positive.
a Find the common ratio.
b Find the first term.
c Find the sum of the first ten terms.
8 The first three terms of an infinite geometric progression are 8, 4 and 2.
a State the common ratio of this progression.
b Calculate the sum to infinity of its terms.
9 The first three terms of an infinite geometric progression are 0.8, 0.08
and 0.008.
a Write down the common ratio for this progression.
b Find, as a fraction, the sum to infinity of the terms of this progression.
c Find the sum to infinity of the geometric progression
0.8 − 0.08 + 0.008 − …
8 ..
and hence show that 11 = 0.72 .
10 The first three terms of a geometric sequence are 100, 70 and 49.
a Write down the common ratio of the sequence.
b Which is the position of the first term in the sequence that has a value
less than 1?
c Find the sum to infinity of the terms of this sequence.
d After how many terms is the sum of the sequence greater than 99%
of the sum to infinity?
11 A geometric progression has first term 10 and its sum to infinity is 15.
a Find the common ratio.
b Find the sum to infinity if the first term is excluded from the
progression.
12 The first four terms in an infinite geometric series are 216, 72, 24, 8.
a What is the common ratio r?
b Write down an expression for the nth term of the series.
c Find the sum of the first n terms of the series.
d Find the sum to infinity.
e How many terms are needed for the sum to be greater than 323.999?
13 A tank is filled with 10 litres of water. Half the water is removed and
replaced with anti-freeze and then thoroughly mixed. Half this mixture is
then removed and replaced with anti-freeze. The process continues.
a Find the first five terms in the sequence of amounts of water in the
tank at each stage.
b Find the first five terms in the sequence of amounts of anti-freeze in
the tank at each stage.
c Is either of these sequences geometric? Explain.

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 Series

14 A pendulum is set swinging. Its first oscillation is through an angle of 20°,

and each following oscillation is through 95% of the angle of the one
before it.
a After how many swings is the angle through which it swings less
than 1°?
b What is the total angle it has swung through at the end of its tenth
oscillation?
15 A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the ground. It rises to a height
of 15 m and then falls and bounces. After each bounce it rises vertically
to 85 of the height from which it fell.
a Find the height to which the ball bounces after the nth impact with
the ground.
b Find the total distance travelled by the ball from the first throw to the
tenth impact with the ground.
16 The first three terms of an arithmetic sequence, a, a + d and a + 2d, are
the same as the first three terms, a, ar, ar², of a geometric sequence (a ≠ 0).
Show that this is only possible if r = 1 and d = 0.
17 a, b and c are three consecutive terms in a sequence.
a Prove that if the sequence is an arithmetic progression then a + c = 2b.
b Prove that if the sequence is a geometric progression then ac = b².
18 a Solve the simultaneous equations ar = 12, ar 5 = 3072 (there are two
possible answers).
b In each case, find the sum of the first ten terms of the geometric
progression with first term a and common ratio r.

Past-paper questions
1 Find the values of the positive constants p and q such that, in the
binomial expansion of ( p + qx)10, the coefficient of x5 is 252 and the
coefficient of x3 is 6 times the coefficient of x2. [8]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q9 June 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q9 June 2012

( )
12
2 (i) Find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of 1 − x . [2]
2

( )
12
(ii) Find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (1 + 4x) 1 − x . [3]
2

Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037

Paper 21 Q2 June 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q2 June 2011

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 12 sERIEs

3 (i) Find the first four terms in the expansion of (2 + x)6 in

ascending powers of x. [3]
(ii) Hence find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of
(1 + 3 x )(1 − x )( 2 + x ) 6 . [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 21 Q7 June 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q7 June 2013

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H use the binomial theorem for expansion of (a + b)n for positive
integer n
 n
H use the general term   a n−r b r , 0  r  n (knowledge of the
r
greatest term and properties of the coefficients is not required)
H recognise arithmetic and geometric progressions
H use the formulae for the nth term and for the sum of the first
n terms to solve problems involving arithmetic or geometric
progressions
H use the condition for the convergence of a geometric progression,
and the formula for the sum to infinity of a convergent geometric
progression.

Key points
n
✔ An expression of the form ( ax + b) where n is an integer is
called a binomial expression.
 
✔ Binomial coefficients, denoted by  n  or nCr can be found:
r
• using Pascal’s triangle
• using tables  n
• using the formula   =  r !( nn−! r )!
r
n
✔ The binomial expansion of (1 + x ) can also be written as
n ( n − 1) 2 n ( n − 1)( n − 2) 3
(1 + x ) n = 1 + nx +  x  +   x + … nx n−1 +  x n
2! 3!
✔ A sequence is an ordered set of numbers, u1 ,  u2 ,  u3 ,…, uk , …u n,
where uk is the general term.
✔ In an arithmetic sequence, uk + 1 = uk + d where d is a fixed
number called the common difference.
✔ In a geometric sequence, uk + 1 = ruk where r is a fixed number
called the common ratio.

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 Series

✔ For an arithmetic progression with first term a, common

difference d and n terms
• the kth term uk = a + ( k − 1) d
• the last term l = a + ( n − 1) d
• the sum of the terms = 1 n ( a + l ) =  1 n [ 2 a + ( n − 1) d ]
2 2
✔ For a geometric progression with first term a, common ratio r and
n terms
• the kth term a k = ar k −1
• the last term a n = ar n−1 n
a ( r − 1) a (1 − r n )
• the sum of the terms = (r − 1) for r > 1 or (1 − r ) for r < 1
✔ For an infinite geometric series to converge, −1 < r < 1. In this case
the sum of all terms is given by 1 −a r .

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 13 Vectors in two dimensions
Thought is an idea in transit.
Pythagoras (C. 569 BC – 475 BC)

Thailand

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Australia

Discussion point
The lines on this weather map are examples of vectors. What do they
tell you about the wind at any place?

Terminology and notation

The focus of this chapter is vectors in two dimensions. A vector is a
quantity that has both magnitude and direction, for example, a velocity
of 60 km h–1 in a southerly direction. In contrast, a scalar quantity has
a magnitude but no direction attached to it, for example, a speed of
60 km h–1 where no direction is given.
A vector in two dimensions can be represented by drawing a straight
line with an arrowhead to define the direction. The direction is often
given as the angle the vector makes with the positive x-axis, with
anticlockwise taken as positive.

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 Terminology and notation

35°

You need to be able to recognise and use a number of different

conventions for writing vectors, as outlined below.
A vector joining the points A and B can be written as AB or just given a
single letter, e.g. r.
In print, vectors are usually in bold type, for example, a, but when you
are writing them by hand it is usual to underline them, as in a, or put an
arrow above as in OA.
A unit vector is any vector of length 1. i and j are principal unit vectors
of length 1 in the positive x and y directions respectively.
j

i
Position vectors start at the origin and are the vector equivalent of
This vector is in coordinates. For example, the vector joining the origin to the point (2, 5)
component form: is written as
the two components 2
represent distances   This is a column vector.
5
in the x and y
directions. or 2i + 5j.

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 13 VECTORs IN TwO DImENsIONs

4
or 4i + 3j
3
3

A C
4

In the diagram, the vector AB is 4 units in the x direction and 3 units in

4
This can be found by the y direction and can be written either as the column vector   or as
using Pythagoras’ 4i +3j.  3
theorem or, in
this example, by The magnitude or modulus of a vector is its length and is denoted by
recognising it as a 3, vertical lines on either side of the vector, for example, | a | or |OA|.
4, 5 triangle. In the diagram above, |AC| = 4, |BC| = 3 and |AB| = 5.
All of the vectors introduced so far have had both their x and y
components in the positive directions, but this is not always the case.
The negative of a vector a is the vector –a. –a is parallel to a but in the
opposite direction.

a −a

Worked example
Sketch the following vectors and find their magnitude:
 −1   −3 
a   b 2i − 5 j c  
 3  −4 

Using Pythagoras’ Solution

theorem to find  −1  2 b 2 i − 5 j = 2 2 + (−5)2
2
a   =   (−1) + 3 2
the magnitude of  3
the vector = 29
= 10
= 5.39 (3 s.f.)
= 3.16 (3 s.f.) 3
5

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 Terminology and notation

 −3  3
c   =
 −4 
((−3) 2 + (−4) 2 )
=5

Worked example
Write the vector b C

‘distance to the a as a column vector

right’ first and b using the unit vectors i and j. b
‘distance up’ below Solution 1
2
a From the diagram, b =   .
1 θ
This is called b b = 2i + j A B
component form. 2

Exercise 13.1 1 Express the following vectors in component form:

a y
5

4
a
3

−1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1

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 13 VECTORs IN TwO DImENsIONs

Exercise 13.1 (cont) b y

3

2
b
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

c y
2
c
1

1 2 3 4 5 x

d y
5

4
d
3

1 2 3 4 5 x

2 The coordinates of points P, Q, R and S are (–1, –2), (–2, 1), (1, 2) and
(2, –1) respectively. The origin is the point O.
a Mark the points on a grid. Use equal scales on the two axes.
b Write as column vectors:
i OR ii RO
c Write as column vectors:
i PR ii QS
d Write down the lengths of the vectors:
i PQ ii QR iii RS iv SP
e Describe the quadrilateral PQRS.
3 Draw diagrams to illustrate each of the following vectors:
a 2i b 3j c 2i + 3j d 2i – 3j
4 For each of the following vectors
i draw a diagram ii find its magnitude.
       
a 0 b  −3  c 5 d  5
4  0  7  −7 

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 Adding and subtracting vectors

5 A(−1, 4), B(2, 7) and C(5, 0) form the vertices of a triangle.

a Draw the triangle on graph paper. Using your diagram, write the
vectors representing the sides AB, BC and AC as column vectors.
b Which is the longest side of the triangle?
6 A, B, C and D have coordinates (−3, −4), (0, 2), (5, 6) and (2, 0)
respectively.
a Draw the quadrilateral ABCD on graph paper.
b Write down the position vectors of the points A, B, C and D.
c Write down the vectors AB, DC, BC and AD.
d Describe shape ABCD.
7 AB = j, BC is the vector 2i + 2j and CD = i.
a Sketch the shape ABCD.
b Write AD as a column vector.
c Describe shape ABCD.

Multiplying a vector by a scalar

When a vector is multiplied by a scalar (i.e. a number) then its length is
multiplied but its direction is unchanged.
For example, 3a = a + a + a gives a vector three times as long as a in the
same direction and 2(2i + j) gives a vector twice as long as 2i + j in the
same direction.

a
2i + 3j
3a
2(2i + 3j)

Adding and subtracting vectors

To add vectors written in component form, simply add the
x-components together and the y-components together as shown in the
example below.

Worked example
Add the vectors 2i + 3j and i – 2j
a using algebra b by graphing them.
Collecting like terms Solution
a (2i +3j) + (i – 2j) = (2 + 1)i + (3+(−2))j
= 3i + j
This is called the
resultant vector.
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 13 VECTORs IN TwO DImENsIONs

b The resultant
i − 2j
vector is shown by
2i + 3j
using two arrows.
3i + j

To subtract one vector from another, add the equivalent negative vector.
So, in the same way that 5 − 2 = 5 + (−2) = 3,
 6   4   6   −4 
  −    =    +   
 5   2   5   −2 
 6 + (−4 ) 
=  

 5 + (−2 ) 
2
= 
 3
Alternatively, you can simply subtract the second component from the
     8 − (−1)   9 
first component in each case, for example,  8 − −1 =   = 
−2  4  (−2 ) − 4   −6 
A very important result involves subtracting vectors.
Look at this diagram:
y A
B
a

O x

The position vector of A is OA = a.

The position vector of B is OB = b.
What can you say about the vector AB joining point A to point B?
Vector addition gives a + AB = b
So, AB = b − a

Worked example
The point P has position vector −5i + 3j.
The point Q has position vector 7i − 8j.

216 Find the vector PQ.

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 Zero and unit vectors

Solution
PQ = q − p
PQ = 7i − 8j −(−5i + 3j)
PQ = 12i − 11j

Zero and unit vectors

The zero vector, 0, is the result of adding two vectors a and (−a).
Since a + (−a) starts and finishes at the same place, a + (−a) = 0.
Remember, in  0
column form It can be written as 0i + 0j or as   .
 0
1
i is written as 0 and To find the unit vector in the direction of any given vector, divide the
 
given vector by its magnitude (length).
 
j is written as 01 .
 
Worked example
Find unit vectors parallel to:
 3
a   b 2 i − 3 j.
4
Remember to
multiply each Solution
component of the  3
vector by 1 .
a   =  3 2 + 4 2
4
5 =5  3   0.6 
The required unit vector is 1   =   
5  4   0.8 
This could also
be written as b 2 i − 3 j =   2 2 + ( −3) 2
0.555 i − 1.11 j
= 13
(3 s.f.) but it is
often better to The required unit vector is 1 (2 i − 3 j) .
13
leave an answer in
an exact form.
Worked example
Find the unit vector in the direction of 2i – 4j. Give your answer in simplest
surd form.

Solution Rationalising the denominator,

this can also be written as
2 i − 4 j = 2 2 + (−4 ) 2  
5 i −  2 5 j .
= 20 5 5
=2 5
1 2 i − 4 j = 1 i −   2 j.
The required unit vector is ( )
2 5 5 5

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 13 VECTORs IN TwO DImENsIONs

Worked example
 3 1
a =    and b =   
4  7

Find: a 2 a + 3b b 3a − 2 b
Notice that in
2a + 3b, 2 and 3 are Solution
scalars multiplying  3 1   3 1
a 2 a + 3b = 2   + 3   b 3a − 2 b = 3   − 2  
the vectors a 4   7 4  7
and b.  6   3  9   2
=   +    =    −   
 8   21   12   14 

 6+3   9−2 
=    =   
 8 + 21   12 − 14 
9 7
=    =   
 29   −2 

Worked example
PQRS is a parallelogram, with PQ = 3i + 4 j and PS = 5i.
Q R

3i + 4j

P 5i S

a State the vectors that represent SR and QR.

b Find the lengths of the sides of the parallelogram, and hence identify the
type of parallelogram.

Solution
a SR is parallel to PQ so is represented by the same vector, i.e. 3i + 4j.
Similarly, QR is parallel to PS and so QR = 5i.
b PS = QR = 5i
= 5 units
PQ = SR = 3i + 4 j
=  3 2 + 4 2
= 5 units
A parallelogram with all four sides equal is a rhombus.

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 Zero and unit vectors

There are many applications of vectors because many quantities have

magnitude and direction. One of these is velocity and this is illustrated
in the following example.

Worked example
Remember In this example, answers are given to 2 s. f. The unit vectors i and j are in the
that bearings directions east and north.
are measured The Antares is a sailing boat. It is travelling at a speed of 3 km h–1 on a bearing
clockwise from the of 030o.
north. a Find the components of this boat’s velocity N Antares
30o
in the directions east and north.
The Bellatrix is another boat. It has velocity 2i – j
1.5j in km h–1. i
E
b Find the speed and direction of the Bellatrix.
Both boats start at the same place.
Bellatrix
c How far apart are they after 2 hours?

Solution
a The components of the velocity of the Antares are shown on this
right-angled triangle.
u1

u2 3 km h–1

They are u1 = 3sin30o = 1.5 in the direction east

and u1 = 3cos30o = 2.6 in the direction north
So the velocity of the Antares is 1.5i + 2.6j km h–1.
b The velocity of the Bellatrix is shown in this triangle.
2 km h–1

1.5 km h–1

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 13 VECTORs IN TwO DImENsIONs

The boat’s speed is the magnitude of its velocity, v = 2 2 + 1.5 2 = 2.5

The angle α in the diagram is given by tan α = 1.5 ⇒ α = 37°
2
and so the compass bearing on which the boat is travelling is 90o + 37o =127o.
So the speed of the Bellatrix is 2.5 km h−1 and the direction is 127o.
c Assuming both boats started at the origin, their positions after 2 hours are
Antares 2 × (1.5i + 2.6j) = 3i + 5.2j
Bellatrix 2 × (2i − 1.5j) = 4i − 3j
So the displacement from the Bellatrix to the Antares is
(3i + 5.2j) − (4i − 3j) = −i + 7.2j
and the distance between the boats is
(−1) 2 + 7.2 2 = 7.3 km (to 2 s.f.).
In this example, the velocity of the Antares was given in speed-direction form
and was converted into components form. For the Bellatrix the reverse process
was followed, converting from components into speed and direction. You need
to be able to do both these conversions.

Exercise 13.2 1 Simplify the following:

2  1  3   −1  5 0
a    +     b    +     c    +    
 3 5  −1   3  0 5
2 Simplify the following:
a (2i + 3j) − (3i − 2j) b 3(2i + 3j) − 2(3i − 2j)
3 Given that a = 3i + 4j, b = 2i − 3j and c = −i + 5j, find the following
vectors:
a a+b+c b a+b−c c a−b+c
d 2a + b + 3c e a − 2b + 3c f 2(a + b) − 3(b − c)
g 2(2a + b − c) – 3(a − 2b + c)
4 Sketch each of the following vectors and find their moduli:
a 3i + 4 j b 3i − 4 j c 7i d −7i
e 5i + 3 j f 2i − 7 j g 6i − 6 j h i+ j
5 Write the vectors joining each pair of points
i in the form ai + bj ii as a column vectors.
a (1, 4) to (3, 7) b (1, 3) to (2, −4)
c (0, 0) to (3, 5) d (−3, 7) to (7, −3)
e (−4, 2) to (0, 0) f (−5, −2) to (−1,0)

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 Zero and unit vectors

6 y B

b
a

O x

The diagram shows a parallelogram OABC with OA = a and OB = b.

Write the following vectors in terms of a and b:
a AB b BA c CB d BC
e OB f BO g AC h CA
7 y
C
3i + 2j

B
2i + 3j
D x

ABCD is a rhombus where A is the point (−1, −2).

a Write the vectors AD and DC as column vectors.
b Write the diagonals AC and BD as column vectors.
c Use the properties of a parallelogram to find the coordinates of the
point of intersection of the diagonals.
d Find the gradients of the diagonals and hence verify that the
diagonals are perpendicular.
8 Find unit vectors parallel to each of the following:
 5
a 3i – 4j b 5i + 7j c  
 12 
 2 1 
d   e 5i f  
 −6  1 
9 A is the point (−3, −2), B is the point (5, 4) and C is the point (2, 8).
a Sketch the triangle ABC.
b Find the vectors representing the three sides AB, BC and CA in the
form xi + yj .
c Find the lengths of each side of the triangle.
d What type of triangle is triangle ABC?

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 13 VECTORs IN TwO DImENsIONs

Exercise 13.2 (cont) 10 ABCD is a kite and AC and BD meet at the B

origin O. A is the point (−4, 0), B is (0, 4)
and D is (0, −8).
The diagonals of a kite are perpendicular and
O is the midpoint of AC. A C
a Find each of the following in terms O
of i and j:
i OC ii AB iii BC
iv AD v CD vi AC
b Find the lengths of the lines OC, AB, BC, AD, CD
and AC.
c State two descriptions that are common to D
the triangles AOB, BOC and ABC.

11 A (4, 4), B(24, 19) and C (48, 12) form the vertices of a triangle.
a Sketch the triangle.
b Write the vectors AB, BC and AC as column vectors.
c Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
d What type of triangle is ABC?
12 Salman and Aloke are hiking on a flat level ground. Their starting point
is taken as the origin and the unit vectors i and j are in the directions east
and north. Salman walks with constant velocity 3i + 6j kilometres per
hour. Aloke walks on a compass bearing of 300o at a steady speed of
6.5 kilometres per hour.
i Who is walking fastest and by how much?
ii How far apart are they after 1½ hours?
13 Ama has her own small aeroplane. One afternoon, she flies for 1 hour
with a velocity of 120i + 160j km h−1 where i and j are unit vectors in the
directions east and north.
Then she flies due north for 1 hour at the same speed. Finally, she returns
to her starting point; flying in a straight line at the same speed.
Find, to the nearest degree, the direction in which she travels on the final
leg of her journey and, to the nearest minute, how long it takes her.

Past-paper questions
1 In this question i is a unit vector due East and j is a unit vector due
North.
At 12 00 hours, a ship leaves a port P and travels with a speed of
26 kmh–1 in the direction 5i + 12j.
(i) Show that the velocity of the ship is (10i + 24j) kmh–1. [2]
(ii) Write down the position vector of the ship, relative to P, at
16 00 hours. [1]
(iii) Find the position vector of the ship, relative to P, t hours after
16 00 hours. [2]

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 Zero and unit vectors

At 16 00 hours, a speedboat leaves a lighthouse which has position

vector (120i + 81j) km, relative to P, to intercept the ship. The
speedboat has a velocity of (−22i + 30j) kmh–1.
(iv) Find the position vector, relative to P, of the speedboat t hours
after 16 00 hours. [1]
(v) Find the time at which the speedboat intercepts the ship and the
position vector, relative to P, of the point of interception. [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q10 June 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q10 June 2014
2 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points A and B
are 2i – 3j and 11i + 42j respectively.
(i) Write down an expression for AB. [2]
1
The point C lies on AB such that AC = AB.
3
(ii) Find the length of OC. [4]
The point D lies on OA such that DC is parallel to OB.
(iii) Find the position vector of D. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 21 Q8 June 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q8 June 2012
3 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points A and B
are i – 4j and 7i + 20j respectively. The point C lies on AB and is such
2
that AC = AB. Find the position vector of C and the magnitude of
3
this vector. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 21 Q3 June 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q3 June 2011

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
 
H use vectors in any form, e.g.  a  , LM, r, pi – qj
b
H know and use position vectors and unit vectors
H find the magnitude of a vector; add and subtract vectors and
multiply vectors by scalars
H compose and resolve velocities.

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 13 VECTORs IN TwO DImENsIONs

Key points
4 A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction; a
scalar quantity has magnitude only.
4 Vectors are typeset in bold, for example a, or they may be written
as lines with arrows along the top, for example OA. When they
are hand-written they are underlined, for example a.
4 The length of a vector is also referred to as its magnitude or
modulus. The length of the vector a is written as |a| or a and can
be found using Pythagoras’ theorem.
4 A unit vector has length 1. Unit vectors in the directions x and y
are denoted by i and j respectively.  x
4 A vector can be written in component form, xi + yj or   , as in
magnitude-direction form – ( r,θ ).  y
4 The position vector OA of a point A is the vector joining the
origin to A.
4 The vector AB is given by b – a where a and b are the positions
vectors of A and B.

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 14 Differentiation

If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon the shoulders of

giants.
Isaac Newton (1642−1727)

Discussion point
Look at the planet Saturn in the image above. What connection did
Newton make between an apple and the motion of the planets?

In Newton’s early years, mathematics was not advanced enough to

enable people to calculate the orbits of the planets round the sun.
In order to address this, Newton invented calculus, the branch of
mathematics that you will learn about in this chapter.

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

The gradient function

B C

The curve in the diagram has a zero gradient at A, a positive gradient at

B and a negative gradient at C.
Although you can calculate the gradient of a curve at a given point by
drawing a tangent at that point and using two points on the tangent to
calculate its gradient, this process is time-consuming and the results
depend on the accuracy of your drawing and measuring. If you know
the equation of the curve, you can use differentiation to calculate the
gradient.

Worked example
Work out the gradient of the curve y = x3 at the general point (x, y).

Solution
Let P have the general value x as its x-coordinate, so P is the point (x, x3).
Let the x-coordinate of Q be (x + h) so Q is the point ((x + h), (x + h)3).
y Since it is on
((x + h), (x + h)3)
Q
the curve
y = x3
(x + h)3 – x3

P
(x, x3) R
(x + h) – x
x

y = x3

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 The gradient function

The gradient of the chord PQ is given by

QR = ( x + h) 3 – x 3
PR ( x + h) – x

= x + 3 x h + 3 xh + h – x
3 2 2 3 3

h
3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + h 3
= h
h(3 x 2 + 3 xh + h 2 )
=
h
= 3x2 + 3xh + h2

As Q gets closer to P, h takes smaller and smaller values and the gradient
approaches the value of 3x2, which is the gradient of the tangent at P.
The gradient of the curve y = x3 at the point (x, y) is equal to 3x2.

The gradient If the equation of the curve is written as y = f(x), then the gradient
function is the function is written as f´(x). Using this notation, the result in the previous
gradient of the example can be written as
curve at the f(x) = x3 ⇒ f´(x) = 3x2.
general point (x, y).
In the previous example, h was used to denote the difference between
the x-coordinates of the points P and Q, where Q is close to P.
h is sometimes replaced by δx. The Greek letter δ (delta) is shorthand
for ‘a small change in’ and so δx represents a small change in x, δy a
small change in y and so on.

Q (x + δx, y + δy)

δy

P (x, y)
δx
δy
In the diagram the gradient of the chord PQ is δx .
In the limit as δx tends towards 0, δx and δy both become infinitesimally
δy
small and the value obtained for δx approaches the gradient of the
tangent at P.
δy dy
lim δx is written as dx
.

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Using this notation, you have a rule for differentiation.

dy
y = xn ⇒ dx
= nx n–1
dy
The gradient function, dx , is sometimes called the derivative of y with
respect to x. When you find it you have differentiated y with respect to x.
If the curve is written as y = f(x), then the derivative is f´(x).
If you are asked to differentiate a relationship in the form y = f(x) in
this book, this means differentiate with respect to x unless otherwise
stated.

Note
There is nothing special about the letters x, y or f. If, for example, your curve
represents time, t, on the horizontal axis and velocity, v, on the vertical
axis, then the relationship could be referred to as v = g(t). In this case v is a
function of t and the gradient function is given by dv = g´(t).
dt

The differentiation rule

Although it is possible to find the gradient from first principles which
establishes a formal basis for differentiation, in practice you will use the
differentiation rule introduced above;
dy
y = xn ⇒ dx
= nx n–1.
You can also use this rule to differentiate (find the gradient of) equations
that represent straight lines. For example, the gradient of the line y = x is
dy
the same as y = x1, so using the rule for differentiation, = 1 × x 0 = 1.
dx
Lines of the form The gradient of the line y = c where c is a constant is 0. For example,
y = c are parallel to y = 4 is the same as y = 4x0 so using the rule for differentiation,
dy
the x-axis. dx
= 4 × 0 × x −1 = 0. In general, differentiating any constant gives zero.

The rule can be extended further to include functions of the type y = kxn
This result is true for any constant k, to give
for all powers of x, dy
positive, negative y = kxn ⇒ = nkx n –1 .
dx
and fractional. You may find it helpful to remember the rule as

multiply by the power of x and reduce the power by 1.

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 The gradient function

Worked example
For each function, find the gradient function.
a y = x7 b u = 4x3 c v = 5t2
f y = 4 x 2− 5
3
d y = 4x−3 e P=4 t
x
Solution
a y = x7 b u = 4x3
dy du
⇒  = 7x 6 ⇒  = 4 × 3 x 2 = 12 x 2
dx dx

c v = 5t2 d y = 4x−3
dy
⇒  dv = 5 × 2t = 10t ⇒  = 4 × ( −3) x −3− 1 = −12 x −4
dt dx
1
4x3 − 5
e P = 4t 2 f y=
x2
1 1
Using t = t 2 ⇒  dP = 4 ×   1 t 2 −1 ⇒  y = 4 x 2− 5   ⇒ y = 4 x2 −   52  
3 3
dt 2
x x x
= 21                       ⇒   y = 4 x − 5 x −2  
t2 dy
                          = 4 + 10 x −3
= 2 dx
t 10
                               = 4 +  
x3

Sums and differences of functions

Many of the functions you will meet are sums or differences of simpler
functions. For example, the function (4x3 + 3x) is the sum of the
functions 4x3 and 3x. To differentiate these functions, differentiate each
part separately and then add the results together.

Worked example
Differentiate y = 4x3 + 3x.

Solution
dy
= 12x2 + 3
dx

This example illustrates the general result that

dy
y = f(x) + g(x) ⇒ dx
= f´(x) + g´(x).

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Worked example
Given that y = 2x3 − 3x + 4, find
dy
a
dx
b the gradient of the curve at the point (2, 14).

Solution
dy
a = 6x2 − 3
dx
b At (2, 14), x = 2.
Substituting x = 2
dy
in the expression dx
= 6 × (2)2 − 3 = 21
dy
for dx
Exercise 14.1 Differentiate the following functions using the rules
dy
y = kxn ⇒ dx = nkx
n−1

dy
and y = f(x) + g(x) ⇒ dx = f′(x) + g′(x).

1 a y = x4 b y = 2x3 c y=5 d y = 10x

1 3 5
2 a y= x2 b y=5 x c P= 7t 2 d y = 1 x2
5
3 a y = 2x5 + 4x2 b y = 3x4 + 8x c y = x3 + 4 d y = x − 5x3

4 a f(x) = 12 b f(x) = 63
x x
1 −1
8
c f(x) = 4 x − d f(x) = x 2 −   x 2
x
5 a y = x ( x − 1) b y = ( x + 1)( 2 x − 3)

c y =   x +2 5 x
3
d y=x x
x
6 Find the gradient of the curve y = x 2 − 9 at the points of intersection
with the x- and y-axes.
y

–3 3 x

–9

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 Stationary points

7 a Copy the curve of y = 4 − x 2 and draw the graph of y = x − 2 on the

same axes.
y

–2 2 x

b Find the coordinates of the points where the two graphs intersect.
c Find the gradient of the curve at the points of intersection.

Stationary points
A stationary point is a point on a curve where the gradient is zero. This
means that the tangents to the curve at these points are horizontal. The
diagram shows a curve with four stationary points: A, B, C and D.

D
B

The points A and C are turning points of the curve because as the curve
passes through these points, it changes direction completely: at A the
gradient changes from positive to negative and at C from negative to
positive. A is called a maximum turning point, and C is a minimum
turning point.
At B the curve does not turn: the gradient is negative both to the left
and to the right of this point. B is a stationary point of inflection.

Discussion point
What can you say about the gradient to the left and right of D?

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Note
Points where a curve ‘twists’ but doesn’t have a zero gradient are also called
points of inflection. However, in this section you will look only at stationary
points of inflection. The tangent at a point of inflection both touches and
intersects the curve.

Maximum and minimum points

The graph shows the curve of y = 4x − x2.
y
(2, 4)

y = 4 x – x2

0 4 x

» The curve has a maximum point at (2, 4).

dy
» The gradient dx at the maximum point is zero.
» The gradient is positive to the left of the maximum and negative to
the right of it.
This is true for any maximum point as shown below.
0

+ –

Gradient
pattern + 0 –

For any minimum turning point, the gradient

» is zero at that point
» goes from negative to zero to positive.

Gradient
pattern – 0 +

– +

Once you can find the position of any stationary points, and what type
of points they are, you can use this information to help you sketch
graphs.

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 Stationary points

Worked example
a For the curve y = x3 − 12x + 3
dy dy
i find and the values of x for which =0
dx dx
ii classify the points on the curve with these values of x
iii find the corresponding values of y
iv sketch the curve.
b Why can you be confident about continuing the sketch of the curve beyond
the x-values of the turning points?
c You did not need to find the coordinates of the points where the curve
crosses the x-axis before sketching the graph. Why was this and under what
circumstances would you find these points?

Solution
dy
a i = 3x2 − 12
dx
dy
When = 0, 3x2 − 12 = 0
dx
⇒ 3(x2 − 4) = 0
⇒ 3(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0
⇒ x = −2 or x = 2
Looking at the ii When x = −3,
dy
= 3(−3)2 − 12 = 15.
0

gradient pattern dx
dy
around x = − 2 When x = −1
dx
= 3(−1)2 − 12 = −9. + –

The gradient pattern is + 0 − Gradient

pattern + 0 –
⇒   maximum turning point at x = −2.
dy
When x = 1, = 3(1)2 − 12 = −9
dx Gradient
dy pattern – 0 +
When x = 3 = 3(3)2 − 12 = 15
dx +
The gradient pattern is − 0 +
–

(−2, 19) is a ⇒   minimum turning point at x = +2

maximum and
0
iii When x= −2, y = (−2)3 − 12(−2) + 3 = 19.
(2, −13) a minimum. When x = +2, y= (2)3 − 12(2) + 3 = −13.

The value of y iv When x = 0, y = (0)3 − 12(0) + 3 = 3.

when x = 0 tells (–2, 19) y
you where the
curve crosses the
y-axis.
3

–2 2 Q x

(2, –13)

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

b A cubic has at most 2 turning points and they have both been found. So the
parts of the curve beyond them (to the left and to the right) just get steeper
and steeper.
c The sketch is showing the shape of the curve and this is not affected by
where it crosses the axes. However, you can see from the equation that it
crosses the y-axis at (0, 3) and it is good practice to mark this in.

Worked example
Find all the turning points on the graph of y = t4 − 2t3 + t2 − 2 and then sketch the
curve.
Solution
dy
= 4t3 − 6t2 + 2t
dt
dy
= 0   ⇒ 4t3 − 6t2 + 2t = 0
dt
  ⇒ 2t(2t2 − 3t + 1) = 0 Turning
  ⇒ 2t(2t − 1)(t − 1) = 0 points occur
  ⇒ t = 0 or t = 0.5 or t = 1 when ddyt = 0.
When t = 0, y = (0)4 − 2(0)3 + (0)2 − 2 = − 2.
When t = 0.5, y = (0.5)4 − 2(0.5)3 + (0.5)2 − 2 = − 1.9375.
When t = 1, y = (1)4 − 2(1)3 + (1)2 − 2 = − 2.
Plotting these points suggests that (0.5, −1.9375) is a maximum turning point and
You can find (0, −2) and (1, −2) are minima, but you need more information to be sure. For
whether the example when t = −1, y = + 2 and when t = 2, y = + 2 so you know that the curve
goes above the horizontal axis on both sides.
gradient is positive
or negative by y
taking a test point
in each interval. 0 1 t
y = t4 – 2t3 + t2 – 2
For example,
t = 0.25 in the –1
interval 0 < t < 0.5; (0.5, –1.9375)
when t = 0.25, ddyt is –2 (1, –2)
positive.

Exercise 14.2 You can use a graphic calculator to check your answers.
For each curve in questions 1 – 8:
dy dy
i find dx and the value(s) of x for which dx = 0
ii classify the point(s) on the curve with these x-values
iii find the corresponding y-value(s)
iv sketch the curve.

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 Using second derivatives

1 y = 1 + x − 2x2
2 y = 12x + 3x2 − 2x3
3 y = x3 − 4x2 + 9
4 y = x2 (x− 1)2
5 y = x4 − 8x2 + 4
6 y = x3 − 48x
7 y = x3 + 6x2 − 36x + 25
8 y = 2x3 − 15x2 + 24x + 8
9 The graph of y = px + qx2 passes through the point (3, −15). Its
gradient at that point is −14.
a Find the values of p and q.
b Calculate the maximum value of y and state the value of x at which
it occurs.
10 a Find the stationary points of the function f(x) = x2(3x2 − 2x −3) and
distinguish between them.
b Sketch the curve y = f(x).

Using second derivatives

In the same way as
dy
dx
or f′(x) is the gradient of the curve y = f(x), ( )
d dy
dx dx
or f″(x) represents the gradient of the curve y = f′(x).
d2 y
This is also written as dx 2
and is called the second derivative. You can
d2 y
find it by differentiating the function
dy
dx
. Note that dx 2 is not
2
the same as  ddxy  .

Worked example
d2 y
Find dx 2 for y = 4 x 3 + 3 x − 2.

Solution
dy   d2 y
= 12 x 2 + 3 ⇒ 2 = 24 x
dx dx

In many cases, you can use the second derivative to determine if a

stationary point is a maximum or minimum instead of looking at the
dy
value of on either side of the turning point.
dx

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

0
A

+ − − +

B
0
d2y d2y
< 0 at A > 0 at B
d2x dx2

dy d2 y d2 y
At A, dx = 0 and < 0 showing that the gradient is zero and since
dx 2 dx 2
< 0, it is decreasing near that point, so must be going from positive to
negative. This shows that A is a maximum turning point.
dy d2 y d y 2
At B, dx = 0 and 2 > 0 showing that the gradient is zero and since 2 > 0,
dx dx
it is increasing near that point, so must be going from negative to positive.
This shows that B is a minimum turning point.
dy d2 y
Note that if dx = 0 and = 0 at the same point, you cannot make a
dx 2
decision about the type of turning point using this method.

Worked example
For y = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 12 x + 4
dy dy
a Find and find the values of x when = 0.
dx dx
2
b Find the value of d y2 at each stationary point and hence determine its
dx
nature.
c Find the value of y at each of the stationary points.
d Sketch the curve y = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 12 x + 4 .

Solution
dy
a = 6 x 2 − 6 x − 12
dx
= 6 ( x 2 − x − 2)

= 6 ( x + 1)( x − 2 )
dy
So = 0 when x = −1 and when x = 2.
dx
d2 y
b = 12 x − 6
dx 2
d2 y  
When x = −1, = −18 ⇒ a maximum
dx 2
d2y  
When x = 2, 2 = 18 ⇒ a minimum
dx
c When x = −1, y = 2(−1)³ − 3(−1)² − 12(−1) + 4
= 11

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 Using second derivatives

When x = 2, y = 2(2)³ − 3(2)² − 12(2) + 4

= −16
d The curve has a maximum turning point at (−1, 11) and a minimum turning
point at (2, −16).
When x = 0, y = 4, so the curve crosses the y-axis at (0, 4).
y
12
10
8
6
4
2

−2 −1 −2 1 2 3 4 x
−4
−6
−8
−10
−12
−14
−16

Worked example
Maria has made some sweets as a gift and makes a small box for them from a
square sheet of card of side 24 cm. She cuts four identical squares of side x cm,
one from each corner, and turns up the sides to make the box, as shown in the
diagram.

24 cm

24 cm

x cm
x cm
a Write down an expression for the volume V of the box in terms of x.
b Find dV and the values of x when dV = 0.
dx dx
c Comment on this result.
2
d Find d V2 and hence find the depth when the volume is a maximum.
dx
Solution
a The base of the box is a square of side ( 24 − 2 x ) cm and the height is x cm, so
V = ( 24 − 2 x ) 2 × x

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Taking a factor
of 2 out of each = 4 x (12 − x ) 2 cm3
bracket b V = 4 x (144 − 24 x + x 2 )
= 576 x − 96 x 2 + 4 x 3

So dV = 576 − 192 x + 12 x 2
dx
= 12 ( 48 − 16 x + x 2 )
= 12 (12 − x )( 4 − x )
dV
So = 0 when x = 12 and when x = 4.
dx
c When x = 12 there is no box, since the piece of cardboard was only a square
dV of side 24 cm.
Using dx
= d 2V =   −192 + 24 x
d
576 - 192x+12x 2 dx 2
2
When x = 4, d V2 = −96 which is negative.
dx
Therefore the volume is a maximum when the depth x = 4 cm.

d2y
Exercise 14.3 1 Find dy and for each of the following functions:
dx dx 2
a y = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 x − 6 b y = 3x 4 − 4 x 3
c y = x 5 − 5x + 1
2 For each of the following curves
i find any stationary points
ii use the second derivative test to determine their nature.
a y = 2 x 2 − 3x + 4 b y = x3 − 2x2 + x + 6
c y = 4x − 2x + 1
4 2
d y = x 5 − 5x
3 For y = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 36 x + 4
dy dy
a Find and the values of x when = 0.
dx 2 dx
d y
b Find the value of 2 at each stationary point and hence determine its
dx
nature.
c Find the value of y at each stationary point.
d Sketch the curve.
4 A farmer has 160 m of fencing and wants to use it to form a rectangular
enclosure next to a barn.
fence

barn

wall

Find the maximum area that can be enclosed and give its dimensions.
5 A cylinder has a height of h metres and a radius of r metres where
h + r = 3.

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 Equations of tangents and normals

a Find an expression for the volume of the cylinder in terms of r.

b Find the maximum volume.
6 A rectangle has sides of length x cm and y cm.
a If the perimeter is 24 cm, find the lengths of the sides when the area is
a maximum, confirming that it is a maximum.
b If the area is 36 cm2, find the lengths of the sides when the perimeter is
a minimum, confirming that it is a minimum.

Equations of tangents and normals

Now that you know how to find the gradient of a curve at any point, you
can use this to find the equation of the tangent at any given point on the
curve.

Worked example
a Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3x2 − 5x − 2 at the point (1, −4).
b Sketch the curve and show the tangent on your sketch.
Solution
dy
Substituting x = 1 a y = 3x2 − 5x − 2 ⇒ = 6x− 5
dx
into this gradient At (1, −4),
dy
=6×1−5
dx
function gives and so m = 1
the gradient of
So the equation of the tangent is given by
the curve and
y − y1 = (x − x1) x1 = 1, y1 = 4 and m = 1
therefore the
y  – ( –4 )  =  1 ( x  – 1)
tangent at this This is the equation of the tangent.
⇒ y=x−5
point.
b y = 3x2 − 5x − 2 is a ∪-shaped quadratic curve that crosses the crosses the
y-axis when y = −2 and x-axis when 3x2 − 5x − 2 = 0.
3x2 − 5x − 2 = 0 ⇒ (3x + 1)(x − 2) = 0
1
  ⇒ x = − 3 or x = 2
y
y = 3x2 – 5x – 2

y=x–5

–
1
3 –2
O
2 5
x

–5

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

The normal to a curve at given point is the straight line that is at right
angles to the tangent at that point, as shown below.
curve

normal
tangent

Remember that for perpendicular lines

m1m2 = −1.

Worked example
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 4 x 2 − 2 x 3 at the
point (1, 2).
Draw a diagram showing the curve, the tangent and the normal.

It is slightly Solution
easier to use y = 4x2 − 2x3 ⇒
dy
= 8x − 6x2
y − y1 = m( x − x1 ) dx
here than dy
At (1, 2), the gradient is = 8−6 = 2
dx
y = mx + c. If you The gradient of the tangent is m1 = 2
substitute the
gradient m = 2 So, using y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
and the point (1, 2) the equation of the tangent is y - 2 = 2( x - 1)
into y = mx+ c, you y = 2x
y
get 2 = 2 × 1 + c
The gradient of the normal is m2 = − 1 = − 1 3
and so c = 0 m1 2
So the equation of So, using y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
2
the tangent is
y = 2x. the equation of the normal is y - 2 = - 1 ( x - 1) 1
2
y = − x + 5.
2 2
The curve, tangent and normal are shown on this 1 2 3
x
graph.

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 Equations of tangents and normals

Exercise 14.4 1 The sketch graph shows the curve of y = 5x− x2.
The marked point, P, has coordinates (3, 6).
y

P (3, 6)

y = 5 x – x2

0 5 x

Find: dy
a the gradient function dx
b the gradient of the curve at P
c the equation of the tangent at P
d the equation of the normal at P.
2 The sketch graph shows the curve of y = 3x2 − x3. The marked point, P,
has coordinates (2, 4).
y
y = 3x2 – x3 P (2, 4)

O Q x

a Find:
dy
i the gradient function
dx
ii the gradient of the curve at P
iii the equation of the tangent at P
iv the equation of the normal at P.
b The graph touches the x-axis at the origin O and crosses it at the point Q.
Find:
i the coordinates of Q
ii the gradient of the curve at Q
iii the equation of the tangent at Q.
c Without further calculation, state the equation of the tangent to the
curve at O.
3 The sketch graph shows the curve of y = x5 − x3.
y

y = x5 – x3

O P x

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Exercise 14.4 (cont) Find:

a the coordinates of the point P where the curve crosses the positive
x-axis
b the equation of the tangent at P
c the equation of the normal at P.
The tangent at P meets the y-axis at Q and the normal meets the y-axis
at R.
d Find the coordinates of Q and R and hence find the area of triangle
PQR.
4 a Given that f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4x + 1, find f´(x).
b The point P is on the curve y = f(x) and its x-coordinate is 2.
i Calculate the y-coordinate of P.
ii Find the equation of the tangent at P.
iii Find the equation of the normal at P.
c Find the values of x for which the curve has a gradient of 13.
5 The sketch graph shows the curve of y = x3 − 9x2 + 23x − 15.
The point P marked on the curve has its x-coordinate equal to 2.

O x
y = x3 – 9x2 + 23x – 15

Find:
dy
a the gradient function
dx
b the gradient of the curve at P
c the equation of the tangent at P
d the coordinates of another point on the curve, Q, at which the tangent
is parallel to the tangent at P
e the equation of the tangent at Q.
6 The point (2, −8) is on the curve y = x3 − px + q.
a Use this information to find a relationship between p and q.
dy
b Find the gradient function .
dx
The tangent to this curve at the point (2, −8) is parallel to the x-axis.
c Use this information to find the value of p.
d Find the coordinates of the other point where the tangent is parallel
to the x-axis.
e State the coordinates of the point P where the curve crosses the y-axis.
f Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point P.

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 Differentiating other functions of x

7 The sketch graph shows the curve of y = x2 − x − 1.

y
y = x2 – x – 1
P (2, 1)

O x

a Find the equation of the tangent at the point P(2, 1).

The normal at a point Q on the curve is parallel to the tangent at P.
b State the gradient of the tangent at Q.
c Find the coordinates of the point Q.
8 A curve has the equation y = (x − 3)(7 − x).
dy
a Find the gradient function .
dx
b Find the equation of the tangent at the point (6, 3).
c Find the equation of the normal at the point (6, 3).
d Which one of these lines passes through the origin?
9 A curve has the equation y = 1.5x3 − 3.5x2 + 2x.
a Show that the curve passes through the points (0, 0) and (1, 0).
b Find the equations of the tangents and normals at each of these
points.
c Prove that the four lines in b form a rectangle.

Deriving these Differentiating other functions of x

results from first
So far you have differentiated polynomials and other powers of x. Now
principles is beyond
this is extended to other expressions, starting with the three common
the scope of this trigonometrical functions. When doing this you will use the standard
book. results that follow.

sin x, cos x and tan x

  dy
y = sin x   ⇒  =  cos x
dx
  dy
y = cos x   ⇒  =   − sin x
dx
  dy Recall sec x =  cos1 x
y = tan x   ⇒   = sec 2 x
dx

When differentiating any trigonometric function, the angle must be in

radians.

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Worked example
Differentiate each of the following functions:
a y = sin x −  cos x
b y = 2 tan x + 3

Solution
Using the results a
dy
= cos x − (− sin x)
above dx
= cos x +  sin x Differentiating a
b
dy  
y = 2 tan x + 3 ⇒   = 2(sec2x) + 0 constant always
dx
gives zero.
= 2 sec2x

Worked example
a Sketch the graph of y = sin θ for 0  θ  2 π .
dy π
b i Find the value of dθ when θ =   .
2
dy
ii At which other point does dθ have this value?
dy
c Use differentiation to find the value of dθ when θ =   π .

Solution
a y
1

π π 3π 2π x
2 2

–1
π dy
b i The tangent to the curve when θ =   is horizontal, so = 0.
2 dθ
3π
ii The gradient is also 0 when θ =   .
2
dy  
c y = sin θ   ⇒   =  cosθ
dθ
dy
When θ = π , dθ = cos π = −1.

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 Differentiating other functions of x

Worked example
a Find the turning point of the curve y = sin x − cos x and determine its nature.
b Sketch the curve for 0  x  π.
This means decide
Solution
 
if it is a maximum
dy
a y = sin x − cos x     ⇒    
dx
= cos x + sin x or minimum point.
At the turning points cos x + sin x = 0
⇒ sin x = − cos x Divide by cos x
⇒ tan
 
x=−1
⇒ ⇒   x = − π (not in the required range)
4
or x = 3π
4
When x = 3π , y = sin 3π − cos 3π
4 4 4
= 2

The turning point is at 3π , 2 .

4 ( )
When x = π (to the left), y = sin π − cos π = 1.
2 2 2
1< 2 When x = π (to the right), y = sin π − cos π   = 1.
Check where the (4 )
So the point 3π , 2 is a maximum turning point.
curve crosses the b When x = 0,  y = sin 0 − cos 0 = −1.
axes.
When y = 0, 0 = sin x − cos x  
⇒ sin x = cos x Divide by cos x
⇒ tan x = 1
⇒  x = π
4
y
√2

π 3π π x
4 4

–1

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Worked example
For the curve y = 2 cosθ find:
a the equation of the tangent at the point where θ = π
3
b the equation of the normal at the point where θ = π .
3
Solution
dy
a y = 2 cos θ ⇒ =   −2 sin θ
dθ
When θ = π , y = 2 cos π
3 3
=1
dy
and =   −2 sin π
dθ 3
=− 3
Using y = mx + c So the equation of the tangent is given by y = −θ 3 + c.
Substituting values for y and θ :

( 3)
 
1=− π 3+c ⇒ c = 1 + π 3
3
The equation of the tangent is therefore
y = −θ 3 + 1 + π 3 .
3
dy
b The gradient of the normal = −1 ÷
dθ
= −1 ÷ ( − 3 )
= 1
3
Using y = mx + c The equation of the normal is given by y = 1 θ + c .
3
Substituting values for y and θ :
1= 1 π +c
3 3
() ⇒  c = 1− π
3 3

= 1− π 3
9
The equation of the normal is therefore
y = 1 θ +1− π .
3 3 3

Again, deriving ex and ln x

these results from You met exponential and logarithmic functions in Chapter 7. Here are
first principles is the standard results for differentiating them.
beyond the scope   dy
y = e x  ⇒  =  e x
of this book. dx
  dy 1
This is the only y = ln x ⇒   = 
dx x
function where
dy
y = dx .

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 Differentiating other functions of x

Worked example
Differentiate each of the following functions:
a y = 5 ln x
b y = ln ( 5 x )
c y = 2e x +  ln ( 2 x )

Solution
dy
()
 
a y = 5 ln x     ⇒     =5 1
dx x
=  5
 
x ln 5 is a number so
b y = ln ( 5 x )    ⇒      y = ln 5 +  ln x differentiating it
  dy 1 gives zero.
⇒     = 
dx x
  dy
c y = 2e x +  ln ( 2 x )    ⇒      = 2e x +   1
dx x

Part b shows an important result. Since ln ( ax ) =  ln a + ln x for all values

where a > 0,
  dy
y = ln ( ax )  ⇒  =  1 .
dx x

Worked example
a Find the turning point of the curve y = 2x − ln x and determine its nature.
b Sketch the curve for 0 < x  3.
Solution
  dy
a y = 2 x − ln x     ⇒     =2− 1
dx x
dydy    
==0   
0   ⇒
⇒     ==1 1
⇒   2
   2
dxdx xx
⇒x = 0.5
When x = 0.5, 2x − ln x = 1.7 (1 d.p.).
When x = 0.3 (to the left), 2x − ln x = 1.8 (1 d.p.).
When x = 1.0 (to the right), 2x − ln x = 2 (1 d.p.).
Therefore the point (0.5, 1.7) is a minimum turning point.

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

b y
5

4
Note
In this graph the 3
y-axis is an asymptote.
The curve gets nearer 2
and nearer to it but 1.7
never quite reaches it. 1

0.5 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1

Notice that ln x is not defined for x  0, and as x → 0, ln x → −∞ so

2x − ln x → + ∞.

Worked example
For the curve y = 2ex + 5 find the equation of:
a the tangent at the point where x = −1
b the normal at the point where x = −1.

Solution dy
a y = 2ex + 5 ⇒ = 2e x
dx
When x = −1, y = 2e−1 + 5
= 2+5
e
dy
= 2e −1
dx
Using y = mx + c So the equation of the tangent is given by y = 2e −1 x + c .
Substituting values for y and x:
2
+ 5 = 2e −1 ( −1) + c
e
= −2 +c
e
 
4
⇒ c = + 5
e
The equation of the tangent is therefore
y = 2 x + 4 + 5.
e e

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 Differentiating products and quotients of functions

dy
b The gradient of the normal = −1 ÷
dx

()
= −1 ÷ 2
e
= −e
2
Using y = mx + c The equation of the normal is given by y = − e x + c .
2
Substituting values for y and x:
2
+ 5 = − e ( −1) + c
e  2
⇒ c = 2 + 5 − e
e 2
The equation of the normal is therefore
y = −ex + 2 + 5− e.
2 e 2

Deriving these Differentiating products and quotients of

results from first
principles is beyond functions
the scope of this Sometimes you meet functions like y = x2ex, which are the product of
book. two functions, x2 and ex. To differentiate such functions you use the
product rule.
When u(x) and v(x) are two functions of x
dy
» y = uv ⇒ = u dv + v du
dx dx dx
A shorthand form of y = u(x) × v(x)

Worked example
Differentiate y = ( x 2 + 1) ( 2 x − 3)
a by expanding the brackets
b by using the product rule.

Solution
a y = ( x 2 + 1) ( 2 x − 3) b Let u = ( x 2 + 1) and v =  ( 2 x − 3)
du = 2 x dv = 2
= 2 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 x − 3 dx and
dx
  dy
⇒  = 6 x 2 − 6 x + 2 dy dv du
dx Product rule: dx = u dx + v dx
dy
So = ( x 2 + 1) ( 2 ) + ( 2 x − 3)( 2 x )
dx
= 2x2 + 2 + 4x2 − 6x
= 6x2 − 6x + 2

In this example you had a choice of methods; both gave you the same
answer. In the next example there is no choice; you must use the
product rule.
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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Worked example
Differentiate each of the following functions:
a y = x 2e x b y = x 3 sin x c y = ( 2 x 3 − 4 )( e x − 1)

Solution
a Let u =   x 2 and v = e x b Let u =   x 3 and v =  sin x
du = 2 x and dv =  e x du = 3 x 2
and dv =  cos x
dx dx dx dx
Product rule: dy = u dv + v du d
Product rule: y = u dv + v du
dx dx dx dx dx dx
dy dy
So =   x 2 e x +  e x ( 2 x ) So =   x cos x +  ( sin x ) ( 3 x 2 )
3
dx dx
= xe x ( x + 2 ) =   x 2 ( x cos x + 3sin x )

c Let u = ( 2 x 3 − 4 ) and v = ( e x − 1)
du = 6 x 2 and dv =  e x
dx dx
dy
Product rule: = u dv + v du
dx dx dx
dy
So = ( 2 x − 4 )( e ) + ( e − 1)( 6 x 2 )
3 x x
dx
= 2 x 3e x − 4e x + 6 x 2 e x − 6 x 2

ex
Sometimes you meet functions like y = where one function, in
+1 x2
this case ex, is divided by another, x2 + 1. To differentiate such functions
you use the quotient rule.
For            y = u
v
du dv
dy v dx − u dx
⇒    = 
dx v2

Worked example
x3 + 3
Differentiate y =
2x2
a by simplifying first b by using the quotient rule.

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 Differentiating products and quotients of functions

Solution
y =   x +2 3
3
a b Let u = x 3 + 3 and v =   x 2
x
du = 3 x 2 and dv =  2 x
= ( x 3 + 3) x −2 dx dx
du dv
= x + 3 x −2 dy v dx − u dx
Quotient rule: = 
dy dx v2
So = 1 − 6 x −3
dx dy x 2 ( 3 x 2 ) − ( x 3 + 3) 2 x
= 
This quotient rule dx ( x 2 )2
is longer in this =   3 x − 2 x4 − 6 x
4 4

case, but is useful x

when it is not =  x 4
− 6 x
possible to simplify x4
first. = 1 − 6 x −3

Worked example
Differentiate each of the following functions:
a y = 2 x2 + 3
3 x
b y = e2
x −1 x
Solution
y = 2 x2 + 3
3 x
a b y = e2
x −1 x
Let u = 2 x 3 + 3 and v =   x 2 − 1 Let u = e x and v =   x 2
du = 6 x 2   dv = 2 x du =  e x  and dv = 2 x
and dx dx
dx dx
du dv du dv
dy v dx − u dx dy v dx − u dx
Quotient rule: =  Quotient rule: = 
dx dx v2
v2
dy ( x 2 − 1) 6 x 2 − ( 2 x 3 + 3) 2 x dy x 2 ( e x ) −  e x ( 2 x )
=  = 
dx ( x 2 − 1) 2
dx ( x 2 )2
=   x e −  22 xe
2 x x
=   6 x − 6 x − 4 x2 − 6 x
4 2 4

( x − 1)
2 (x2 )
xe x ( x − 2 )
=   2 x − 6 x −2 6 x
4 2
= 
x4
( x − 1)
2

e x ( x − 2)
2 x ( x 3 − 3 x − 3) = 
=  x3
( x 2 − 1) 2

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Differentiating composite functions

Sometimes you will need to differentiate an expression that is a
function of a function.
For example, look at y = x 2 + 1; the function ‘Take the positive square
root of’, denoted by , is applied to the function ( x 2 + 1). In such cases
you use the chain rule.
You know how to differentiate y = x and you know how to
differentiate y = x 2 + 1 but so far you have not met the case where two
functions like this are combined into one.
The first step is to make a substitution.
Let u = x2 + 1.
1
So now you have to differentiate y = u or y = u 2 .
1 −1
−1
You know the right-hand side becomes 1 u 2 or 1 u 2 .
2 2
What about the left-hand side?
dy
The differentiation is with respect to u rather than x and so you get du
dy
rather than dx that you actually want.
dy dy
To go from du
to dx , you use the chain rule,
dy dy du
= × .
dx du dx
You made the substitution u = x2 + 1 and differentiating this gives
du
= 2 x.
dx
dy du
So now you can substitute for both du
and dx
in the chain rule and get
dy 1 −1
1 −2
= u × 2x = xu 2
dx 2
This isn’t quite the final answer because the right-hand side includes the
letter u whereas it should be given entirely in terms of x.
dy 1
= x ( x 2 + 1)
−
Substituting u = x2 + 1, gives 2 and this is now the answer.
dx
However it can be written more neatly as
dy x
Notice how the dx
= .
x2 + 1
awkward function,
x 2 + 1, has This is an important method and with experience you will find short
reappeared in the cuts that will mean you don’t have to write everything out in full as it
final answer. has been here.

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 Differentiating composite functions

Worked example
dy
Given that y = ( 2 x − 3) 4  , find .
dx

Solution
Let u = ( 2 x − 3) so y = u 4
dy
  = 4u 3
du
= 4 ( 2 x − 3) 3
du
=2
dx
dy dy du   dy
Using =   ×   ⇒     = 4 ( 2 x − 3) 3 ×  2
dx du dx dx
= 8 ( 2 x − 3) 3

You can use the chain rule in conjunction with the product rule or the
quotient rule as shown in the following example.

Worked example
dy
Find when y = ( 2 x + 1)( x + 2 )10.
dx

Solution
Let u = ( 2 x + 1) and v =  ( x + 2 )10
Using the chain dv
Then du = 2 and = 10 ( x + 2 ) 9 × 1
rule to find dv dx dx
dx dy
  =  ( 2 x + 1)  ×  10 ( x + 2 ) 9 +  ( x + 2 )10 × 2
dx
Using the product = 10 ( 2 x + 1)( x + 2 ) 9 +  2 ( x + 2 )10 Taking 2(x + 2)9
rule dy = u dv + v du = 2 ( x + 2 ) 9 [ 5 ( 2 x + 1) + ( x + 2 )] out as a common
dx dx dx
= 2 ( x + 2 ) 9 (11 x + 7 ) factor

Exercise 14.5 1 Differentiate each of the following functions:

a y = 3 sin x − 2 tan x b y = 5 sin θ − 6 c y = 2 cos θ − 2 sin θ
d y = 4 ln x e y = ln 4x f y = 3ex
g y = 2ex − ln 2x
2 Use the product rule to differentiate each of the following functions:
a y = x sin x b y = x cos x c y = x tan x
d y = ex sin x e y = ex cos x f y = ex tan x
3 Use the quotient rule to differentiate each of the following functions:
a y = sin x b y= x c y = cos2 x
x sin x x
x2
d y= e y= x f y= tan x
cos x tan x x

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Exercise 14.5 (cont) 4 Use the chain rule to differentiate each of the following functions:
c y = ( x 2 + 3)
4
a y = ( x + 3) 4 b y = ( 2 x + 3) 4
d y= x+3 e y = 2x + 3 f y= x2 + 3
5 Use an appropriate method to differentiate each of the following
functions:
a y = sin x b y = 1 + cos x
1 + cos x sin x
c y = sin x(1 + cos x) d y = cos x (1 + sin x )
e y = sin x (1 + cos x ) 2 f y = cos x (1 + sin x ) 2
6 Use an appropriate method to differentiate each of the following
functions: x
a y = e x ln x b y= ex c y = lnxx
ln e
7 Use an appropriate method to differentiate each of the following
functions: −x
a e − x  sin x b y= e x c y = sin− xx
sin e
8 A curve has the equation y = sin x − cos x where x is measured in radians.
a Show that the curve passes through the points (0, −1) and (π, 1).
b Find the equations of the tangents and normals at each of these
points.
9 A curve has the equation y = 2 tan x − 1 where x is measured in radians.
a Show that the curve passes through the points (0, −1) and π , 1 .
4 ( )
b Find the equations of the tangents and normals at each of these
points.
10 A curve has the equation y = 2 ln x − 1.
a Show that the curve passes through the point (e, 1)
b Find the equations of the tangent and normal at this point.
11 A curve has the equation y = e x − ln x.
a Sketch the curves y = e xand
  y = ln x on the same axes and explain
why this implies that e x − ln x is always positive.
b Show that the curve y = e x − ln x passes through the point (1, e).
c Find the equations of the tangent and normal at this point.

Past-paper questions
1 The diagram shows a cuboid with a rectangular base of sides x cm
and 2x cm. The height of the cuboid is y cm and its volume is 72 cm3.

y cm

x cm
2x cm

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 Differentiation

(i) Show that the surface area A cm2 of the cuboid is given by
A = 4x2 + 216 . [3]
x
(ii) Given that x can vary, find the dimensions of the cuboid when A
is a minimum. [4]
(iii) Given that x increases from 2 to 2 + p, where p is small, find, in
terms of p, the corresponding approximate change in A, stating
whether this change is an increase or a decrease. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q12-OR June 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q12-OR June 2011
dy
2 Find dx when
x
()
(i) y = cos 2 x sin 3 , [4]

(ii) y = tan x ⋅ [4]

1 + lnx
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 21 Q10 June 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 21 Q10 June 2014

3 (a) Differentiate 4x3 ln(2x + 1) with respect to x. [3]

2x dy x+4
(b) (i) Given that y = , show that = ⋅ [4]
x+2 dx ( x + 2 )3

Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037

Paper 12 November 2013
(Part question: part b (ii) and (iii) omitted)
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 November 2013
(Part question: part b (ii) and (iii) omitted)

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H understand the idea of a derived function

( )
2
H use the notations f ′(x), f ″(x),  dy , d y  = d dy 
dx dx 2  dx dx 
H apply differentiation to gradients, tangents and normals,
stationary points, connected rates of change, small increments and
approximations and practical maxima and minima problems
H use the first and second derivative tests to discriminate between
maxima and minima
H use the derivatives of the standard functions xn (for any rational n),
sin x, cos x, tan x, e x, ln x, together with constant multiples, sums
and composite functions of these
H differentiate products and quotients of functions. 255

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 14 DIFFERENTIaTION

Key points
dy dy
✔  y = kx n ⇒ = n –1 and y   =   c ⇒ = 0,
dx nkx dx
where n is a positive integer and k and c are constants.
dy
✔  y = f(x) + g(x) ⇒ = f´(x) + g´(x)
dx
dy
✔  = 0 at a stationary point. The nature of the stationary
dx
point can be determined by looking at the sign of the gradient
d2y
immediately either side of it or by considering the sign of 2 .
dx
d2y
• If < 0, the point is a maximum.
dx 2
d2y
• If > 0, the point is a minimum.
dx 2
d2y
• If = 0, the point could be a maximum, a minimum or a
dx 2
dy
point of inflection. Check the values of on either side of the
dx
point to determine its nature.
✔  For the tangent and normal at (x1, y1)
dy
• the gradient of the tangent, m1 =
dx
• the gradient of the normal, m2 = –
1
m1
• the equation of the tangent is y – y1 = m1(x – x1)
• the equation of the normal is y – y1 = m2(x – x1).
✔  Derivatives of other functions:
dy
Function Derivative
dx

sin x cos x
cos x −sin x
tan x sec2 x
ex ex
ln x 1
x

dy dv du
✔ The product rule dx = u dx + v dx .

du dv
dy v dx − u dx
✔  The quotient rule =  .
dx v2
dy dy du
✔  The chain rule = × .
dx du dx

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 15 Integration

Growth is painful. Change is painful. But nothing is as painful as staying

stuck where you do not belong.
N.R. Narayana Murthy (1946 – )

Discussion point
Mita is a long-distance runner. She carries a speed meter, which tells her
what her speed is at various times during a race.

Time (hours) 0
1
1 1 12 2 2 12 3
2
Speed (metres
4.4 4.4 4.4 4.6 5.0 5.2 0
per second)

What race do you think she was running?

How would you estimate her time?

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Integration is the Integration involves using the rate of change of a quantity to find its
process of getting total value at the end of an interval, for example using the speed of
from a differential a runner to find the distance travelled at any time. The process is the
reverse of differentiation.
equation to the
dy
general solution. Look at the differential equation dx
= 3x 2 .
dy
Since dx = 3 x 2 for x3, x3 + 7 and x3 − 3, these expressions are all solutions
of this equation.
The general solution of this differential equation is given as y = x3 + c,
where c is an arbitrary constant that can take any value (positive,
negative or zero).
A solution containing an arbitrary constant gives a family of curves, as
shown below. Each curve corresponds to a particular value of c.
y
y = x3 + 3
c=3
y = x3
3 c=0
−2 −1 0 1 2
x
−8
c=–8 y = x3 – 8

Suppose that you are also given that the solution curve passes through
the point (1, 4). Substituting these coordinates in y = x3 + c gives
4 = 13 + c   ⇒   c = 3
This is called the
So the equation of the curve is y = x3 + 3. particular solution.
This example shows that if you know a point on a curve in the family,
you can find the value of c and therefore the particular solution of a
differential equation.
The rule for differentiation is usually given as
dy
y = xn   ⇒    dx = nxn−1.
It can also be given as
dy
y = xn+1   ⇒    dx = (n + 1)xn
which is the same as
Note that if 1 dy
y= n+1 = xn.
you are asked n + 1 x    ⇒    dx
to integrate an Reversing this gives you the rule for integrating xn. This is usually
expression f(x),
this will mean written using the integral symbol, . ∫
integrate with x n+1
respect to x unless ∫ xn dx =
n+1
+c for n ≠ −1
otherwise stated.
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 Integration

The integral when n = −1 is a special case. If you try to apply the general
rule, n + 1 is zero on the bottom line and so the expression you get is
undefined. Instead you use the result that:

∫x −1 dx = ∫ 1x d x = ln x + c
You will use this result later in the chapter.
Notice the use of dx on the left-hand side. This tells you that you are
integrating with respect to x. So in this case you would read the left-
hand side as ‘The integral of xn with respect to x’.
You may find it helpful to remember the rule as
» add 1 to the power
» divide by the new power
» add a constant.

Remember
to include
Worked example
the arbitrary Integrate each of the following:
constant, c, until a x6 b 5x4 c 7 d 4 x
you have enough Solution
information to find 7
a x7 + c
x5
b 5 ×  5  + c = x5 + c
a value for it.
c 7 can be thought of as 7x0 so applying the rule gives 7x + c
3
1 3
d 4 x = 4 x 2 so applying the rule gives 4 x + c = 8 x 2 + c
2
3 3
2

Worked example
dy
Given that dx = 6x2 + 2x − 5
a Find the general solution of this differential equation.
b Find the equation of the curve with this gradient function that passes
through the point (1, 7).
Solution
3 x2
a y = 6 ×  x + 2 × 2 − 5x + c
3
  = 2x3 + x2 − 5x + c
By integration
b Since (1, 7) is a point on the graph
7 = 2(1)3 + 12 − 5 + c
  ⇒   c = 9
  ⇒   y = 2x3 + x2 − 5x + 9

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Worked example
Find f(x) given that f′(x) = 2x + 4 and f(2) = −4.
Solution
f′(x) = 2x + 4
By integration
2
f(x) = 2 2x + 4x + c
= x2 + 4x + c
f(2) = −4   ⇒   −4 = (2)2 + 4(2) + c
⇒   c = −16
⇒   f(x) = x2 + 4x− 16

Worked example
dy
A curve passes through (3, 5). The gradient of the curve is given by dx = x2 − 4.
a Find y in terms of x.
b Find the coordinates of any stationary points of the graph of y.
c Sketch the curve.
Solution
dy 3
a dx = x2 − 4   ⇒   y = x3 − 4x + c
When x = 3, 5 = 9 − 12 + c
  ⇒   c = 8
3
So the equation of the curve is y = x3 − 4x + 8.
dy
b dx = 0 at all stationary points.
  ⇒   x² − 4 = 0
Substituting these
values into the   ⇒   (x + 2)(x − 2) = 0
equation to find y   ⇒   x = −2 or x = 2
1 2
The curve is a cubic The stationary points are (−2, 13 3 ) and (2, 2 3 ).
with a positive c It crosses the y-axis at (0, 8).
x3 term with two y
turning points, so it 15
has this shape:
10

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x

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 Integration

Worked example
∫
Find (x3 − 2x2) dx.
Solution

∫(x − 2x ) dx = x4 − 23x
4 3
3 2 +c

Worked example
Find ∫ (2 x + 1)( x − 4) d x
You need to Solution
multiply out the
brackets before ∫ (2 x + 1)( x − 4) d x = ∫ (2 x 2
− 7 x − 4) d x

you can integrate. 3 2

= 2 3x − 72x − 4 x + c

Exercise 15.1 1 Find y in each of the following cases:

dy dy
a dx = 4x + 2 b dx = 6x2 − 5x − 1
dy dy
c dx = 3 − 5x3 d dx = (x − 2)(3x + 2)

2 Find f(x) given that

a f′(x) = 5x + 3 b f′(x) = x4 + 2x3 − x + 8
c f′(x) = (x − 4)(x2 + 2) d f′(x) = (x − 7)2
3 Find the following integrals:
a ∫5 dx b ∫5x dx
3

c ∫(2x − 3) dx d ∫(3x − 4x + 3) dx
3

4 Find the following integrals:

a ∫(3 − x) 2 dx b ∫(2x + 1)(x − 3) dx
c ∫(x + 1) 2 dx d ∫(2x − 1) dx 2

5 Find the equation of the curve y = f(x) that passes through the specified
point for each of the following gradient functions:
dy dy
a dx = 2x− 3; (2, 4) b dx = 4 + 3x3 (4, −2)
dy
c dx = 5x − 6; (−2, 4) d f′(x) = x2 + 1; (−3, −3)
e f′(x) = (x + 1)(x − 2); (6, −2) f f′(x) = (2x + 1)2; (1, −1)

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Exercise 15.1 (cont) 6 Find the equation of the curve y = f(x) that passes through the specified
point for each of the following gradient functions:
dy
a = 2 x − 1; (1, 1)
dx
b f ′ ( x) = x − x; (4, 2)
dy
7 You are given that dx = 2x + 3.

∫
a Find (2x + 3) dx.
b Find the general solution of the differential equation.
dy
c Find the equation of the curve with gradient function dx and that
passes through (2, −1).
d Hence show that (−1, −13) lies on the curve.
8 The curve C passes through the point (3, 21) and its gradient at any point
dy
is given by dx = 3x2 − 4x + 1.
a Find the equation of the curve C.
b Show that the point (−2, −9) lies on the curve.

∫
9 a Find (4x − 1) dx.
dy
b Find the general solution of the differential equation dx = 4x − 1.
c Find the particular solution that passes through the point (−1, 4).
d Does this curve pass above, below or through the point (2, 4)?
10 The curve y = f(x) passes through the point (2, −4) and f´(x) = 2 − 3x2.
Find the value of f(−1).
11 A curve, C, has stationary points at the points where x = 0 and where
x = 2.
dy
a Explain why dx = x2 − 2x is a possible expression for the gradient of C.
dy
Give a different possible expression for dx .
b The curve passes through the point (3, 2).
dy
Given that dx is x2 − 2x, find the equation of C.

Definite integrals
So far, all the integrals you have met have been indefinite integrals such

∫
as 3x2dx; the resulting expressions for y have all finished with ‘+ c’. You
may or may not have been given additional information to enable you
to find a value for c.
By contrast, a definite integral has two limits.
3 This is the upper limit.
∫
1
3 x 2 dx
This is the lower limit.
To find the value of a definite integral, you integrate it and substitute in
the values of the limits. Then you subtract the value of the integral at the
lower limit from the value of the integral at the upper limit.

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 Integration

Worked example
3
Find
∫1
3 x 2 d x.

Solution
Subtracting the Notice how the c
value at x = 1 from
∫ 3x2x dx = x + c
2 3
3 is eliminated when
the value at x = 3 (3³ + c) − (1³ + c) = 26 so
∫ 3x dx = 26
2 you simplify this
1 expression.

When evaluating definite integrals, it is common practice to omit the c

and write
3

∫1
3 x 2 d x = [ x 3 ]13 = [3 3 ] – [1 3 ] = 26.

The definite integral is defined as

b

∫ a
f´( x) d x = [f( x)]ba = f(b) – f(a).

‘Evaluate’ means Worked example

‘find the numerical 4
value of’. Evaluate
∫ 1
( x 2 + 3) d x.

Solution
4 4

∫
3
( x 2 + 3) d x =  x + 3 x 
1  3  1

( ) ( )
3 3
= 4 + 3× 4 − 1 + 3×1
3 3
= 30

Worked example
3
Evaluate
∫ −1
( x + 1)( x – 3) d x.

Notice how you Solution

need to expand 3 3

( x +1) ( x +3) before ∫ −1

( x + 1)( x – 3) d x =
∫ −1
( x 2 − 2 x − 3) d x.

integrating it. 3
=  x − x 2 − 3x 
3

 3  −1

( ) ( )
3
3 − 3 2 − 3 × 3 − (−1) − (−1) 2 − 3 × (−1)
3
=
3 3
2
= −10 3

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Exercise 15.2 Evaluate the following definite integrals:

2 4
1 ∫
1
3x 2 d x 2 ∫ 1
4x3 dx
1 5
3 ∫
−1
  6x
2
dx 4 ∫ 1
4 dx
4 3
5 ∫ 2
( x 2 + 1) d x 6 ∫ −2
(2 x + 5) d x
5 6
7 ∫ 2
(4 x 3 – 2 x + 1) d x 8 ∫ 5
( x 2 – 5) d x
3 2
9 ∫ 1
( x 2 – 3 x + 1) d x 10 ∫ −1
( x 2 + 3) d x
−1 3
11 ∫ −4
(16 – x 2 ) d x 12 ∫ 1
( x + 1)(3 – x) d x
4 1
13 ∫ 2
(3 x( x + 2)) d x 14 ∫ −1
( x + 1)( x – 1) d x
2 1
15 ∫ −1
(x + 4x 2 ) d x 16 ∫ −1
x( x – 1)( x + 1) d x
3 1
17 ∫ −1
( x 3 + 2) d x 18 ∫ −3
(9 – x 2 ) d x

Finding the area between a graph

and the x-axis
The area under the curve, y = f(x) between x = a and x = b, the shaded
b
region in the graph below, is given by a definite integral: ∫a
f ( x ) d x.
y
y = f(x)

The area of this

b
region is ∫a f(x) dx.

0 a b x

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 Finding the area between a graph and the x-axis

Worked example
Find the area of the shaded region under the curve y = 4 − x².
y
4
y = 4 − x2

−2 0 2 x

Solution
2
 3 2
Area =
∫
−2
(4 − x 2 ) dx = 4 x − x 
 3 −2

 3  (−2) 3 
= 4 × 2 − 2  − 4 × (−2) −
 3  3 
2
= 10 units2
3

Exercise 15.3 Find the area of each of the shaded regions:

1 y 2 y

y = x2
y = 6x − x2

0 6 x

0 3 x

3 y 4 y
y = x2 − 2x
y = x3 + 1

−1 0 1 x 0 2 4 x

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Exercise 15.3 (cont)

5 y 6
y y = 5x4 – x5
y = x3 – 3x2 + 2x

0 5 x
0 1 2 x

7 y 8 y

y = 9 − x2 y = 6 + x − x2

−3 0 x −2 0 3
x
3

9 y 10 y
y = x3 − 8x2 + 16x

y = 4x2 − x4

0 x 0 4
x
−2 2

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 Finding the area between a graph and the x-axis

So far all the areas you have found have been above the x-axis. The next
example involves a region that is below the x-axis.

Worked example
The diagram shows the line y = x and two regions marked A and B.
y y=x

−2 A 0 3
x

a Calculate the areas of A and B using the formula for the area of a triangle.
0 3
b Evaluate ∫ −2
x d x and ∫ 0
x d x. What do you notice?

Evaluate ∫
3
c x d x. What do you notice?
−2

Solution
a Area of A = 1 × 2 × 2 = 2 square units.
2
Area of B = 1 × 3 × 3 = 4.5 square units.
2

( )
0 0

∫
2
b x dx =  x
−2 2 −2
= 0 − (2)
= −2

( )
3 3

∫
2
x dx =  x
0 2 0

= 4.5 − 0
= 4.5
The areas have the same numerical values as the integral but when the area
is below the x-axis, the integral is negative.

( )
3 3

∫
2
c x dx =  x = 4.5 − ( 2 )
−2 2 −2
= 4.5 − (2)
= 2.5
The areas above and below the x-axis have cancelled each other out.

This example shows you how using integration gives a negative answer
for the area of a region below the x-axis. In some contexts this will make
sense and in others it won’t, so you always have to be careful.

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Worked example
The curve y = x(x −2)(x + 2) is drawn on the axes.
y
y = x (x − 2) (x + 2)

P
0 Q x
−2 2

a Use integration to find the areas of each of the shaded regions P and Q.
2
b Evaluate ∫ −2
x( x – 2)( x + 2) d x .

c What do you notice?

Solution
0 0
a Area of P: ∫ −2
x( x – 2)( x + 2) d x = ∫ −2
( x 3 – 4 x) d x
0
= x − 2x2 
4
 
 4 −2
(−2) 4 
  =0−  − 2 × (−2) 2 
 4 
  =4
So P has an area of 4 units2.
2 2

The areas of P and

Area of Q: ∫ 0
x( x – 2)( x + 2) d x = ∫ 0
( x 3 – 4 x) d x
2
= x − 2x2 
4
Q are the same  
 4 0
since the curve
= 2 − 2 × 2 2  − 0
4
has rotational  
 4 
symmetry about   = −4
the origin. So Q also has an area of 4 units2.
2 2

Always draw a
b ∫ −2
x( x – 2)( x + 2) d x    = ∫ −2
( x 3 – 4 x) d x

sketch graph when   = x − 2x2 

4 2

you are going to  4 −2

calculate areas.  
2 4  (−2) 4
=  − 2 × 2 2  − 

− 2 × (−2) 2 
This will avoid any 4  4 
  =0
cancelling out of
areas above and c The areas of P and Q have ‘cancelled out’ .
below the x-axis.

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 Finding the area between a graph and the x-axis

Exercise 15.4 1 The sketch shows the curve y   =  x 3  –  x .

Calculate the area of the shaded region.
y
y = x3 − x

0 1 x

2 The sketch shows the curve y   =  x 3  – 4 x 2  + 3 x .

a Calculate the area of each shaded region.
b State the area enclosed between the curve and the x-axis.
y
y = x3 − 4x2 + 3x

P
0 1 Q 3 x

3 The sketch shows the curve y   =  x 4  – 2 x .

a Find the coordinates of the point A.
b Calculate the area of the shaded region.
y
y = x4 − 2x

0 A x

4 The sketch shows the curve y   =  x 3  +  x 2  – 6 x .

Work out the area between the curve and the x-axis.
y
y = x3 + x2 − 6x

−3 0 2 x

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Exercise 15.4 (cont) 5 a Sketch the curve y = x² for −3 < x < 3.

b Shade the area bounded by the curve, the lines x = −1 and x = 2 and
the x-axis.
c Find, by integration, the area of the region you have shaded.
6 a Sketch the curve y = x² – 2x for −1 < x < 3.
b For what values of x does the curve lie below the x-axis?
c Find the area between the curve and the x-axis.
7 a Sketch the curve y = x3 for −3 < x < 3.
b Shade the area between the curve, the x-axis and the line x = 2.
c Find, by integration, the area of the region you have shaded.
d Without any further calculation, state, with reasons, the value of
2

∫ −2
x 3 d x.
8 a Shade, on a suitable sketch, the region with an area given by
2

∫ −1
( x 2 + 1) d x.
b Evaluate this integral.
4
9 a Evaluate
∫1
(2 x + 1) d x.
b Interpret this integral on a sketch graph.

Integrating other functions of x

As with differentiation, there are a number of special cases when
integrating. The proofs are beyond the scope of this book, but you will
need to know and be able to use these results.

Differentiation ⇒ Basic integral ⇒ Generalised integral

Integrating dy xn+1
1 ( ax + b)n+1
1
x
(i.e. x-1)
y = x n ⇒ = nx n−1
dx ∫ xn d x =
n+1
+ c, for n ≠ −1
∫ ( ax + b)n d x =
a n+1
+ c, for n ≠ −1
does not dy 1
follow the y = sin x ⇒ = cos x
dx ∫ cos xd x = sin x + c ∫ cos ( ax + b)d x = sin ( ax + b) + c
a
general rule dy 1
since that
y = cos x ⇒ = − sin x
dx ∫ sin xd x = − cos x + c ∫ sin ( ax + b)d x = − cos ( ax + b) + c
a
would give dy x 1 ( ax+b)
x0
x
y=e ⇒ =e
dx ∫ e dx = e +c
x x
∫ e( ax+b)
dx = e
a
+c
0 which is
dy 1 1 1 1
undefined. y = ln x ⇒ =
dx x ∫ x d x = ln x + c ∫ ax + b
d x = ln ax + b + c
a

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 Integrating other functions of x

Worked example
Find the following indefinite integrals:
1

∫ ∫
1 dx
a
2x − 3
b ( 2 x − 3) 4 dx c
∫ ( 2 x − 3) 2 dx

d
∫e 2 x−3
dx e
∫ sin (2 x − 3) dx f
∫ cos (2 x − 3) dx
Solution
a Using ∫ ax1+ b dx =  a1 ln ax + b + c
gives ∫ 2 x1− 3 dx = 12 ln 2 x − 3 + c
( ax + b) n+1
b Using
∫ ( ax + b) n
dx =   1
a n+1
+c

1 ( 2 x − 3) 5 ( 2 x − 3) 5
gives
∫ (2 x − 3) dx =   2 4
5
+c=
10
+c

(ax + b) n+1
c Using ∫ (ax + b) n dx =   1
a n+1
+c
3
1 (2 x − 3) 2
∫ (2 x − dx =   1 + c =   1 (2 x − 3) 2 + c
3
gives 3) 2
2 3 3
2

d Using
∫e ax + b
dx = 1  e ax + b + c
a

∫
gives e 2 x−3
dx =   1 e 2 x − 3 + c
2

∫ sin ( ax + b) dx =   − a cos ( ax + b) + c
e Using 1

∫ sin (2 x − 3) dx =  − 2 cos (2 x − 3) + c
gives 1

f Using ∫ cos ( ax + b) dx =  1a sin ( ax + b) + c

∫ cos (2 x − 3) dx =   2 sin (2 x − 3) +c
1
gives

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 15 INTEgRaTION

Worked example
When integrating Evaluate the following definite integrals:
trigonometric 3 3 3

∫ ∫ ( 2 x + 1) ∫
1 dx 4
functions, the a b dx c e 2 x +1 d x
2 2x + 1 2 2
angles must be in π

( )
1 1

∫ ∫ ∫ sin 2 x + π d x
1 3
( 2 x + 1) −2
radians d
0
( 2 x + 1) 2 dx e
0
dx f
0 6
π

g
∫
3

0
(
cos 2 x + π d x
6 )
Solution
3 3

∫
1
a d x =  1 ln 2 x + 1 
Using ∫ 1 dx =  1 ln ax +2 b + c
2x + 1 2 2
ax + b a 1 1
= ln 7 − ln 5
∫ 1 dx
ax + b
=  1 ln ax + b
a
+c 2
1
2
= ( ln 7 − ln 5 )
2
1 7
= ln
2 5
 1 ( 2 x + 1) 5 3
∫ n+ 1
3

Using ∫ ( ax + b) dx b1 ( ax (+2 xb+) 1) 4 d x = 

n
=  a 2 n+1 + c  2 5 2
(ax + b) n+1  5 5

∫ n 1
( ax + b) dx =  a n + 1 + c = 1 7 − 5 
2 5 5
= 1368.2

∫e
3 3
2 x+1
d x =  1 e 2 x+1 
Using ∫ e ax+bdx = 1 axc+b +c
a  e
2 2 2

∫ e ax+bdx = a1   e ax+b + c =   1 (e 7 − e 5 )
2
1
1  3
( 2 x + 1) 2 
∫ (2 x +
1
d 1) 2 dx =  1
0 2 3 
 2 0

= 1 3 2 − 1 2 
3 3

3 
= 1.40 (3s.f.)
1
 −1 1
e
∫ ( 2 x + 1)
0
−2
d x =  1 ( 2 x + 1) 
2 −1  0

= − 1 [ 3−1 − 1−1 ]
2
=  1
3
π π
f ∫3
( )
sin 2 x + d x =  − 1 cos 2 x + π 
π
2
3
( )
Using ∫ sin ( ax + b) dx 1 6 6 0
=  − a cos ( ax + b) + c
0

= − 1 cos 5 π + 1 cos π
∫ sin (ax + b) dx = − a1 cos (ax + b) + c 2 6 2 6

=  3
2

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 Integrating other functions of x

Using π

( ) ( )
π

g ∫ cos 2 x + 6
π
d x =  1 sin 2 x + π 
3 3

∫ cos (ax + b) dx =  a sin (ax + b) +c

1 0 2 6 0

= 1 sin 5 π   −   1 sin π
∫ cos (ax + b) dx =  a1 sin (ax + b) +c =0
2 6 2 6

Exercise 15.5 1 Find the following indefinite integrals:

a ∫ 3x1+ 1 dx b ∫ ( 3x + 1) dx 4
c ∫ e dx 3 x +1

d ∫ sin ( 3x + 1) dx e ∫ cos ( 3x + 1) dx f ∫ x −3 3 dx
g ∫ ( 2 x − 1) dx 3
h ∫ 4e dx 2 x−3
i ∫ 3sin ( 3x) dx
∫ 4 cos ( 2x ) dx ∫ ( x − 2) dx ∫ ( 2 x − 1) dx
3 3
j k 2 l 2

2 Evaluate the following definite integrals:

4 4 4

∫ ∫ ∫
1
a dx b ( 3 x + 1) 4 d x c e 3 x +1 d x
2 3x + 1 2 2

π π

( ) ( )
8

∫ sin 3 x + π d x
∫ cos 3 x + π d x
∫
3 3 4
d e f dx
0 3 0 3 4 x−2
π

( )
3 2

∫ ∫ ∫ sin 2 x − π d x
2
g ( 2 x + 3) 4 d x h 10e −2 x d x i
−1 0 0 4
π
j
∫0
2
(
cos 2 x − π d x
4 )
Past−paper questions
dy
1 (a) A curve is such that = ae1 – x – 3x2, where a is a constant. At the
dx
point (1, 4), the gradient of the curve is 2.
(i) Find the value of a. [1]
(ii) Find the equation of the curve. [5]
∫
1
(b) (i) Find (7 x + 8) dx.
3 [2]
8 1
(ii) Hence evaluate ∫
0
(7 x + 8) 3 dx. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q10 June 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q10 June 2011

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 15 INTEgRaTION

2 y
D
y = 3x + 10

A
B

y = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 10
C
O x

The diagram shows parts of the line y = 3x + 10 and the curve

y = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 10. The line and the curve both pass through the
point A on the y-axis. The curve has a maximum at the point B and
a minimum at the point C. The line through C, parallel to the y-axis,
intersects the line y = 3x + 10 at the point D.
(i) Show that the line AD is a tangent to the curve at A. [2]
(ii) Find the x-coordinate of B and of C. [3]
(iii) Find the area of the shaded region ABCD, showing all your
working. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 11 Q9 June 2015
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 11 Q9 June 2015
3 The diagram below shows part of the curve y = 3 x − 14 + 322 cutting
x
the x-axis at the points P and Q.
y

y = 3x − 14 +322
x
O
P Q x

(iii) State the x-coordinates of P and Q. [1]

32
∫
(iv) Find (3 x − 14 +
x2
) d x and hence determine the area of the
shaded region. [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 22 Q12 November 2014
(Part question: parts (i) and (ii) omitted)
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 22 Q12 November 2014
(Part question: parts (i) and (ii) omitted)
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 Integration

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H understand integration as the reverse process of differentiation
H evaluate definite integrals and apply integration to the evaluation
of plane areas
1 1
H integrate sums of terms in powers of x including and
x ax + b
H integrate functions of the form (ax + b)n for any rational n,
sin(ax + b), cos(ax + b), eax + b

Key points
n+1
= xn   ⇒   y = x
dy
✔  + c for n ≠ −1
dx n+1
This is an indefinite integral.
b n +1 b
x n d x =  x  = b n+1 − a n+1 for n ≠ −1
✔  ∫a  n + 1  a n+1

This is a definite integral.

✔  The area of a region between a curve y = f ( x ) and the x-axis is
b
given by ∫a
y d x.
b b
Area of A = ∫ a
y dx = ∫
a
f( x) d x

y = f(x)
A

x
0 a b

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 15 INTEgRaTION

✔  Areas below the x-axis give rise to negative values for the
integral.
✔  Integrals of other functions where c is a constant:

Function y = f ( x ) Integral ∫ y dx
1 ln x + c
x
1 1 ln ax + b + c
ax + b a
n+1
( ax + b) n 1 ( ax + b) +c
a n+1

e ax+b 1 e ax+b + c
a

sin ( ax + b) − 1 cos ( ax + b) + c
a

cos ( ax + b) 1 sin ( ax + b) + c
a

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 16 Kinematics
In future, children won’t perceive the stars as mere twinkling points of
light: they’ll learn that each is a Sun, orbited by planets fully as interesting
as those in our Solar system.
Martin Rees (1942 – )

Discussion point
A spacecraft leaves the Earth on a journey to Jupiter. Its initial
direction is directly towards Jupiter. Will it travel in a straight line?

Displacement and velocity

dy
You know that dx represents the rate of change of y with respect to x. It
gives the gradient of the x−y graph, where x is plotted on the horizontal
axis and y on the vertical axis.
The following graph represents the distance, s metres, travelled by a
cyclist along a country road in time, t seconds. Time is measured along
the horizontal axis and distance from the starting point is measured on
the vertical axis. When he reaches E the cyclist takes a short break and
then returns home along the same road.

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 16 KINEmaTICs

Velocity (m s−1) Displacement (metres) Displacement (metres)

500
E E
C D D C
B B
A A
s0 100 200 300 t
500 Time (seconds)
E E
Speed vis given by
C the
D gradient of theDdistance−time
C graph. In this
10.0
graph the axes
B are labelled s and t, rather thanB y and x, so the gradient
(representing
7.5
A
the speed) is given by ds . A dt
5.0 0
A graph showing displacement
100 (the
200 distance from
300 t the starting point)
2.5quite different from
looks one
Time showing the total distance travelled.
(seconds)
0
v 100 200 300 t
−2.5
10.0 Time (seconds)
−5.0
7.5
−7.5
5.0
−10.0
Velocity (m s−1)

2.5
0
100 200 300 t
−2.5
Time (seconds)
−5.0
−7.5
−10.0

Velocity is given by the gradient of a displacement−time graph.

Acceleration is ( change in velocity
time taken ) and this is given by the gradient of a
velocity–time graph.

Motion in a straight line

You will be treating In the work that follows you will use displacement, which measures
position, rather than distance travelled.
each object as
a particle, i.e. Before doing anything else you need to make two important decisions:
something with 1 where you will take your origin
a mass but no 2 which direction you will take as positive.
dimension.

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 Displacement and velocity

Some options are:

+ direction O

O + direction + direction
O

Think about the motion of a tennis ball that is thrown up vertically and
allowed to fall to the ground, as in the diagram below. Assume that the ball
leaves your hand at a height of 1 m above the ground and rises a further
This means it is 2 m to the highest point. At this point the ball is instantaneously at rest.
about to change
direction through
180°. 2m

1m

The displacement−time graph of the ball’s flight is shown below. For this
graph, displacement is measured from ground level with upwards as the
positive direction.
s
Displacement (metres)

Time (seconds) t

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 16 KINEmaTICs

Note
Be careful not to confuse the terms velocity and speed. Speed has magnitude
(size) but no direction. Velocity has direction and magnitude. For example,
taking upwards as the positive direction,
• a speed of 3 m s−1 upwards is a velocity +3 m s−1
• a speed of 3 m s−1 downwards is a velocity of −3 m s−1.
+

3 m s−1

3 m s−1

The table gives the terms that you will be using, together with their
definitions, units and the letters that are commonly used to represent
those quantities.

Quantity Definition S.I. unit Unit Notation

symbol
Time Measured from a second s t
fixed origin
Distance Distance travelled metre m x, y, s
in a given time
Speed Rate of change metre per m s−1
of distance second v = dx etc.
dt

Displacement Distance from a metre m x, y, s, h

fixed origin
Velocity Rate of change metre per m s−1
of displacement second v = ds
dt

Acceleration Rate of change metre per m s−2 2

of velocity second per a = dv = d 2s etc.
dt dt
second

Like velocity, acceleration can also be either positive or negative. A

negative acceleration is an object either moving in the positive direction
and slowing down, or moving in the negative direction and speeding up.

Motion with variable acceleration: the general case

If the motion involves variable acceleration, you must use calculus. You
should know and be able to use these relationships.
2
v = ds a = dv = d 2s
dt dt dt

These relationships are used in the next two examples.

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 Displacement and velocity

Worked example
a The displacement in metres, s, of a sports car from its initial position during
the first 4 seconds is given by
s   =  12t 2  –  t 3 .
Find:
i an expression for the velocity in terms of t
ii the initial velocity
iii the velocity after 4 seconds
iv an expression for the acceleration in terms of t
v the accelerations after 4 seconds.
b The national speed limit in Great Britain is 70 mph.
At the end of 4 seconds, would the driver of this sports car be breaking the
British national speed limit?
Solution
a i v = ds
dt
= 24t − 3t2
ii When t = 0, v = 0
The initial velocity is 0 m s−1.
iii When t = 4, v = 24 × 4 − 3 × 42
= 48
The velocity, after 4 seconds is 48 m s−1.
iv a = dv
dt
  = 24 − 6t
v When t = 4, a = 24 − 6 × 4
=0
The acceleration after 4 seconds is 0 m s−2.
b 48 m s−1 = 48 × 60 × 60
1000
= 172.8 km h−1
172.8 km h−1 ≈ 5 × 172.8
8
= 108 mph
The driver would be breaking the British speed limit.

Worked example
A particle travels in a straight line such that t seconds after passing through a
fixed point O, its displacement s metres is given by s = 5 + 2t3 − 3t2.
a Find:
i expressions for the velocity and acceleration in terms of t
ii the times when it is at rest.
b Sketch the velocity−time graph.

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 16 KINEmaTICs

c Find:
i how far it is from O when it is at rest
ii the initial acceleration of the particle.
Solution
a i v = ds = 6t2 − 6t
dt
Notice that the
a = dv = 12t − 6
acceleration varies dt
with time. ii The particle is at rest when v = 0.
⇒ 6t2 − 6t = 0
⇒ 6t(t − 1) = 0
⇒ t = 0 or t = 1
So the particle is at rest initially and after 1 second.
b The graph of v against t is a ∪-shaped curve that crosses the t axis at t = 0 and
t = 1.

The negative values

of the velocity show
that the particle is
O
moving towards O.
1 t

c i When t = 0, s = 5.
When t = 1, s = 5 + 2 − 3
= 4.
The particle is at rest initially when it is 5 m from O
and after 1 second when it is instantaneously at rest 4 m from O.
ii When t = 0, a = −6. The initial acceleration is −6 m s−2.

Discussion point
How would you interpret the negative acceleration in the above
example?

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 Displacement and velocity

Exercise 16.1 1 In each of the following cases t  0. The quantities are given in SI units,
so distances are in metres and times in seconds.:
i find expressions for the velocity and acceleration at time t
ii use these expressions to find the initial position, velocity and
acceleration
iii find the time and position when the velocity is zero.
a s = 5t² – t + 3
b s = 3t – t³
c s = t4 – 4t – 6
d s = 4t³ – 3t + 5
e s = 5 – 2t² + t
2 A particle is projected in a straight line from a point O. After t seconds
its displacement, s metres, from O is given by s = 3t2 – t3.
a Write expressions for the velocity and acceleration at time t.
b Find the times when the body is instantaneously at rest.
c What distance is travelled between these times?
d Find the velocity when t = 4 and interpret your result.
e Find the initial acceleration.
3 A ball is thrown upwards and its height, h metres, above ground after
t seconds is given by h = 1 + 4t – 5t².
a From what height was the ball projected?
b Write an expression for the velocity of the ball at time t.
c When is the ball instantaneously at rest?
d What is the greatest height reached by the ball?
e After what length of time does the ball hit the ground?
f Sketch the graph of h against t.
g At what speed is the ball travelling when it hits the ground?
4 In the early stages of its motion the height of a rocket, h metres, is given
by h = 1 t 4, where t seconds is the time after launch.
6
a Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration of the rocket at
time t.
b After how long is the acceleration of the rocket 72 m s−2?
c Find the height and velocity of the rocket at this time.
5 The velocity of a moving object at time t seconds is given by v m s−1,
where v = 15t – 2t² – 25.
a Find the times when the object is instantaneously at rest.
b Find the acceleration at these times.
c Find the velocity when the acceleration is zero.
d Sketch the graph of v against t.

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 16 KINEmaTICs

Finding displacement from velocity

and velocity from acceleration
ds
In the previous section, you used the result v = ; in other words when
dt
s was given as an expression in t, you differentiated to find v. Therefore
when v is given as an expression in t, integrating v gives an expression
for s,

∫
s = v dt.
dv
Similarly, you can reverse the result a = to give
dt

∫
v = a dt.

Worked example
The acceleration is A particle P moves in a straight line so that at time t seconds its acceleration is
(6t + 2) m s−2.
not constant.
P passes through a point O at time t = 0 with a velocity of 3 m s−1.
Find:
a the velocity of P in terms of t
b the distance of P from O when t = 2.
Solution
a v= ∫ a dt
= ∫ (6t + 2) dt
= 3t2 + 2t+ c
When t = 0, v = 3
    ⇒ c = 3.
c represents the
initial velocity. Therefore v = 3t2 + 2t + 3.
b s= ∫ v dt
= ∫ (3t + 2t + 3) dt
2

= t3 + t2 + 3t + k
k is the value of When t = 0, s = 0
the displacement     ⇒ k=0
when t = 0.     ⇒ s = t3 + t2 + 3t
When t = 2, s = 8 + 4 + 6
= 18.
When t = 2 the particle is 18 m from O.

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 Finding displacement from velocity and velocity from acceleration

Worked example
The acceleration of a particle a m s−2, at time t seconds is given by a = 6 − 2t.
This tells you that
the acceleration When t = 0, the particle is at rest at a point 4 m from the origin O.
varies with time. a Find expressions for the velocity and displacement in terms of t.
b Find when the particle is next at rest, and its displacement from O at that time.
Solution
a v= ∫ a dt
= ∫ (6 − 2t) dt
= 6t − t2 + c
When t = 0, v = 0 (given)   ⇒   c = 0
Therefore v = 6t − t2.
s= ∫ v dt
= ∫(6t − t ) dt2
3
t
= 3t2 − +k
3
When t = 0, s = 4 (given)   ⇒   k = 4
3
Therefore s = 3t2 − t + 4.
3
b The particle is at rest when v = 0   ⇒ 6t − t2 = 0
⇒ t(6 − t) = 0
⇒ t = 0 or t = 6
The particle is next at rest after 6 seconds.
3
When t = 6, s = 3 × 62 − 6 + 4
3
= 40
The particle is 40 m from O after 6 seconds.

Worked example
A particle is projected along a straight line.

Its velocity, v m s−¹, after t seconds is given by v = 2t + 3.

a Sketch the graph of v against t.
b Find the distance the particle moves in the third second.

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 16 KINEmaTICs

Solution
a v = 2t + 3 is a straight line with gradient 2 that passes through (0, 3).
v

v = 2t + 3

0 t
b Method 1
The graph shows that the velocity is always positive, so the velocity and speed
are the same. The distance travelled is equal to the area under the graph.
The third second starts when t = 2 and finishes when t = 3.
Using the formula for the area of a trapezium,

distance = 1 (7 + 9) × 1
2
= 8 m.

Method 2
The area under a graph can also be found using integration.
b
Distance =
∫ v dt
a
3
  =
∫ (2t + 3) dt
2
  = [ t 2 + 3t ]32
  = [9 + 9] − [4 + 6]
  = 8m

Discussion point
● Which method did you prefer to use in the previous example?
● Which method would you need to use if v was given by v = 3t2 + 2?
● Is acceleration constant in this case? How can you tell?
● Could you have used the constant acceleration (suvat) equations?
● Can you use calculus when acceleration is constant?

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 Finding displacement from velocity and velocity from acceleration

Exercise 16.2 1 Find expressions for the velocity, v, and displacement, s, at time t in each
of the following cases:
a a = 2 − 6t; when t = 0, v = 1 and s = 0
b a = 4t; when t = 0, v = 4 and s = 3
c a = 12t2 − 4; when t = 0, v = 2 and s = 1
d a = 2; when t = 0, v = 2 and s = 4
e a = 4 + t; when t= 0, v = 1 and s = 3
2 A particle P sets off from the origin, O, with a velocity of 9 m s−1 and
moves along the x-axis.
At time t seconds, its acceleration is given by a = (6t− 12) m s−2.
a Find expressions for the velocity and displacement at time t.
b Find the time when the particle returns to its starting point.
3 A particle P starts from rest at a fixed origin O when t = 0.
The acceleration a m s−2 at time t seconds is given by a = 6t − 6.
a Find the velocity of the particle after 1 second.
b Find the time after leaving the origin when the particle is next
instantaneously at rest, and the distance travelled to this point.
4 The speed, v m s−1, of a car during braking is given by v = 30 − 5t, where
t seconds is the time since the brakes were applied.
a Sketch a graph of v against t.
b How long does the car take to stop?
c How far does it travel while braking?
5 A particle P moves in a straight line, starting from rest at the point O.
t seconds after leaving O, the acceleration, a m s−2, of P is given by
a = 4 + 12t.
a Find an expression for the velocity of the particle at time t.
b Calculate the distance travelled by P in the third second.
6 The velocity v m s−1, of a particle P at time t seconds is given by
v = t3 − 4t2 + 4t + 2.
P moves in a straight line.
a Find an expression for the acceleration, a m s−2, in terms of t.
b Find the times at which the acceleration is zero, and say what is
happening between these times.
c Find the distance travelled in the first three seconds.

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 16 KINEmaTICs

Past−paper questions
1 A particle P moves in a straight line such that, t s after leaving a
point O, its velocity v m s−1 is given by v = 36t − 3t 2 for t  0.
(i) Find the value of t when the velocity of P stops increasing. [2]
(ii) Find the value of t when P comes to instantaneous rest. [2]
(iii) Find the distance of P from O when P is at instantaneous rest. [3]
(iv) Find the speed of P when P is again at O. [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 12 Q12 June 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 12 Q12 June 2013

2 A particle travels in a straight line so that, t s after passing through a

fixed point O, its velocity, v ms–1, is given by v = 3 + 6 sin 2t .
π
(i) Find the velocity of the particle when t = . [1]
4
(ii) Find the acceleration of the particle when t = 2. [3]
The particle first comes to instantaneous rest at the point P.
(iii) Find the distance OP. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 23 Q9 November 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 23 Q9 November 2013
3 A particle travels in a straight line so that, t s after passing through a
fixed point O, its displacement s m from O is given by s = ln(t2 + 1).
(i) Find the value of t when s = 5. [2]
(ii) Find the distance travelled by the particle during the third
second. [2]
(iii) Show that, when t = 2, the velocity of the particle is 0.8 ms–1. [2]
(iv) Find the acceleration of the particle when t = 2. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics 4037
Paper 13 Q10 November 2010
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics 0606
Paper 13 Q10 November 2010

Learning outcomes
Now you should be able to:
H apply differentiation and integration to kinematics problems that
involve displacement, velocity and acceleration of a particle
moving in a straight line with variable or constant acceleration,
and the use of x–t and v–t graphs.

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 Kinematics

Key points
Quantity Definition S.I. unit Unit Notation
symbol
Time Measured from a second s t
fixed origin
Distance Distance travelled metre m x, y, s
in a given time
Speed Rate of change metre per m s−1
of distance second v = dx etc.
dt

Displacement Distance from a metre m x, y, s, h

fixed origin
Velocity Rate of change metre per m s−1
of displacement second v = ds
dt

Acceleration Rate of change metre per m s−2 2

of velocity second per a = dv = d 2s etc.
dt dt
second

✔ For a displacement–time graph, the gradient is the velocity.

✔ For a velocity–time the gradient is the acceleration and the area
under the graph is the displacement.
✔ For a distance–time graph the gradient is the speed.
✔ For general motion:

∫
• s = v dt (Displacement is the area under a velocity−time graph.)
• v= ∫ a dt

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 maThEmaTICal NOTaTION

Mathematical notation
Miscellaneous symbols
= is equal to
≠ is not equal to
≡ is identical to or is congruent to
≈ is approximately equal to
~ is distributed as
≅ is isomorphic to
∝ is proportional to
< is less than
 is less than or equal to
> is greater than
 is greater than or equal to
∞ infinity
⇒ implies
⇐ is implied by
⇔ implies and is implied by (is equivalent to)

Operations
a+b a plus b
a–b a minus b
a × b, ab a multiplied by b
a ÷ b, a a divided by b
b
n

∑a i a1 + a2 + … + an
i =1

a the non-negative square root of a, for a ∈ ℝ, a ⩾ 0

n
a the (real) nth root of a, for a ∈ ℝ, where n
a ⩾ 0 for a ⩾ 0
|a| the modulus of a
n! n factorial
 n n!
 r  , r the binomial coefficient r !( n − r )! for n, r ∈ ℤ and 0 ⩽ r ⩽ n
nC

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 Mathematical notation

Functions
f(x) the value of the function f at x
f:A→B f is a function under which each element of set
A has an image in set B
f:x↦y the function f maps the element x to the element y
f –1 the inverse function of the one-one function f
gf the composite function of f and g, which is
defined by gf(x) = g(f(x))
lim f(x) the limit of f(x) as x tends to a
x→ a

∆x, δx an increment of x
dy
the derivative of y with respect to x
dx
dny the nth derivative of y with respect to x
dx n
f′(x), f ″(x), …, f n(x) t he first, second, …, nth derivatives of f(x) with
respect to x

∫ ydx the indefinite integral of y with respect to x

∫ y dx
b
the definite integral of y with respect to x between
the limits x = a and x = b
a

x ,  x¨ … t he first, second, … derivatives of x with respect

to t

Exponential and logarithmic functions

e base of natural logarithms
ex, exp(x) exponential function of x
logax logarithm to the base a of x
ln x natural logarithm of x
lg x, log10 x logarithm of x to base 10

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 maThEmaTICal NOTaTION

Circular functions
sin, cos, tan  the circular functions

cosec, sec, cot 

sin −1 , cos −1 , tan −1   

 the inverse circular functions }
cosec −1 , sec −1 , cot −1 

Vectors
a the vector a

AB the vector represented in magnitude and direction by

the directed line segment AB

â a unit vector in the direction of a

i, j unit vectors in the directions of the Cartesian

coordinate axes

 x
  the vector xi + yj
 y

| a |, a the magnitude of a

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 Answers
The questions, with the exception of those from past question papers, and all example answers that

Answers
appear in this book were written by the authors. Cambridge Assessment International Education bears no
responsibility for the example answers to questions taken from its past question papers which are contained
in this publication.

Chapter 1 Functions b
Input Output
Discussion point Page 1
2 Ö5
The amount of petrol, in litres, is measured and the
cost is calculated from it. 4 3
6 Ö13
Discussion point Page 2
The numbers not appearing as final digits are 2, 3, 7, 8. 8 Ö17

Exercise 1.1 Page 10 10 Ö21

1 a 13
b −2 x f(x)
c 4
d 5.5 or
11 c Any numbers less than (− 1 ) must be excluded
2 2
2 a 36 as an input.
b 16 6 a {1, 4, 7, 10, 13}
c 4
25 b {−3, − 5 , −2, − 3 , −1}
d 2 2
4 c { y : y ≥ 0}
3 a 13
d { y : y ≥ 6}
b 28
c 1 7 a 0
d 4 b x<1
3
c 1.5
4 a 4
b −2 d { x : x < − 2 or x > 2}
c 2
13 8 a f −1 ( x ) = x + 2
d 7
6 2x − 4
b g −1 ( x ) =
3
5 a c h −1 ( x ) = x + 1 for x ≥ 0
Input Output d f −1 ( x ) = x − 4 for x ≥ 4
1 Ö3 9 a f −1
( x) = + 4
x
3
3 Ö7 b y
5 Ö11 4
y = f(x)
7 Ö15
2
9 Ö19 y = f-1(x)

x f(x)
−2 2 4 x

−2

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 10 a See the curve y = f(x) on the graph in part c b
below. y
6
b f−1(−5) =3 y = x3
f−1(0) = 2 3
f−1(3) = 1 4 y = √x
f−1(4) = 0
Answers

c y
2
6
3
y = √x
4 x
y=x –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 –2
y = f–1 (x)
–4
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

–2 –6
y = f(x)
5 a −1 or 7
–4
b −4 or 3
c −1 or 7
–6 3
d −4 or 0
Exercise 1.2 Page 14 6 a y
1 a 14 4
b 3x2 + 2
c 4x2
y=x+2
2
d 12(x2) + 2
2 a 17
b −1 −2 2 4 x
c 9 − 2x
−2
d 4 − 2x + 1
3 a x+8
b 8x4
b y
c 2x + 1 4
2x + 3
1
d y = |x + 2|
(4 x 2 + 32 x + 65) 2
4 a y
4
y = 3x − 1
−2 2 4 x
2
−2
y= x+1
3
−2 2 4 x

−2

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 c y d y
3
6
y = |x + 2| + 3 y = | cos x| + 1
2
4

Answers
1
2

90° 180° 270° 360°x

−4 −2 2 4 x
−1
7 a y 8 The equation for graph 2 is y = 2 x − 1
2 The equation for graph 3 is y = 2 x − 1 + 3
9 a y = x2 + 1
1 y = cos x b y= x−1
10 a i y
90° 180° 270° 360°x
6
−1

y = 1 − 2x
b y 2
3

2 −4 −2 2 4 x
ii y
1 6
y = cos x + 1

4
90° 180° 270° 360°x

−1 y = |1 − 2 x|
2
c y
2
−4 −2 2 4 x
y = | cos x|
1 iii y
2

90° 180° 270° 360°x

−2 2 4 x
−1
y = −|1 − 2 x|
−2

−4

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 iv y iii y
4 4
y = 3 − |1 − 2 x|
y = 3 |x |
2 2
Answers

−2 2 4 x −2 2 4 x
y = 3 − |x |
−2 −2

b y
4
b i ( ± 12 , 12 )
y = |3x + 1| − 2 ii ( ± 2 , 4 )
2 3 3

iii ( ± 3 , 9 )
4 4
−2 2 4 x
Past−paper questions Page 16
−2 1 (i) 6
4
(ii) 4x
3x + 1
11 a i y
(iii) g −1 ( x ) = x 2 − 1
4
(Domain) x > 0
(Range) g −1 ( x ) > −1
2
y = |x| (iv) y

−2 2 4 x g–1(x)

−2
y = 1 − |x|
g (x)
ii y
4
−1 0 x
y = 2 |x|
2 −1

−2 2 4 x

−2 y = 2 − |x|

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 2 i and ii b i (8 + x)(2 − x)
ii (−3, 25)
y
iii maximum
10
y = 8x iv y
8

6
y = |3x – 5|

Answers
4
(−3, 25)
2

16
–2 –1 1 2 3 x
–2

iii 8 x = ± ( 3 x − 5 )
leading to x = 5 or 0.455 −8 2 x
11

Chapter 2 Quadratic functions c i ( 5 + x )(1 − 2 x )

Discussion point Page 19
3.22 and 0.78
(
ii − 9 , 121
4 8 )
iii maximum
Exercise 2.1 Page 27 iv y
1 a −5, 4  9 , 121
− −
b 2, 3  4 8 
c −4, 7
d −7, −6
5
2 a 1, 1
2 x
−5 1
b − 2,1 2
3 3
c −1, 7
2
d −5, − 2
3
3 a ±13
b ± 11
2
c ±5 d i ( 2 x + 3)( x + 4 )
4
d
4 a
± 3
2
i (x + 5)(x + 2)
(
ii − 11 , − 25
4 8 )
iii minimum
(
ii − 7 , − 9
2 4 ) iv y
iii minimum
iv y

12

10 x
–4 – 32
 11, 25
– – 
x  4 8
–5 –2
 7 , 9
− − 
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 5 a ( x + 2 )2 + 5
b ( x − 5 ) 2 − 29
8 c i (− 12 , − 192 )
ii minimum
( )
2
c x + 5 − 53 iii y = 2x2 + 2x − 9
2 4 y
( )
2
d x− 9 − 89
2 4
Answers

6 a 2(x − 3) −13
2

b 3(x + 2)2 + 8

c 4(x − 1)2 + 1

( )
2
d 2 x + 9 − 33
4 8
7 a −2 ± 13
x
−9
b 3.5 ± 14.25  1 , 19
− − 
 2 2
c −3 ± 27 = − 3 ± 27
2 2 4
d 1.5 ± 6.75
8 a i (−3, 6) 8 d i (4, 4)
ii minimum ii minimum
iii iii y
y
y = x2 + 6 x + 15

y = x2 − 8x + 20
20

15

(4, 4)
(−3,6)
x
x

9 a y
8 b i (1, 9)
ii maximum
iii 6
y
(1, 9) 4
8
y = x2 − 7x + 10
x 2

2 4 6 x

–2
y = 8 + 2x – x2

Range  − 9 , 4 
 4 

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 b y b no real roots
f(x) = 2x2 – x – 6 c −0.18, −2.82
4 d 9, 5
4 a One real solution.
b No roots.
2
c No real roots.

Answers
d Distinct roots.
e No real roots.
−2 −1 1 2 x f Equal roots.
5 a The line is a tangent to the curve at (−3, −27).
−2
b Does not meet.

−4
c ( )( )
2, 2 3, 3
3 3 2 2
d (1.84, 6.68) (8.16, 19.32)
e (−4, 12) (1, 2)
−6 f Tangent touches at (1.5, 18).
g Does not meet.
Range  − 49 , 4  h Does not meet.
 8 
6 a x < 1 or x > 5
Real−world activity Page 27 b −4 ≤ a ≤ 1
1 y c −2 < y < 2
8 d x≠2
e −4 < a < 2
6
f y < −1 or y > 1
3
4
Real world activity page 37
2 4x2
1 y=4−
49
x 4x2
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6 8 10 y= −4 +
49
2 Height 4 m, span 20 m x2
y= 3−
3 80y = 400 − x2 12
x2
Discussion point Page 32 y= −3 +
12
Lines parallel to the y−axis are straight vertical lines
8x2
and as such a quadratic curve will always intersect 2 y= 2−
49
them rather than touch them.
8x2
y= −2 +
Exercise 2.2 Page 36 49
1 a −2, −1 3 x2
y= −
b ±3 2 6
c none
3 x2
d 0, 5 y=− +
2 6
2
e −6, 3
Past−paper questions Page 38
f −5 (repeated)
1 (i) 2( x − 1 ) 2 + 47 5.875
g − 1, 1 4 8
3 5
(ii) 47 is minimum value when x = 1
h −3, 1 8 4
3
2 a i; ii −2.32, 4.32 2 4 < k < 12 or k > 4 and k < 12
b i; ii −1, 0 3 mx + 2 = x 2 + 12 x + 18
c i; ii −2.68, 1.68 x 2 + (12 − m ) x + 16 = 0
d i; ii −2.27, 1.77 (12 − m) 2 = 4 × 16
3 a −2.43, 0.93 leading to m = 4, 20

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 c y
Chapter 3 Equations, inequalities 4
and graphs
2 y = |x – 2|
Discussion point Page 41
You can describe it in words, as in ‘both x and
Answers

y must be between −1 and 1’ or you can do it in

symbols, for example −1 < x < 1 and –1 < y < 1. −2 2 4 x
Another way with symbols is to use the modulus y=x – 2
−2
sign and write x < 1 and y < 1 . You could even
use set notation and write it as x < 1 ∪ y < 1 .
2 a y
Discussion point Page 42 4
A small family car such as a Volkswagen Golf
has an average consumption of 5.3 litres per 100
kilometres, so the fuel economy is at worst 0.530 2 y = | 2x|
litres per kilometre which is remarkably similar to
Vettel’s Ferrari Formula 1 car.
f −2 2 4 x
E=
d y = 2x
−2
E = 5.3
100
E = 0.530
b y
Find out the fuel consumption of other models of 4
road vehicles and see how they compare.

Discussion point Page 44 2

y = | 2x – 1|
Using three points helps to eliminate errors. A
mistake in the calculation using only two points
would give a completely different line. −2 2 4 x
Exercise 3.1 Page 45 y = 2x –1
−2
1 a y
4
c y
4
2
y = |x|
2
y = | 2x – 2|
−2 2 4 x
y=x −2 2 4 x
−2
y = 2x –2
−2
b y
4
y = |x – 1| 3 a y
2
2
y = |2 – x |
−2 2 4 x 1
y=x –1
−2 y = 2–x
−2 −1 0 1 2 x

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 b y 6 a y
4
8

2 y = | 3 – x|
6

Answers
−2 2 4 x
2
−2 y= 3–x

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
c y −2
4
−4
2 y = | 4 − x|
b −5, 2
7 a y
−2 2 4 6 x
8
y= 4−x
−2
6

4 a y 4
8
2
6

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
4
−2
2
−4

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x b −2, 58
−2 8
y
−4
8

b −6, 4
6
5 a y y = |x + 1|

8 4
y = |x − 1|
6 2

4
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
2
−2

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
−4
−2

−4 x=0

b −4, 6
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 9 3 a −3 < x < 5
y b x < −3 or x > 5
c −4 < x < 1
8
y = |x + 5| d x < −4 or x > 1
6 4 a y
Answers

4
4

2
2 y = |x − 5|

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
−2
−2
−4
−4
−6
x=0
b y
10 y
4
8
2
6

y= |2x + 4|
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
4
y= | 2x − 4|
−2
2
−4

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x −6
−2
c y
−4
4

x=0
2

Discussion point Page 48

–(x + 7) = 4x is the same as x + 7 = –4x, which is −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
already being considered.
−2
Discussion point Page 49
It is easier to plot points with integer coordinates. −4

Exercise 3.2 Page 50 −6

1 a x−6 9
b x − 6  10
c x − 6  11
2 a −1  x  3
b −1  x  5
c −1  x  7

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 c i y
d y
8
4
y = |2x + 1| 6
y = |2x − 1|
2
4

Answers
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x 2
−2
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−4 −2

−6 −4

5 a i y
ii x>0
8 d i y
y = |x + 1|
6 8

4 6 y = |2x − 1|
y = |2x + 1|
2 y = |x − 1| 4

2
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
−2 x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−4 −2

−4
ii x>0

b i y ii x < 0
8 6 a y>x+1
y = | x + 1| b y<=2–x
6
c y>= x
4
Exercise 3.3 Page 53
2 y = | x − 1| 1 a 4
b 4
c 25
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x d no solutions
−2 2 a
y
−4
y = x (x − 2) (x + 2)
10
ii x<0

x
−2 2

−10

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 b y 3 a y
4
y = |x (x − 2) (x + 2)|
10
Answers

2
x
−2 2 y =1

−10 x
−4 −2

c
y = 3 (2x − 1) (x + 1) (x + 3) y
−2

10

−4

x ≥ 0.148
–4 –2 x
b y
4

–10

d y 2
20
y = | 3 (2x − 1) (x + 1) (x + 3)|

10
−4 −2 x

y = −1

–3 –2 –1 1 x −2

−4

x < −3.247 or −1.555 < x < −0.198

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 c y Past−paper questions Page 55
1 (i) 40 y
8 35
30
6 25
20

Answers
15
4
10
y =2 5
2 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
(ii) Two
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 x
2 (i) y
−2 6

−4

−6

−8

−1.856 < x < 0.678 or x > 3.177 –3 2 x

(−3, 0), (2, 0), (0, 6).
d y
8 (
(ii) − 1 ,  25
2 4 )
(iii) 6.25 < x  14
6
3 9 x 2 + 2 x − 1 < ( x + 1) 2
4
8x2 < 2
−1 < x < 1
2
2 2
–6 –4 –2 2 4 x
–2 Chapter 4 Indices and surds
–4 Discussion point Page 58
7 + 72 + 73 + 74. If you do the calculations the answer
–6
works out to be 2800.
x < −2.125 or 1.363 < x < 2.762
Exercise 4.1 Page 60
4 a y = ( x + 3)( x + 1)( x − 1)
1 a 210
b y = ( 2 x + 3)( 2 x + 1)( 2 x − 1)
b 51
c y = ( x + 2 )( x − 2 ) 2 c 33
5 a y = ( x + 2 )( x − 1)( x − 2 ) d 69
b y = ( x + 3)( x + 2 )( x − 1) e 46
f 5−4
c y = ( x + 2 )( 2 x − 1)( x − 2 )
2 a 6 × 1014
6 There is no vertical scale. b 6 × 101
c 8 × 102
d 3 × 1012

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 ( 13) Exercise 4.2 Page 65
2
3 a
1 a 2 3
( 15 )
4
b
b 5 3

( 23 )
3
c c 10 3
Answers

d 36 d 9 5
4 a 1.5 × 105
b 2.4 × 103 e 7 3
c 5 × 108 f 5 5
d 5 × 10−4
5 a 9 2 a 54
b 1 b 125
c 125
d 4096 c 432
e 81
d 1700
f 1 5
49 3 a
7
g 64
b 2 6
h 1 3
32
c 2 5
i 16 5
9
j 3 d 6
k 3 11
l 64 4 a 23 + 17 2
m 9 b 8 3
n 1 5 a 5
4
o 1 b 5 3−3
32
c 18 + 8 2
6 a 53, 35, 44
b 27; 35 and 44 d 9−6 2
c 3−4; 4−3 and 2−5 6
7 a 7 6 a
6
b 14 b 4 3
c 1
3
d −1 c
2
2
e −3 d 5+ 2
f 3 3
g −3 e 2 + 2
h −2 2
8 a 6a7 f 5−2 5
b 8x5 y−2 5
c 5b3 7 a 5+4 2
7
d 4p−6 q−5
b − 15 +9 5
e 64m3 4
f 64s12t6
9 x = 8 and y = 27 c 6+2 6
8 22
Discussion point Page 61
9 x = 6 2 cm. Area = 72 cm2
22 = 4 and 4=2
10 a h = 1.5 or 3
Therefore, the square root of 4 is a whole number 2
and is not a surd. 3
b area = 3 or 0.75 3
4

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 Past−paper questions Page 66 b f ( −3) = f (1) = f ( 2 ) = 0 ( x + 3)( x − 1)( x − 2 )
1 2+ 2
y
2 (a) Powers of 2: 4 ( 3 x − 2 ) = 3 ( 2 x )
x=4
3
4 10
(b) p = 1, q = − 5

Answers
3 (i) 2 5 x × 2 2 y = 2 −3 y = x3 – 7x + 6
leads to 5 x + 2 y = −3
(ii) 7 x × 49 2 y = 1 can be written as x + 4 y = 0
Solving 5 x + 2 y = −3 and x + 4 y = 0 2 4 x
–6 –4 –2
1
leads to x = − 2 , y = 6
3

Chapter 5 Factors of polynomials –10

Discussion point Page 68

23, 128. Keep adding 105 (= 3 × 5 × 7) to find c f(−5) = f(−1) = f(1) = 0 ( x + 5 )( x + 1)( x − 1)
subsequent possible answers.
y
Exercise 5.1 Page 70
1 x4 + 3x3 − − 7x − 4
x2
2 x4 – 3x3 + 5x2 − x − 2 y = x3 + 5x2 – x – 5
3 4x4 – 8x3 + 3x2 + 10x − 5 10
4 x4 – 4x2 + 12x − 9
5 4x4 – 12x3 + 9x2 − 16
6 x4 – 6x3 + 13x2 − 12x + 4
7 x2 − 2x − 1
8 x2 − x − 1 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4
9 x3 − x2 + x − 1
10  ( x − 2) − 12 
 ( x + 2) 
–10
Exercise 5.2 Page 75
1 a f (1) = 0 factor
b f (−1) = −2 not a factor d f ( −1) = f (1) = f ( 5 ) = 0 ( x + 1)( x − 1)( x − 5 )
c f (1) = 0 factor
d f (−1) = −8 not a factor
10
y
2 a f (−2) = f (−1) = f (3) = 0 (x + 2)(x + 1)(x − 3)
y y = x3 – 5x2 – x + 5

10 –6 –4 –2 2 4 x

y = x3 – 7x – 6
–10
–6 –4 –2 2 4 x

–10 –20

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 3 a (x + 1)(x2 + 1) c
b (x − 1)(x2 + 1) y
c (x + 2)(x2 + x + 1)
6
d (x − 2)(x2 − x − 1)
4 3 4 y = 4x + x3
5 3
Answers

6 a a + b = 5 3a + b = 27 2
b a = 11, b = −6
–6 –4 –2 2 4 x
Exercise 5.3 Page 77 –2
1 a f (2) = 6
b f (−2) = −10 –4
c f (4) = 136
d f (−4) = −144 –6
2 a = −8, b = 1
3 x = 1, − 2, − 3
4 a = 1, − 3 d y
5 a = −7, b = −6
6
y = 2 + 5x + x2 − 2x3
6 a y
6 4

4 y=x x
3+2 2– x–2 2

2
–2 2 x
x –2
–6 –4 –2 2 4
–2 –4

–4 –6

–6

Past−paper questions Page 78

1 (ii) ( 2 x − 1) ( 7 x 2 − 4 x + 2 )
2 (ii) f(−3) = −49
b y = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 (iii) f(x) = (2x − 1)(2x2 + 3x − 2)
y (iv) f(x) = (2x − 1)(2x − 1)(x + 2)
6 Leading to x = 0.5, −2
3 (iii) 6 x 2 − 17 x + 20 = 0 has no real roots
4 x = –2
2

–6 –4 –2 2 4 x
–2

–4

–6

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 Chapter 6 Simultaneous equations 10 $3.40
11 $7
12 $324
Exercise 6.1 Page 85 13 $5
1 a x = 5, y = 7
Exercise 6.2 Page 88
y

Answers
8 1 x = 2, y = 3 and x = 2, y = −3
2 x = 2, y = 10 and x = 4, y = 20
6 y=x+2 y
20
4

15 y = 5x
2 y = 2x − 3

10 y = x2 − x + 8
–8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6 x
–2
5
–4

x = −1, y = 2 2 4 x
b
y 3 x = −1, y = −4 and x = 4, y = 1
8
4 x = −1.5, y = 11 and x = 1.25, y = 0
6 2x − y = −4 5 A (−4, 3) B (3, 4)
6 r = 15, x = 4
4 7 a x = 1, y = 2
b The line is a tangent to the curve.
2 y
10
y = x2 + 1
–8 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6 x
–2 x + 2y = 3 8

–4 6

2 a x = 3, y = 7 y = 2x
b x = 7, y = 3 4
3 a x = −2, y = 2
b x = 2, y = −2
2
4 x = 1, y = 1
5 x = −5, y = −2
6 a x = 3 and y = 1
b x =3 and y = 0.5 –2 2 4 x
7 a x = 2 and y = 3
b x = 2 and y = 1.5 –2
8 x = 1 and y = −2
9 x = −3 and y = 4 8 a No solutions.

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 b The line does not intersect the curve. 3 a 2
y b 6
10 c −3
d −6
4 a log15
8 b log64
Answers

c log4
6
y = 2x2 − 3x+ 4 d log5
e log72
f log 81
4 64
g log 1
8
2 5 a 3log x
y=x−1
b 6 log x

–2 2 4 x c 3 log x
2
6 a 9.3 cm = 93 mm
b 517.06 cm2 = 51706 mm2

Past−paper questions Page 89 7 a Stretch in the y direction scale factor 3.

1 y = −0.5 x + 3.75 y
6
2 3y + x − 2 = 0
3 k < –2, k > 8 y = 3Inx
4

Chapter 7 Logarithmic and 2

exponential functions
2 4 6 x
Discussion point Page 90
In 1700, about 210 = 1024. In 1000 about –2
234 = 17 000 000 000 or 17 billion.
–4
Discussion point Page 91
This is more than the present world population –6
and much more than it was then. The calculation
depends on the assumption that all your ancestors  −3 
b Translation   .
of any generation are different people and this is  0
clearly not true; cousins, whether close or distant,
must have married each other and so had some y
ancestors in common. 4

y = In(x + 2)
Discussion point Page 100 2
Answers will vary.
–4 –2 2 x
Exercise 7.1 Page 101
1 a 3 –2
b 0
c 2 –4
d −2
2 a 4 –6
b 4
c 3
d −3

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 c Stretch in the y direction scale factor 3 and
 −2 
stretch in the x direction scale factor 1 . f Translation   followed by stretch in the x
 0
2
direction scale factor 1 .
y 2
6 y
6

Answers
4 y = 3In2x
4
2 y = In(2x + 4)
2
–2 2 4 x
–2 –2 2 4 x

–4 –2

–6 –4

d Stretch in the y direction scale factor 3 and

–6
 0
translation   . 8 a ii y = log ( x − 1)
 2
b iv y = 3ln x
y
6 c v y = log ( 2 − x )
d vi y = ln ( x + 2 )
4 e i y = log ( x + 1)
y = 3Inx + 2 f iii y = − ln x
2
9 a 1
2
b 2
–2 2 4 x 9
c 1 ln 2, 0
–2 3
10 c = 0.993
–4 11 x = 3.15
12 a 9.4 years (10 years)
b 0.197% per month
–6
c i 113 months
e Stretch in the y direction scale factor −3 and ii 3435 days
 −1
translation   .
 0 Exercise 7.2 Page 109
y 1 a
y = ex + 1
y = ex + 1

6
y
y = ex

10

4 8

2 y = −3In(x + 1) 6

4
–2 2 4 x
2
–2

–4 –2 2 4 x
–2
–6

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 3

y = 3e2x − 1
ii y = e x at (0, 1) y = e x + 1 at (0, 2) and
y

y = 3e2x

y = e2x
y = e x +1 at (0, e) 10
b

y = 2ex
y

y = e2x
8

y = ex
10
Answers

6
8

4
6

2
4

2
–2 2x

–2
–2 2 4 x
–2 4 a (0, 3)

ii y = e x at (0, 1) y = e 2 x at (0, 1) and y

y = 2e x at (0, 2) 10
c y 8
10 y = 2 + ex
y = ex − 3
y = ex

6
8
4
6
y = ex − 3

2
4
–2 2 x
2
–2

–2 2 4 x b (0, 1)
–2 y
6

ii y = e x at (0, 1) y = e x − 3 at (ln3, 0) and 4

(0, −2) and y = e x − 3 at (0. e−3). y = 2 − ex
2
2 y
y = e3x − 2
y = e3x

10
–2 2x

8 –2

–4
6

–6
4

–2 2 4 x
–2

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 c (0, 3) 10 a $17.82
y b 5 years
6
11 a 0.6309
4 y = 2 + e−x b 0.65
c 2, 0
2

Answers
Past−paper questions Page 112
–2 2 x 1 (i) log a p + log a q = 9
–2 2 log a p + log a q = 15
log a p = 6 and log a q = 3
–4
(ii) log p a + log q a = 1 1
+   = 0.5
–6
log a p log a q
2 a = b 2 , 2 a − b = 3
d (0, 1)
2b 2 - b - 3 = 0 or 4 a 2 − 13a + 9 = 0
y
6 leading to a = 9 ,  b = 3
4 2
4
y = 2 − e−x 3 i B = 900
2 ii B = 500 + 400e2 = 3456
iv 10000 = 500 + 400e0.2t
–2 2 x e0.2t = 23.75
–2 0.2t = ln 23.75
t = 16 (days)
–4

–6 Chapter 8 Straight line graphs

5 a 8.55
Discussion point Page 114
b 3.23
The graph tells us that the natural length of the rope
c 0.303
i.e. when there is no load attached is 15m. It shows
d 4.30
a proportional relationship between the rope and
6 a $4377
the load; the heavier the load, the longer the rope
b 23 years
becomes as it is stretched. It also tells you that for
7 a 4999 m
every extra 40 kg of load it stretches another
b 42.59 seconds
5 metres, so for every extra 1 kilogram it stretches
8 a ii y = ex + 2 0.125 metres or 12.5 cm.
b iv y = 2 − e− x
c i y = e2x Activity Page 119
d vi y = e −2 x − 1
q
e v y = 3e − x − 5 3 Gradient of AB m1 =
p
f iii y = 2 − ex p
9 a Gradient of BC m2 = −
q
M
100 Exercise 8.1 Page 120
1 a i 2 ii − 1 iii 4 5 iv (6, 7)
M = 100e−0.002t 2
50 b i − 11 ii 5 iii 146 iv (7.5, −2.5)
5 11
c i 15 ii − 2 iii 229 iv (7, 7.5)
2 15
d i − 1 ii 5 iii 26 iv (−0.5, −6.5)
t 5

100
b 347 days
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 3 a 6 + 3 ( 10 ) + 3 ( 2 ) 9 a i y = 2x − 13 ii 2y + x + 1 = 0
b i x + 3y = 17 ii y = 3x + 19
b Area = 9
c i 2x = 3y + 1 6 ii 2y + 3x + 15 = 0
y 10 a 2y = 3x − 13
12
b 4y + 22x + 17 = 0
c 9y + x = 18
10 2y = x − 4
Answers

11 a
b (5, 0.5)
8 c y = −2x + 10.5
d (0, 10.5) (5.25, 0)
6
Exercise 8.2 Page 124
1 a iii b ii c i d iv
4 2 a lny = lnk + x lna Plot lny against x gradient ln
a and intercept lnk
2 b lny = lnk + a lnx Plot lny against lnx gradient
a and intercept lnk
0 c lny = lna + x lnk Plot lny against x gradient
2 4 6 8 10 12 x lnk and intercept lna
d lny = lna + k lnx Plot lny against lnx gradient
–2
k and intercept lna
4 a All sides 173
( )
3 b
b Midpoints both 7 , 1
2 2 t 1 2 3 4 5 6
c Gradient PQ = − 2 gradient PS = − 13 so not lnA 0.5878 0.9555 1.2809 1.6292 1.9741 2.3321
13 2
perpendicular. Rhombus.
3 InA
5 a
y
15 2

1
10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7t
Points are close to a straight line.
5 c k = 1.25 b = 1.44
d i 4.3 days ii 6.45 cm2
4 b
lna 0.6931 1.3863 1.7918 2.0794 2.3026 2.4849
lnb 2.2824 2.4932 2.6174 2.7014 2.7726 2.8273
–5 5 10 x
–2 3 Inb

c midpoint BC 17 , 19 (
2 2 ) 2
d 65
2
6 b (7, 4) 1
7 a 2
b 1:4 Ina
8 a gradient BC = gradient AD − − 1 so one pair 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
5
of parallel sides so trapezium.
c (8, 6) Points are close to a straight line.
c) n = 0.304 P = 7.938

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 5 a 3
lnx 0.2624 0.4700 0.6419 0.7885 0.9163 1.0296 Radius, Angle at Angle at Arc Area,
lny 1.7579 2.1041 2.7014 3.0681 3.3878 3.6738 r (cm) centre, θ centre in length, A(cm2)
(degrees) radians s (cm)
a = 3 n = 2.5 2π
8 120° 16π 64π
b The incorrect value is the second one. Using 3 3 3

Answers
the answers given for part a, the correct value
10 28.6° 7π 5 25.0
should be 9.7. 44
6 a lnP = lnk + tlna π
5.73 60° 4 17.2
b 3
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 38.2° 7π 4 12
lnp 1.2809 1.4586 1.6487 1.8245 2.0149 33

a =1.2 k = 3.0 5.53 75° 5π 7.24 20

12
c 115 thousand people. Not reliable.
4
Past−paper questions Page 125
Radius, Angle at cen- Arc length, Area,
1 (i) (3, 5)
r (cm) tre, θ (radians) s (cm) A(cm2)
(ii) y = 2x – 1 π
10 10π 50π
(iii) 15 square units 3 3 3
2 (i) D (3, 8) E (5.4, 9.2)
1 12 2 24 144
(ii) Area = (13 + 3) × 4
2 20.37 π 16 162.97
               = 32 4
3 (i) 20 or 4.47 5 2 10 25
6.51 3π 12.28 40
(ii) Gradient AB = 1  , ⊥ gradient = –2 5
2
    ⊥ line y − 4 = −2 ( x − 1)
y = −2 x + 6 5 a 32π cm2
3
(iii) (3,0) (−1, 8) b 8 + 16π cm
3
6 a 15π cm2
Chapter 9 Circular measure b 9 cm2
c 15π − 9 cm2
Discussion point Page 128 7 a 33.82π
26 centimetres per second. b 67.36 cm2
Exercise 9.1 Page 133 8 a 3π
4
1 a 2π b 24π cm2
3
b 3π c 16 2 cm2
c 11π
90 d 24π − 16 2 = 52.77 cm2
d 5π
6 Past−paper questions Page 135
e 5π
24 1 (i) Area = 1  18 2  sin 1.5 − 1 10 2 (1.5 )
2 a 120° 2 2
        = 161.594 – 75
b 100°
        = 86.6
c 171°
d 25.7° (ii) AC = 15 or 10 × 1.5
e 67.5° LBD = 36 sin 0.75
BD = 18 2 + 18 2 − (2 × 18 × 18 cos1.5)
      = 24.5

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 Perimeter = 15 + 24.5 + 16
2 a i 1 ii 1 iii 1
      = 55.5 2 2
2 (i) sin θ = 6 , θ = 0.8481
b i 2 ii 2 iii 1
2 8 2
θ = 1.696 3 a i 3 ii 1 iii 3
2 2
(ii) Arc length = ( 2π − 1.696 ) × 8 = 36.697 b i 2 ii 2 iii 1
Answers

Perimeter = 12 + ( 2π − 1.696 ) × 8 3 3
      = 48.7 4 a B = 60° C = 30°
2 2 b 3
(iii) Area = 8 ( 2π − 1.696 ) + 8 sin1.696
2 2 5 a B = 30° C = 60°
      = 178.5
b AB = 2 3 BC = 4
3 (i) Area of sector = 1 × x 2 × 0.8 6 4 , 7
2 7 3
Area of triangle = 7 a 45°; 45°
1
× 5 cos 0.8 × 5 sin 0.8 = 6.247cm 2 b sec L = 2 cosecL = 2 tan L = 1
2
0.08 x 2 = 6.247 8 b 14.0°
x = 8.837 9 a 0 < α < 90
(ii) Perimeter = 19.85 cm (2 d.p.) 0<α<π
2
(iii) Area PQSR = 4 × 6.247 b No
    = 25 cm2 c No

Chapter 10 Trigonometry Discussion Point Page 151

1 The graphs continue the same wave patterns to
Discussion point Page 138 the left.
You can take measurements from the picture. Then 2 y
use them to make a scale drawing of the cross−
section of the pyramid that goes through its vertex,
and measure the angle with a protractor. +1

This is not a very accurate method. The alternative

is to use trigonometry to calculate the answer. O x
90°
Exercise 10.1 Page 144
1 a 292 = 841 = 400 + 441 = 202 + 212 –1

b sin Q = 20
29
cos Q = 21 Starting with y = sin x for 0o to 90o,
29
* reflect it in the line x = 90o to obtain the part of
tan Q = 20
21 the curve from 90o to 180o.

( ) ( )
2 2
c i 20 + 21 = 400 + 441 = 1 * rotate the curve from 0o to 180o through 180o
29 29 841
about the point (180o, 0) to obtain the part of the
ii tan Q = 20 ÷ 21 = 20
curve between 180o and 360o. You now have the
29 29 21
5 a 6 cm complete curve of y = sinx from 0o to 360o.
6 a 2 2 cm To obtain the curve of y = cosx, translate the curve
7 a 4d for y = sinx from 0o to 360o by −90o in the horizontal
8 a 2 cm direction. Then translate the part of the curve
between −90o and 0o by +360o in the horizontal
direction.
Exercise 10.2 Page 147
1
1 a i 1 ii 3 iii Discussion point Page 154
2 2 3 The curves do not change.
b i2 ii 2 iii 3
3

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 Exercise 10.3 Page 155
e − 3
1 a y 2
f 0
2 g 1
2
1
y = 0.5 y = cos x h
2

Answers
x i 1
90° 180° 270° 360° 5 a 150°
b 139.7°
c 87.4°
b 60o or 300o 6 a Graph has a line of symmetry at x = 90.
c (60 + 360n)o or (300 + 360n)o y
d −1
2 2
2 a y
1
y = 0.6
x
−2π π 0 π 2π x 90° 180° 270° 360°

y = sin x y = sin x
−1

–2
b −1.2π, −1.8π, 0.2π, 0.8π
c y
1 y = cos x b i False ii True iii False iv True
y = 0.8 7 a 0° < α < 90°
b No. If cosα and sinα are both positive, tanα is
–2π –3π –π π 3π 2π x positive.
2 2 2 2 c No. If cosα = tanα, tanα = 1.
−1 If sinα = 1, cos π ≠ 1
2
8 a 80°, 320°
d −0.2π, −1.8π, 0.2π. 1.8π b 20°, 200°
e For acute angles sin −1 0.6 = cos −1 0.8 and c 55°, 325°
for other angles where both sin and cos are d 30°, 120°, 210°, 300°
positive. For other angles, one or other is e 60°, 300°
negative. f 75°, 105°, 255°, 285°
3 a 60°, 240° g 10°, 50°, 130°, 170°, 250°, 290°
b 30°, 150° h 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°
c 150°, 210° i 15°, 75°, 135°, 195°, 255°, 315°
d 30°, 210° 9 a 0.1 radians and 0.03π radians.
e 134.4°, 225.6° b 1π
3
f 72.5°, 287.5° c −1.11 radians and – 0.35π radians.
g 199.5°, 340.5° d −0.41 radians and −0.13π
h 180°
e 0 and 1 π
2
4 a 1
2
1 Discussion point Page 158
b Stretching the point (90°, 1) by a scale factor of
2
c 1 2 parallel to the y−axis gives the point (90°, 2).
Translating this through 3 units in the y−direction
d 3
gives (90°, 5). If the translation is done before the
2
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 stretch, the point (90°, 1) moves through (90°, 4) to b Amplitude 2, period 360°.
(90°, 8), which is incorrect. iv a
y
Exercise 10.4 Page 161
1 i a
x
y 0
Answers

3 100 200 300

2 y = sin x
1 –2
y = sin x
90° 180° 270° 360°x
–1
–4

b Amplitude 2, period 360°.

–3 c The order of the transformation matters.
2 i a and b
b Amplitude 2, period 360°. y
ii a
y = cos x
3 y
x
2 –360°–270° –180° –90° 90° 180° 270° 360°

1
y = sin x x c Amplitude 1 period 720°.
ii a and b
90° 180° 270° 360°
y
–1 y = cos x

–2
x
–360° –270°–180°–90° 90° 180° 270° 360°
–3

b Amplitude 1, period 360°.

iii a c Amplitude 1 period 360°.
iii a and b
3 y
y
2
y = cos x
1
x
x –360° –270° –180° –90° 90° 180° 270° 360°
90° 180° 270° 360°

–1
y = sin x
c Amplitude 1 period 720°.
–2

–3
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 iv a and b iv a and b
y y
y = cos x 2

Answers
–360°–270°–180° –90° 90° 180° 270° 360°

–270°–180° –90° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

c Amplitude 1 period 720°.

d The order of the transformation matters.
3 i a and b c Amplitude 1, period 720o.
y d The order does not matter when the
transformations are in different directions.
4 a Stretch in the y−direction scale factor 3
x followed by a stretch in the x−direction scale
1
factor (either order).
–360°–270°–180°–90° 90° 180° 270° 360° 2
b Stretch in the y−direction scale factor 2
followed by a translation of one unit vertically
–2 upwards.
c Stretch in the y direction scale factor 2
followed by a translation to the right by 180
(either order).
–4 d Translation to the left π followed by a
2
c Amplitude 1, period 720o. stretch in the y−direction scale factor 3 and a
ii a and b translation 3 units vertically upwards.
5 A stretch, scale factor 2, parallel to y−axis and a
y translation of 1 unit vertically upwards.
2 6 y = tan 2x; a stretch, scale factor 1 , parallel to the
2
x−axis.
1
7 Stretch in the x−direction scale factor followed
2
by a stretch in the y−direction scale factor 3 and
x a translation vertically downwards by 2. (The
–270°–180° –90° 90° 180° 270° 360° stretch in the x−direction can be at any stage.)

Exercise 10.5 Page 168

–2 5 50.74°; 125.26°
7 π ; 2π ; 4π and 5π .
3 3 3 3
9 a −2π; 0; 2π
b It is not possible to solve.
c Amplitude 1, period 360o.
10 θ = −270°, −90°, 90°, 270°
iii a and b 11 b = 0°; 360°; 56.45°; 203.55°
y 12 b 0; π; 2 π
π
2 Or ; 5π
6 6

Past−paper questions Page 168

1 a sin2 x = 1
4
–270°–180° –90° 90° 180° 270° 360° x
sin x = ( ± ) 1
2
x = 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°
c Amplitude 1, period 720o.

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 b ( sec 2 3 y − 1) − 2sec3 y − 2 = 0 8 5040
9 120
sec 2 3 y - 2sec3 y - 3 = 0 10 120
( sec3 y + 1)( sec3 y − 3) = 0 11 15!
12 a 6
leading to cos 3y = –1, cos 3 y = 1
3 b 8! = 40320
3y = 180°, 540° 3y = 70.5°, 289.5°, 430.5°
Answers

c 9! = 362880
y = 60°, 180°, 23.5°, 96.5°, 143.5° d 6! = 720
c z − π = π , 4π e 7! = 5040
3 3 3
f 8! = 40320
z = 2π , 5π 13 a 8!
3 3
2 a i A = 3, B = 2 b 7!
ii C = 4 c 5040
d 35280
b 120 or 2π
3
Amplitude = 5 Discussion point (1) Page 178
No, it does not matter in which order the machine
3 1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
LHS = + picked them since this is a combination, not a
(1 − cos θ )(1 + cos θ ) (1 + cos θ )(1 − cos θ )
permutation.
2
=
1 − cos 2 θ
2 Discussion point (3) Page 178
= As the amount of numbers to choose from increases,
sin 2 θ
= 2 cosec 2 θ = RHS the probability decreases because there are more
possible combinations.
Chapter 11 Permutations and
Discussion point (1) Page 179
combinations n! , n!
n
Cr = n
Pr =
r ! ( n − r )! ( n − r )!
Discussion point Page 173 n
Pr
There are 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 = 1296 possibilities. n
C r = 1 × n! = 1 × n Pr =
r ! ( n − r )! r ! r!
Suppose it takes 10 seconds to check each
combination, so you check six combinations in
Discussion point (2) Page 179
1 minute.
n
Cr = n!
It will take 1296 ÷ (6 × 60) = 3.6 hours or r !( n − r )!
3 hours 36 minutes. n!
⇒ n C0 = = n! = 1
0!( n − 0 )! 1 × n!
Exercise 11.1 Page 175
1 a 5040 Similarly for n C n .
b 72
Exercise 11.2 Page 179
c 12 !
7 1 a i 210 ii 3024 iii 1814400
2 a 1 b i 35 ii 126 iii 45
n+1 2 2730
b n−2
3 1287
3 a (n + 1) (n + 2)
4 576
b n(n + 1)
5 a 1716
4 a 9! × 3! b 63
( 6!) 2 6 a 210
15! 1
b b i
3! × 5! 42
( n + 2 )!
c
n! × 4! ii 10
21
5 a 8 × 6! 7 a 210
b ( n + 1)( n − 1)! 1
b i 14
6 7! 5
5! ii
7 24 42
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 8 a 8008 Exercise 12.1 Page 191
b 2940 1 a 1 + 4x + 6x2 + x4
c 7 b 1 + 8x + 24x2 + 32x3 + 16x4
d 84 c 1 + 12 x + 54 x 2 + 108 x 3 + 81x4
9 a 1001 2 a 16 + 32x + 24x2 + 8x3 + x4
b 420 b 81 + 108x + 54x2 + 16x3 + x4

Answers
c 336 c 256 + 256x + 96x2 + 16x3 + x4
10 32 3 a x 4 + 4 x 3 y + 6 x 2 y 2 + 4 xy 3 + y 4
11 a i 15 120 b x 4 + 8 x 3 y + 24 x 2 y 2 + 32 xy 3 + 16 y 4
ii 1680 c x 4 + 12 x 3 y + 54 x 2 y 2 + 108 xy 3 + 81 y 4
12 9080 4 a 10
13 a 495 b 21
b 360 c 35
14 a 21772800 d 21
b 126 e 1
15 a 56756700 f 286
b 3870720 5 a 15
c 192 b 21
16 a 79833600 c 28
b 3628800 6 243 + 405kx + 270 k 2 x 2
7 729 x 6 − 4374 x 4 + 10935 x 2
Past-paper questions Page 181 8 a 6t + 2t 3
9 a -5, -5
1 (i) 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 or
14!
6×4×3×2×1 8! × 6! b 5, -5
3003 10 a 1 − 12 x + 60 x 2 − 160 x 3
(ii) Either 5 students + 1 teacher or 4 students + 2 b 64 − 576 x + 2160 x 2 − 4320 x 3
teachers. c 729 − 5832 x + 19440 x 2 − 34560 x 3
56 × 6 or 70 × 15 11 a x 10 + 5 x 7 + 10 x 4 + 10 x
1386 b x 10 − 5 x 7 + 10 x 4 − 10 x
(iii) 30 c x 15 + 5 x 11 + 10 x 7 + 10 x 3
2 (a) (i) 360 d x 15 − 5 x 11 + 10 x 7 − 10 x 3
(ii) 120 12 n = 5 a = 3
(b) (i) 924
(ii) 28 Exercise 12.2 Page 196
1 a yes: 2, 40
(iii) 924 − ( 8 C 3 × 4C 3 ) − ( 8 C 2 × 4C 4 ) b no
(i.e. 924 – 3M 3W – 2M 4W) c no
924 – 224 – 28 d yes: 4, 29
= 672 e yes: -4, -12
3 (a) (i) 15120 2 a 21
(ii) 210 b 19
3 a d = 7.2
Chapter 12 Series b 16 terms
4 a 5
b 2055
Discussion point Page 184
5 a 16, 20, 24
50 × 263 mg = 4.6 × 1014 tonnes. In 2017 the world
b 456
production of wheat was about 7.5 × 108 tonnes.
6 a 15
King Shirham made an agreement that he could not
b 1140
possibly fulfil!
7 a a = 8, d = 6
b 10
Real world activity Page 188 8 a 2
1 n−1 b 480
2 9 a 10000
2 Multiply the number in column 2 by n − 2 b 10200
3
c 20200

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 d Answer c is the total of the other two (a and 10 a 0.7
b) answers. b 14th
10 a 66000 c 1000
b Sum negative for more than 30 terms. 3
d 13
11 a 7n − 9, 17th
11 a 1
b 7 n 2 − 11 n, 25 3
Answers

2 2 b 5
12 a $54000 12 a 1
b 10 3
13 a 47 days b 8 (n − 4)
3 4
b 126.9 km c 324 − (n − 4)
14 a 16 3
d 324
b 35 cm e 12 terms
15 a a = −25 and d = 15 13 a 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, 0.625
b n = 16 b 0, 5, 7.5, 8.75, 9.375
16 a 3 c First is geometric with common ratio 0.5.
b 105 14 a 60
c 2n2 + n b 400°
()
n
d 6n2 + n 15 a 15 × 5
8
b 79.27 m
Discussion point Page 201
18 a 4 and −4
50 × 263 mg = 4.6 × 1014 tonnes. In 2017 the world
b When x = −4; sum of the first ten
production of wheat was about 7.5 × 108 tonnes.
terms = 629, 145.
Discussion point Page 205 When x = 4; sum of the first ten
Something else terms = 1,048,575.

Exercise 12.3 Page 205 Past-paper questions Page 207

1 120(p7q3) and (45)(p8q2)
1 a yes 2, 192
120p7q3 = 270p8q2
b no
252p5q5 = 252
c yes: −1, 10
pq = 1 and 4q = 9p
d yes: 1, 1
leading to p = 2 ,  q = 3
e no 3 2
f yes: 1 , 5 2 (i) -27.5 (ii) 38.5
2 32
g no 3 (i) 64 + 192 x + 240 x 2 + 160 x 3
2 a 320 (ii) 64
b 635
3 a 4
b 49152 Chapter 13 Vectors in two
4 a 16 dimensions
b 8th
5 a 10
Discussion point Page 210
They tell you both the speed and the direction of
b 7161
the wind.
6 a 9
b 199.609375
Exercise 13.1 Page 213
7 a 2
b 4.5  −4 
1 a  −2 
c 4603.58
8 a 0.5  6
b 16 b  
 −4 
9 a 0.1
b 8  −3
9 c  0 
c 8  −2 
11 d  
 −4 

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 2 a y 4 i y
c)

R
Q
a)

Answers
0 x
x
S b)

d)
b i OR ii
 1 a 4
 2  b 3
c √ 74
ii RO d √ 74
 −1  y
 −2  5 a
B (2,7)
c i PR
 2
 4 

A (-1,4)
 4
ii  
 −2 
d lengths of the vectors
i PQ
ii QR x
C (5,0)
iii RS
iv SP AB = 3i + 3j
All the lengths of the vectors = √10. BC = 3i – 7j
AC = 6i – 4j
e PQRS is a square because all angles are equal
b BC is the longest side of the triangle.
to 90°.
6 a y
3 abcd C(5,6)
y

B(0,2)

D(2,0)
x

3j 2 i + 3j
A(−3,−4)
b OA = –3i – 4j
2i x OB = 2j
OC = 5i + 6j
2 i − 3j OD = 2i

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 c AB = 3i + 6j 5 a i 2i + 3j
DC = 3i + 6j  2
BC = 5i + 4j ii  
 3
AD = 5i + 4j
b i i – 7j
d ABCD is a parallelogram.
7 a  1
y ii  
 −7 
Answers

c i 3i + 5j
C (2,3)
 3
D (3,3) ii  
 5
d i 10i – 10j
(0,1) B
 10 
ii 
A x  −10 
e i 4i – 2j
 3  4
b   ii  
 3  −2 
c Isosceles trapezoid. f i 4i + 2j
Exercise 13.2 Page 220  4
ii  
 2
 3
1 a  
 8 6 a b–a
 2 b a–b
b  
 2 c a
 5 d –a
c   e b
 5
2 a – i + 5j f –b
b 13j g – a + b – a = b – 2a
3 a 4i + 6j h a – b + a = 2a – b
b 6i – 4j  3
c 12j 7 a AD =  
 2
d 5i + 20j
e −4i + 25j  2
DC =  
f i + 26j  3
g 11i – 15j  5
4 b AC =  
 5
 1
a, 5 BD =  −1
 
b, 5 1
e, Ö34 c (3; )
2 2
d Gradient of AC = 5   = 1
5
c, 7
Gradient of BD = 1 = −1
d, 7 −1
They are perpendicular because 1 × −1 = −1.
8 a 3i – 4j
5 5

g, Ö72
h, Ö2 b ( ) ( )
5 i+ 7 j
74 74
f, Ö53
 5
 
c  13 
12
 
 13 

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  11 a
1 
  y
 10 
d  −3  B (24,19)
 
 10 

e i C (48,12)

Answers
 1  A (4,4)
 2
f  
 1  x
 2
9 a y b AB = 20i + 15j
BC = 24i – 7j
C (2,8) AC = 44i + 8j
8 c AB = 25
BC  = 25
AC = 20√(5)
d Isosceles triangle.
4 B (5,4) 12 i Salman walks faster by 0.21 km per hour
ii 1.125 i + 20.444j
Distance = 20.47 kms
13 Direction = 1984.43°
Distance = 379.47
–3 2 5 x Time = 1 hour 54 minutes

A (–3,–2) Past-paper questions Page 222

1 (ii) 40i + 96j
b AB = 8i + 6j
BC = −3i + 4j (iii) (40 + 10t)i + (96 + 24t)j
CA = −5i – 10j (iv) (120 – 22t)i + (81 + 30t)j
c AB = 10 (v) 1830 hours, 65i + 156j
BC = 5
CA = 5√5 2 (i) AB = OB − OA
d Scalene triangle. 9i + 45j
10 a i OC = 4i
ii AB = 4i + 4j (ii) OC = OA + 1 AB
3
iii BC = 4i – 4j OC = 5i + 12 j
iv AD = 4i – 8j
v CD = –4i – 8j OC − 5 2 + 12 2
vi AC = 8i = 13
b OC = 4 4
AB = 16 √ 2 (iii) OD = i − 2j
3
BC  = 16 √ 2
AD = 4 √ 5 3 OC = 5i + 12 j
CD = 4 √ 5 OC = 5 2 + 12 2 = 13
AC = 8
c AOB; BOC and ABC are both isosceles
triangles and right triangles.

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 Chapter 14 Differentiation b (−3, −5) (2, 0)
c 6, −4
Discussion point Page 225
The connection is that gravity applies to an apple Discussion point Page 231
falling and to the planets in their orbits. Newton As the curve does not turn, the gradient is
realised that the planets were held in their orbits negative both to the left and to the right of D,
Answers

round the Sun by the force of gravity but he needed D is a stationary point.
calculus to work out their equations.
Exercise 14.2 Page 234
Exercise 14.1 Page 230
dy
1 a 4x3 1 i = 1 − 4 x x − 0.25
dx
b 6x2 ii maximum
c 0 iii 1.125
d 10
iv y
2 a 1 x − 12 5
2
b 5 x − 12
2
c 21 t 12 y = 1 + x – 2x2
2
d 1 x 23
2
3 a 10 x 4 + 8 x x
−4 −2 2 4
b 12 x + 8 3

c 3x2
d 1 − 15x2
4 a − 23
x
dy
b − 418 2 i = 12 + 6 x − 6 x 2 x = −1, 2
x dx
ii minimum at x = −1, maximum at x = 2
c 2 + 4
x x x iii (−1, 7) (2, 20)
1 3 iv
d 1 x−2 + 1 x−2 y y = 12x + 3x
2 – 2x3
2 2 20
5 a 2x − 1
b 4x − 1
c 1 – 5x−2

d 3 x 12 10
2
6 (0, –9) 0, (–3, 0) –6, (3, 0) 6
7 a
y
6 –2 2 4 x

4
y = 4 – x2
2
y=x–2 dy 8
3 i = 3 x 2 − 8 x x = 0,
dx 3
x 8
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 ii maximum at x = 0 minimum at x = 3
–2

–4

–6

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 (
iii (0, 9) 8 , − 13
3 27 ) 6 i
dy
dx
= 3 x 2 − 48 x = −4, 4
iv y ii maximum at x = −4 minimum at x = 4
20 iii (−4, 128), (4, −128)
iv y
y = x3 – 4x2 + 9

Answers
100
10 y = x3 – 48x

–10 10 20 x

–2 2 4 x
–100

dy dy
4 i = 4 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 2 x x = 0, 0.5,1 7 i = 3 x 2 + 12 x − 36 x = −6, 2
dx dx
ii minimum at x = 0, maximum at x = 0.5, ii maximum at x = −6 minimum at x = 2
minimum at x = 1 iii (−6, 241), (2, −15)
iii (0, 0) (0.5, 0.0625), (1, 0) iv y
iv y
0.6 200

0.4
y = x2 (x – 1)2 y = x3 + 6x2 – 36x + 25
100
0.2

x
20 x
–0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
–10 10

dy dy
5 i = 4 x 3 − 16 x x = −2, 0, 2 8 i = 6 x 2 − 30 x + 24 x = 1, 4
dx dx
ii minimum at x = −2, maximum at x = 0 ii maximum at x = 1 minimum at x = 4
minimum at x = 2 iii (1, 19), (4, −8)
iii (−2, −12), (0, 4), (2, −12) iv y
iv y 30
10 y = 2x3 – 15x2 + 24x + 8
20

10

–4 –2 2 4 6 x
2 4 6 x

–10

–10 9 a p = 4, q = −3

y = x4 – 8x2 + 4 b maximum value 4 when x = 2

3 3

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 10 a minimum at (−0.5, −0.3125) 4 The maximum area is equal to 3200 m2
maximum at (0, 0), minimum at (1, −2) It occurs 40 m away from the wall; 80 m parallel
b y to the wall.
5 a V = π r 2 (3 − r )
b Vmax = 4π this occurs when r = 2 and h = 1
y = x2 (3x2 – 2x – 3)
Answers

2
2 6 a x = 6, y = 6, P = 24 cm2 and d P =2
dx 2 3
so minimum
2
b x = 6, y = 6, A = 36 cm2 and d A = −2
dx 2
so maximum
–1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 x
Exercise 14.4 Page 241
dy
1 a = 5 − 2x
dx
b −1
–2
c y=9−x
d y= x+3
Exercise 14.3 Page 238 dy
2 a i = 6 x − 3x 2
dy d2 y dx
1 a = 3x 2 − 6 x + 2 , 2 = 6 x − 6
dx dx ii 0
dy d2 y iiiy=4
b = 12 x 3 − 12 x 2 , 2 = 24 x 2 − 24 x
dx dx iv x=2
2
dy d y b i (3, 0)
c = 5 x 4 − 5, 2 = 20 x 3
dx dx
ii −9
2 a maximum at (0.75, 2.875)
iii y = 27 − 9 x
1
b maximum at ( , 6.148 ), minimum at (1, 6) c y=0
3
c minimum at (−0.5, 0.75) maximum at (0, 1), 3 a (1, 0)
minimum at (0.5, 0.75) b y = 2x − 2
d maximum at (−1, 4) minimum at (1, −4) c 2y = 1 – x or 2y = −x + 1
dy d Q (0, −2) R (0, 0.5)
3 a = 6 x 2 − 6 x − 36, x = −2, 3
dx The area of the triangle is equal to 3.125.
d2 y
b At x = −2, = −30 maximum. 4 a f'(x) = 3x2 – 6x + 4
dx 2
d2 y b i 5
At x = 3, = 30 maximum.
dx 2 ii x + 4y − 22 = 0
c (−2, 48), (3, −77) iii 4 y + x = 22
d y c −1, 3
y = 2x – 3x – 36x – 6
3 2
dy
50 5 a = 3 x 2 − 18 x + 23
dx
b −1
c y = −x + 5
d Q (4, −3)
–5 5 x e y = −x + 1
6 a 2 p - q = 16
dy
b = 3x 2 − p
–50
dx
c 12
d (−2, 24)
e (0, 8)
328
f 12 y = x + 96

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 7 a y = 3x − 5 5 a 1
(1 + cos x )
b −1
3 − cos x − 1
b
c
3 9(
1 , − 11
) c
sin 2 x x
cos2x + cosx
8 a 10 − 2x d cos2x – sinx

Answers
b y = −2 x + 15 e cos3x + cosx + 2cos2x + cos3x
c 2y = x f 2 cos2x + 2 cos2x sinx – sinx – sin3x
d 2y = x (The equation of the normal.) 6 a ex
e x ln x +
9 b (0, 0) tangent y = 2x normal 2y + x = 0 x
x
(1, 0) tangent 2y + x = 1 normal y = 2x − 2 e x ln x − e
b x
c Opposite sides are parallel and adjacent sides (ln x)(2)
are perpendicular so it is a rectangle. e x − e x ln x
c
7e 2 x
Exercise 14.5 Page 253 7 a ex (sinx + cosx)
−x
1 a 3cos x − 2 sec 2 x b −e sin x + e − x cos x
sin 2 x
b 5 cos θ
cos x + sin x
c −2 sinθ − 2 cosθ c
e− x
d 4 dy
x 8 b At (0, −1) = cos (0) + sin(0)
dx
e 1 The equation of the tangent is equal to
x
f 3e x y=x−1
The equation of the normal is y = −x − 1
g 2e x − 1
x dy
At (π, 1) = cos π + sin π = −1
2 a x cos x + sin x dx
b − x sin x + cos x The equation of the tangent is equal to
c x sec 2 x + tan x y = −x + π + 1
d e x cos x + e x sin x The equation of the normal is equal to
y=x–π+1
e − e x sin x + e x cos x
dy
fe x sec 2 x + e x tan x 9 b = 2 sec2 x
dx
3 a x cos x 2− sin x At (0, −1)
x dy
= 2 sec(2x0) = 2
b sin x − x2 cos x dx
sin x The equation of tangent −y = 2x − 1
c − x sin x + 2 cos x
x3 ()
The equation of the normal: y = − 1 x − 1
2
d 2 x cos x + x 2 sin x
cos 2 x 4( ) dx 4 ()
At π ;1 dy = 2 sec 2 π = 2 x ( 2 ) 2 = 4
The equation of the tangent; y = 4x – π + 1
e tan x − x2sec x
2

tan x The equation of the normal; y = − 1 x + π + 1

4 16
f x sec x 2− tan x
2
2
x 10 b The equation of the tangent is equal to y = x −1
e
3
4 a 4 x + 3)
( The equation of the normal is equal to
2
y = −e + e +1
3
b 8 ( 2 x + 3)
x 2
8 x ( x 2 + 3) 11 c The equation of the tangent is equal to;
3
c
d 1 √ (x + 3) y = ex – x + 1
2 The equation of the normal is equal to:
1
e
√ (2 x + 3)
x
y= ( )
−1
e−1
x+
1
( e − 1) + e
f
√ ( x 2 + 3) 329

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 Past-paper questions Page 254 5 a y = x 2 − 3x + 6
1 (ii) dA = 8 x − 216 b
3
y = 4x + x4 − 208
dx x2 4
d A
When = 0 , x = 3 27 = 3 c y = 5 x 2 − 6 x − 18
dx 2
Dimensions are 3 by 6 by 4 1
d f(x) = x3 + x + 9
(iii) Change in A = −38 p, decrease 3
Answers

1 1
2 (i) −2 sin 2x and cos
1
3
x
3 () e f(x) = x3 – x2 – 2x − 44
3 2
f(x) = 4 x3 + 2x2 + x – 16
3 3()
1 cos 2 x cos x − 2 sin 2 x sin x
3 () f
3
3
3
1 4 2
2
(ii) sec x and 6 a y = x2 – 1 +
x 3 3
(sec 2 x) (1 + 1n x) − 1x (tan x)
3
b y = x2 – x 2 – 2
1 2
2 3 3
(1 + 1n x ) 2 7 a y = x 2 + 3x + c
dy 8x3 b y = x 2 + 3x + c
3 (a) = 12 x 2 ln ( 2 x + 1) +
dx 2x + 1
c y = x 2 + 3 x − 11
8 a y = x3 – 2x2 + x – 12
Chapter 15 Integration 9 a y = 2x2 − x + c
Discussion point Page 257 b y = 2x2 − x + c
A marathon. She had clearly finished before 3 hours.
You can estimate the distance she ran in each half c y = 2x2 − x + 1
hour, using the average speed. That suggests that by d Curve passes above the point.
2.5 hours she had run 41 760 metres and still had 10 0
435 metres to go. So an estimate is that she took a dy
11 a = kx ( x − 2 ) for any k ≠ 0
bit over 2 hours and 31 minutes. dx

Exercise 15.1 Page 261 b y = 1 x3 − x2 + 2

3
1 a y = 2x2 + 2x + c
Exercise 15.2 Page 264
b y = 2x3 − 5 x − x + c 1 7
2
2 255
c y = 3x − 5 x 4 + c
4 3 4
d y = x3 − 2x2 − 4x + c
4 16
2 a f ( x ) = 5 x 2 + 3x + c 62
2 5
3
b f ( x) = 1 x 5 + 1 x 4 − 1 x 2 + 8 x + c 6 30
5 2 2
c f(x) = 1 x4 – 4 x3 + x2 − 8x + c 7 591
4 3 76
1 8 3
d f ( x ) = x − 7 x 2 + 49 x + c
3
3 4
3 a 5x + c 9 −3
5 x4 + c 10 12
b
4 11 27
c x 2 − 3x + c
16
3 x 4 − 2 x 2 + 3x + c 12
d 3
4 13 92
4 a 9 x − 3x 2 + 1 x 3 + c 4
3 14 − 3
b 2 x 3 − 5 x 2 − 3x + c
3 2 27
1 x3 + x2 + x + c 15 2
c
3 16 0
4 3
d x – 2x2 + x + c 17 28
3
80
18 3
330

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 Exercise 15.3 Page 265 7 a and b
1 9 30
y
2 36
3 2
20
20 y = x3
4 3

Answers
5 0.25 10

6 3125
6 x
7 36
–2 2
8 13.5
9 64 –10
3
10 64
3 –20

Exercise 15.4 Page 269

c 4
1 0.25
d 0
2 a 5 , 8 below the axis 8 a
12 3
b 3 1 10 y
12 y = x2 + 1
3 a (3√ 2 , 0)
2
b 3 × 2 3 (0.95244) 5
5
253
4
12
5 a and b x
y –2 2

10 b 6
9 a 18
y = x2
b Area between the lines y = 2 x + 1, x = 1, x = 4
5 and the x-axis.
y
10
x
–2 2
c 3 5
6 a y

5 x
y = x – 2x
2 2 4

x Exercise 15.5 Page 273

1 a 1 ln ( 3 x + 1) + c
–1 2 3 3
b 1 ( 3 x + 1) 5 + c
b 0<x<2 15
c 1 e 3 x +1 + c
c 4 below the axis 3
3
d (−cos 3 x   +  1 ) + c
3

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 3 (iii) x = 2, 4
e (sin 3 x   +  1 ) + c
3
∫ 3x − 14 + x
(iv) 32 dx = 1.5 x 2 − 14 x − 32 ( + c )
f 3ln ( x − 3) + c 2 x
g 1 ( 2 x − 1) 4 + c 32
Area = 1.5 x 2 − 14 x −  4
8  x 2
h 2e 2 x − 3 + c
= (− )2
Answers

i − cos ( 3x ) + c
j 8 sin x + c
2 () Chapter 16 Kinematics
5
2
k ( x − 2) 2 + c
5 Discussion point Page 277
5
(2 x − 1) 2 No. One component of its motion will be in orbit
l round the Sun. Another component will be at right
5+c

( )
1 ln 13 angles to it. Given the distance to Jupiter it is likely
2 a that it will complete several orbits of the Sun before
3 7
b 23632.4 it reaches Jupiter.
c 147105.59 (2 d.p.)
Discussion point Page 282
d 1
The particle is in motion, but has slowed down
3
whilst still travelling towards O.
1
e
3
f ln6 − ln2 = ln3 Exercise 16.1 Page 283
g 5904.8 1 a i v = 10t − 1, a = 10
h 5 (1 − e −4
) ii 3, −1, 10
1 iii when t = 0.1, s = 2.95
i
2 b i v = 3 − 3t 2 , a = −6t
j 1 ii 0, 3, 0
2 iii when t = 1, s = 2
c i v = 4t 3 − 4 , a = 12t 2
Past-paper questions Page 273
ii −6, −4, 0
1 (a) (i) 2 = a − 3, a = 5
iii when t = 1, s = −9
(ii) y = −5e 1− x − x 3 + c
d i v = 12t 2 − 3, a = 24t
c = 10
ii 5, −3, 0
y = −5e 1− x − x 3 + 10
iii when t = 0.5, s = 4
1 3 4
(b) (i) 7 × 4 × ( 7 x + 8 ) 3 e i v = −4t + 1, a = −4
4 8 ii 5, 1, −4
(ii)  (7 x + 8) 3 
3
 28 0 iii when t = 0.25, s = 5
180 2 a v = 6t − 3t 2 a = 6 − 6t
= or 25.7
7
b t = 0, 1 s
dy
2 (ii) When = 0, ( 3 x − 1)( x − 3) = 0 t = 2; 4 s
dx
1
x = ,  x = 3 c 4m
3
(iii) Area d −24 ms−1 travelling in the negative direction
 3
 e 6 ms−2
∫
1(
= 10 + 19 ) 3 −  x 3 − 5 x 2 + 3 x + 10 d x  3 a 1m
2  0 
b v = 4 − 10t
87  x 4 5 x 3 3 x 2 3
= − − + + 10 x  c 0.4 s
2  4 3 2  0
d 1.8 m
87
2
−
81
4 (− 45 +
27
2
+ 30 ) e 1s
= 24.75
332

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 f h 2 a v = 3t 2 − 12t + 9, s = t 3 − 6t 2 + 9t
b 3s
3 a −3 ms−1
b 2 s, −4 m
1
h = 1 + 4t − 5t2 4 a v

Answers
20 v = 30 − 5t
t
0
1 2
t
g −6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4 a v = 2 t 3, a = 2t 2
3
b 6s b 6s
c 216 m, 144 ms−1 c 90 m
5 a 2.5 s, 5 s
5 a v = 4t + 6t 2
b 5 ms−2, −5 ms−2
b 48 m
c 3.125 ms−1
6 a a = 3t 2 − 8t + 4
d v
b 2 , 2 s Particle is slowing down
3
t c 8.25 m
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Past-paper questions Page 288
–10 dy
1 (i) = 36 − 6t
v = 15t − 2t2 − 25 dt
dy
When = 0,  t = 6
–20 dt
(ii) When v = 0, t = 12
(iii) s = 18t2 – t3 (+c)
When t = 12, s = 864
(iv) When s = 0, t = 18
Discussion Point page 286 v = –324
If the velocity is v = 3t2 + 2, the acceleration is given
So speed is 324
by a = dv = 6t . Since this involves t it is not constant.
dt 2 (i) Velocity = 9 m p/s
So you cannot use the constant acceleration formula (ii) Acceleration = −7.8
and must use calculus instead. You can also use
(iii) Distance OP = 1.71
calculus if the acceleration is constant.
3 (i) t = e 5 − 1 or t 2 + 1 = e 5
Exercise 16.2 Page 287 t = 12.1
1 a v = 2t − 3t 2 + 1 , s = t 2 − t 3 + t (ii) distance = 1n 10 – 1n 5
b v = 2t 2 + 4 , s = 2 t 3 + 4t + 3 = 1n 2 or 0.693
3 2t ,  v = 0.8
c v = 4t 3 − 4t + 2 , s = t 4 − 2t 2 + 2t + 1 (iii) v = 2
t +1
d v = 2t + 2 , s = t 2 + 2t + 4
(iv) a =
( t 2 + 1) 2 − 2t ( 2t )
e v = 4t + 1 t 2 + 1 , s = 2t 2 + 1 t 3 + t + 3 (t 2 + 1) 2
2 6
When t = 2,  a = − 6 , or –0.24.
25

333

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 Index
A completing the square 24–6, 40 trigonometrical functions
component form, vectors 211–12 243–6
Index

absolute value see modulus

composite functions 11–13, 18 discriminant, quadratic
acceleration 278, 280
differentiation 252–3 equations 29–30, 33, 40
variable 280–2
convergent series 202–4 displacement 280
amplitude of an oscillating graph
cosecant (cosec) 146 determination from velocity
150, 171
trigonometrical identities 284–6
angles
165–6 displacement–time graphs 278,
positive and negative 143
cosine (cos) 138–40, 170 279, 289
radian measure 131–2
0° and 90° 142–3 distance 280
see also trigonometry
30° and 60° 140–1 distance–time graphs 278, 289
arc length 129–30
45° 141–2 divergent series 203
in radians 132–3
angles of any size 148–50 domain of a function 2–3, 18, 26
arithmetic progressions 192–4
differentiation 243–6 dy see differentiation
key points 208–9
integration 270–3 dx
sum of terms 194–6
trigonometrical identities
arithmetic series 192
163–5 E
arrangements 173–5, 183
cosine graph 151, 171 e 104
ascending powers of x 190
transformations 159–60 see also exponential functions
asymptotes 93, 152
cotangent (cot) 146 elimination method,
trigonometrical identities
B 165–6
simultaneous equations
82–3, 85
base of a logarithm 92 cubic equations 70–2, 79 equation of a straight line 115–17
changing the base 98 using factor theorem 74–5 exponential functions 104
binomial coefficients 186 cubic expressions 68, 79 differentiation 246–9
formula for 187–9 cubic inequalities 52–3 graphs of ex 105–7
tables of 187
integration 270–2
binomial expansion 185–7 D key points 113
of (1 + x)n 190
definite integrals 262–3, 275 notation 291
key points 208
area between a graph and the exponential growth and decay
x-axis 264–8 108–9
C derivative (gradient function) exponential relationships 123–4
calculus see differentiation; 226–30
integration stationary points 231–8 F
CAST rule 150 see also differentiation factorials 173–4, 183
chain rule, differentiation descending powers of x 190 factor theorem 73–5, 79
252–3, 256 differential equations 258 family trees 90–1
circles differentiation 228–9 feasible region of an inequality
arc length 129–30, 132–3, 137 chain rule 252–3 49, 57
notation 128 equations of tangents and flow charts 2
sector area 129–30, 132–3, normals 239–40 fractional indices 59–60
137 ex and ln x 246–9 functions 2, 18
segments of 134 gradient function 226–8 composition of 11–13
circular functions 292 key points 256 domain and range 2–3
see also trigonometry notation 291 inverse 7–9
column vectors 211–12 product rule 249–50 key points 18
combinations 173, 177–9, 183 quotient rule 250–1 modulus function 13–14, 42–3
common difference, arithmetic second derivatives 235–8 notation 291
progressions 192 stationary points 231–8 types of 6–7
common ratio, geometric sums and differences of see also exponential functions;
progressions 198–9 functions 229–30 quadratic functions
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 G inequalities midpoint of a line 117, 127
cubic 52–3 minimum turning points 231–8
Gauss, Carl Friederich 194
illustration of regions 49–50 quadratic functions 21–6
general solution of a differential
illustration on a number line minor sector of a circle 129
equation 258
46–7 modulus 13–14, 18, 42–3, 56
geometric progressions 198–200
modulus inequalities 46–50, of cubic functions 52
infinite 202–4

Index
57 of a vector 212
key points 208–9
practical uses 42 modulus equations 43–5, 56
sum of terms 200–2
quadratic 35–6, 40 modulus inequalities 46–50, 57
geometric series 198
using logarithms 100–1 motion in a straight line 278–80
gradient function (derivative)
infinite geometric progressions definitions, units and notation
226–30
202–4 280
stationary points 231–8
infinite sequences and series finding displacement from
see also differentiation
185 velocity 284–6
gradient of a straight line 116
inflection, points of 231–2 finding velocity from
parallel lines 118
integration 258–61 acceleration 284–5
perpendicular lines 119–20
area between a graph and the graphs of 277–8
graphs
x-axis 264–8 key points 289
area under a curve 264–8
definite integrals 262–8 with variable acceleration
converting a curve to a
ex and ln x 270–2 280–2
straight line 121–4
key points 275–6
of exponential functions 104–7
notation 291 N
gradient function (derivative)
trigonometrical functions negative indices 59
226–30
270–3 negative vectors 212
of logarithms 93–6
inverse functions 7–9, 12, 18 Newton, Isaac 225
of modulus function 43
normals to a curve, equations of
of motion in a straight line J 240, 246, 249
277–9, 289
solving cubic equations 70–2 j 211 notation 290–2
solving cubic inequalities 52–3
solving modulus equations
L O
44–5 length of a line 117–18 one-many mappings 5, 18
solving modulus inequalities logarithms 92 one-one functions 4, 6, 18
47–50 changing the base 98 order of a polynomial 20, 68
solving simultaneous converting a curved graph to a
equations 81 straight line 121–4, 127 P
stationary points 231–8 differentiating ln x 246–9 parallel lines 118, 127
straight line graphs 114–24 graphs of 93–7 particles 278
of trigonometrical functions integrating ln x 270 particular solution of a
150–61 key points 113 differential equation 258
y = Abx 123–4 laws of 96–7 Pascal’s triangle (Chinese
y = axn 121–2 notation 291 triangle) 186
see also quadratic curves use to solve equations 98–9 perfect squares 25, 40
use to solve inequalities periodic functions
I 100–1 cosine graph 151
i 211 sine graph 150
identities, trigonometrical 163–6
M tangent graph 151–2
indefinite integrals 258–61, 275 magnitude see modulus period of an oscillation 150, 171
indices (singular: index) 58 major sector of a circle 129 permutations 176–7, 183
fractional 59–60 many-many mappings 5, 18 perpendicular lines 119–20, 127
key points 67 many-one functions 4, 6–7, 18 points of inflection 52
multiplying and dividing 58 mappings 1, 18 polynomials 20, 68, 185
negative 59 four types of 3–5 factor theorem 73–5
raising to a power 59 key points 18 finding factors 72
zero index 59 maximum turning points 231–8 key points 79
see also logarithms quadratic functions 21–4 multiplication and division 69

335

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 remainder theorem 76–7 trigonometrical identities expanding brackets 62–3
solving cubic equations 70–2 165–6 key points 67
see also quadratic equations; second derivatives 235–8 rationalising the denominator
quadratic functions sectors of a circle, area of 129, 63
position vectors 211 132–3 simplifying 61–2
powers see indices; logarithms segments of a circle 134 symbols 290
Index

principal values of sequences 184–5

trigonometrical functions arithmetic progressions 192–6 T
153 geometric progressions tangent (tan) 138–40, 170
product rule, differentiation 198–204 0° and 90° 142–3
249–50, 256 key points 208–9 30° and 60° 140–1
series 185 45° 141–2
Q arithmetic 192, 194–6 angles of any size 148–50
quadratic curves 20 convergent and divergent differentiation 243–6
for certain values of x 26 202–4 integration 270
intersection with a straight simultaneous equations 80 trigonometrical identities
line 30–3 elimination method 82–3, 85 163–5
quadratic equations graphical solution 81 tangent graph 151–2, 171
completing the square 24–6 key points 89 transformations 161
discriminant 29–30, 33, 40 non-linear 86–7 tangents to a curve 31–2
factorising 22–4 solving everyday problems equations of 239–40, 246, 248
key points 39–40 84–5 terms of a sequence 184
solving equations involving substitution method 83–4 time 280
square roots 51 sine (sin) 138–40, 170 transformations
quadratic expressions 68 0° and 90° 142–3 of logarithmic graphs 93–7
quadratic formula 28–30 30° and 60° 140–1 of trigonometrical graphs
quadratic functions 20–1 45° 141–2 156–61, 172
key points 39 angles of any size 148–50 translations
maximum or minimum points differentiation 243–6 of logarithmic graphs 93–4, 96
21–2 integration 270–2 of trigonometrical graphs
use in problem solving 34 trigonometrical identities 157, 160–1
quadratic inequalities 35–6, 40 163–5 trigonometrical equations
quadrats 41 sine graph 150, 171 152–4, 166–7
quartic expressions 68 transformations 156–61 trigonometrical graphs 150–2,
quintic expressions 68 speed 278, 280 171
quotient rule, differentiation square roots, equations transformations 156–61, 172
250–1, 256 involving 51 use to solve equations 152–4,
stationary points 231–8 167
R maximum and minimum points trigonometrical identities
radian measure 131–2, 137 21–6, 232–8, 245, 247–8 163–6, 172
arc length and area of a sector straight line graphs 114–15 trigonometry
132–3 intersection with a quadratic 0° and 90° 142–3
range (image set) of a function curve 30–3 30° and 60° 140–1
2–3, 18, 26 key points 127 45° 141–2
reflections of logarithmic graphs length of a line 117–18 angles of any size 148–50
93, 95 midpoint of a line 117 CAST rule 150
remainder theorem 76–7, 79 y = mx + c 115–17 differentiating trigonometrical
resultant vectors 215–16 stretches 158–9 functions 243–6
roots of a polynomial of trigonometrical graphs integrating trigonometrical
cubic equations 70–2 156–7, 160 functions 270–3
quadratic equations 28 substitution method, key points 170–2
simultaneous equations principal values of functions
S 83–4 153
summation 185 reciprocal functions 146
scalars 210
surds 61 in right-angled triangles
secant (sec) 146
adding and subtracting 62 138–47
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 turning points 231 applications of 219–20 vertical line of symmetry,
maximum and minimum key points 224 quadratic functions 21–4,
points 21–6, 232–8, 245, multiplication by a scalar 215 26
247–8 notation 292 Viète, François 19
quadratic functions 21–6 terminology and notation
210–13 Y
U

Index
unit vectors 217 y = Abx 123–4, 127
unit vectors 211, 217 zero vector 217 y = axn 121–2, 127
velocity 280 y = mx + c 115–17, 127
V application of vectors 219–20
vectors determination from Z
addition and subtraction acceleration 284–5 zero index 59
215–17, 218 velocity–time graphs 278, 289 zero vector 217

337

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