MATHEMATICS SUPPORT MATERIAL - 2020

CONTENT
C1: Numbers

 Different types of numbers – Multiples and factors – Powers and roots –Directed Numbers –
Order of operations – Rounding numbers.
 Fractions: Equivalent fractions – Operations on fractions – Percentages – Standard form –
Estimation.
 Venn diagrams
 Sequences – Rational and Irrational numbers – Sets.
 Measurement: Units – Time – Upper and lower bounds – conversion graphs – more money.
 Earning money – Borrowing and investing money – Buying and selling.
 Ratio and scale – Rates – Kinematic graphs – Proportion – Direct and inverse proportion in
algebraic terms – increasing and decreasing amounts by a given ratio.

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NUMBERS
Natural numbers: Are positive integers, either "Counting Numbers".
{1, 2, 3, 4 …}
Integers: Are whole numbers, including negative numbers.
{-2, -1, 0, 2, 4 …}
Rationals: Are numbers that can be expressed as
𝑝
the quotient or fraction 𝑞
of two integers, a numerator p and a non-zero denominator q. The decimal
expansion of a rational number always either terminates after a finite number of digits or begins
to repeat the same finite sequence of digits over and over.
{1/5, 2/68, -53/3, -1/2, 0.1515 …}

Irrationals: is the set of numbers that includes √2, π (Pi), e (Euler number), and φ (Golden ratio). The
decimal expansion of an irrational number continues without repeating.
Reals: Are values that represent a quantity along a line. Almost all of them are uncountable, that’s why
the set of Reals is formed mainly by irrationals.
Triangles: A triangular number or triangle number counts the objects that can form an equilateral
triangle, as in the diagram below:

Primes: Are natural numbers greater than 1 that have no positive divisors other than 1 and itself.
{1, 2, 3, 5, 7 …}
Squares: Are the product of some integer with itself. They are also called perfect square.
E.g.: 3x3 = 9, so 9 is a square number.
{1, 4, 9, 16, 25 …}
Cubes: Are the results of using a whole number in a multiplication three times.
E.g.: 3 × 3 × 3 = 27, so 27 is a cube number.
{1, 8, 27, 64, 125 …}
Even numbers: Are the integers that can be divided exactly by 2. Their last digit is always: 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
{-22, -16, 0, 4, 6 …}
Odd numbers: Are the integers that can’t be divided exactly by 2. Their last digit is always: 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9.
{-17, -1, 0, 3, 9 …}

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LCM & HCF
A multiple of a number is the result of the multiplication of this number with another integer. E.g.: 4 and
6 are multiples of 2, because 2x2 = 4 and 2x3 = 6.
A common multiple is a number that is multiple of two or more other numbers at the same time.
The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) between two or more numbers is the least of all the numbers that
they share as common multiples.
A factor is a number that can be multiplied with another factor to get another number. E.g.: 2 and 3 are
factors of 6, because 2x3 = 6.
A common factor is a number that is factor of two or more other numbers at the same time.
So, the Highest Common Factor (HCF) between two or more numbers is the greatest of all the numbers
that they share as common factors.
PRIME FACTORS
These are factors of a number that are also prime numbers. You can write any number as a product of
prime factors. Remember that 1 itself is not a prime number, so you can’t use it to write a number as
the product of its prime factors.
Here are the prime numbers until 1000.

You can use the product of prime factors to find the HCF or the LCM of two or more numbers.
FACTOR TREE
And a "Factor Tree" can help you find any factors of the number, then the factors of those numbers, etc,
until we can't factor any more.
E.g.:
48 = 8 × 6, so you write down "8" and "6" below 48
Now you continue and factor 8 into 4 × 2
Then 4 into 2 × 2

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And lastly 6 into 3 × 2
So, you can't factor anymore, so you have found the prime factors.
This reveals that 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 (or 48 = 24 × 3 using exponents).
Which is the importance of prime factors?
A prime number can only be divided by 1 or itself, so it cannot be factored any further! Every other
whole number can be broken down into prime number factors.
This idea can be very useful when working with big numbers, such as in Cryptography.
Cryptography is the study of secret codes. Prime Factorization is very important to people who try to
make (or break) secret codes based on numbers. That is because factoring very large numbers is very
hard, and can take computers a long time to do.
POWERS
An “index”, or a “power”, is the small floating number that goes next to a number
or letter. The plural of index is “índices”.
Indices show how many times a number or letter called “base” has been multiplied
by itself.
𝑎2 (read as '𝑎 squared') means 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎. “𝑎” has been multiplied by itself twice. The
index, or power, here is 2.
𝑎3 (read as ‘𝑎 cubed') means 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎. “𝑎” has been multiplied by itself three times.
𝑎4 (read as '𝑎 to the power of 4') means 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎. “𝑎” has been multiplied by itself four times, and
so on.
𝑎1 (read as 'a to the power of 1') is often written as simply “𝑎”.
LAW OF INDICES
Addition of powers:
If 𝑐 3 = 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐, and 𝑐 2 = 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐, then:
𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑐 2 = 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐. Writing the indices out in full shows that 𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑐 2 means “c” has now been
multiplied by itself 5 times. This means 𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑐 2 can be simplified to 𝑐 5 .
RULE: When there are equal bases multiplying, the powers can be added together.
Subtraction of powers:
Dividing indices uses the same rules as simplifying fractions. Any common factors of
the numerator and denominator can be divided through the sum.
𝑏5
E.g.: Simplify 𝑏3 .
𝑏𝑥𝑏𝑥𝑏𝑥𝑏𝑥𝑏
Writing out the denominator and numerator in full, gives 𝑏𝑥𝑏𝑥𝑏
. There are common factors of b in
𝑏𝑥𝑏
the numerator and denominator and these can be cancelled out, giving 1
which leaves 𝑏𝑥𝑏 = 𝑏 2 .
𝑏5
This means can be simplified to 𝑏 5−3 = 𝑏 2 .
𝑏3

RULE: When there are equal bases dividing (or in fractions), the powers can be subtracted together.
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Raising a power to a power:
When there is a power raised to another exponent, just like: (𝑘 3 )2.
This means that 𝑘 3 is to be squared, or multiplied by 𝑘 3 again.
So, (𝑘 3 )2 = 𝑘 3 𝑥𝑘 3 . Appling “addition of powers”, we can write: 𝑘 3 𝑥𝑘 3 = 𝑘 3+3 = 𝑘 6.
Finally, (𝑘 3 )2 = 𝑘 3𝑥2 = 𝑘 6
RULE: When powers are raised to another power, they can be multiplied together.
Raising a number or letter to zero:
When a fraction has the same numerator and denominator, it can be simplified to 1.
𝑎 𝑎2
This means that 𝑎
= 1, or 𝑎2
= 1.

𝑎2
But also, according to de rule of subtraction of powers, 𝑎2 = 𝑎2−2 = 𝑎0
𝑎2
So, that can be expressed as = 𝑎0 = 1.
𝑎2

RULE: Every power with zero as index, results one.

ROOTS
Square roots
A square root is defined as a number which when multiplied by itself gives a real non-negative number
called a square.
A square root is best defined using geometry where, considering a square (the four sided polygon whose
sides are all equal), the square root of the number that represents the sum of all the sides of the square
is the length of the diagonal of this (a line drawn from one vertex/corner to the opposite vertex of the
shape).
A radical is a root of a number. A square root is a radical. Roots can be square, cube, fourth and so on.

A square root is commonly shown as “√𝑎2 = 𝑎”. Where is known as the radical sign and is known
as the radicand.
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑎2
1 1
A square root of a number can also be represented as: “ 𝑥 2 ”, and a radical as: “ 𝑥 𝑛 ”.
𝑛
A radical can also be represented as: “ √𝑥 ”
Every square has two square roots; one positive and the other negative. This is shown as:
1
𝑥 2 = +√𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − √𝑥 = +/−√𝑥
This can be proved in the following way. Consider a number,
+𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 𝑎2
but also
−𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 = 𝑎2

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Root properties
Properties of square roots and radicals guide us on how to deal with roots when they appear in algebra.

 √𝑥 ∗ √𝑦 = √𝑥 ∗ 𝑦
 √𝑥 + 𝑦 ≠ √𝑥 + √𝑦
𝑥 √𝑥
 √𝑦 =
√𝑦

 𝑎√𝑥 + 𝑏√𝑥 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)√𝑥

 𝑎√𝑥 − 𝑏√𝑥 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)√𝑥
 𝑎√𝑥 = √𝑎2 ∗ 𝑥
ORDER OF OPERATIONS
1. Do things in Parentheses First

6 × (5 + 3) = 6×8 = 48

6 × (5 + 3) = 30 + 3 = 33 (wrong)

2. Exponents (Powers and Roots) before Multiply, Divide, Add or Subtract

5 × 22 = 5×4 = 20

5 × 22 = 102 = 100 (wrong)

3. Multiply or Divide before you Add or Subtract

2+5×3 = 2 + 15 = 17

2+5×3 = 7×3 = 21 (wrong)

4. If you have Multiplication and Division only just go left to right… Same for Addition and
Subtraction

30 ÷ 5 × 3 = 6×3 = 18

30 ÷ 5 × 3 = 30 ÷ 15 = 2 (wrong)

How do I remember it all...? PEMDAS!

-Popcorn Every Monday, Donuts Always Sunday-

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STANDARD FORM/SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
The scientific notation is a way of expressing numbers that are too big or too small to be conveniently
written in decimal form. It is commonly used by scientists, mathematicians and engineers.
The number is written in two parts:
First, only the digits of the number (with the decimal point placed after the first digit).
Then, “×10” raised to a power that puts the decimal point where it should be.
Some large numbers…

E.g.:

Decimal notation Scientific notation

2 2×100

300 3×102

4,321.768 4.321768×103

−53,000 −5.3×104

6,720,000,000 6.72×109

0.2 2×10−1

0.000 000 007 51 7.51×10−9

ROUNDING NUMBERS
You may be asked to round numbers to a given number of decimal places or to a given number of
significant figures.
To round to decimal place:
Look at the value of the digit to the right of the place you are rounding to
If this value is =5 or > 5 then you round up (add 1 to the digit you are rounding to)
If this value is =4 or < 4 then you leave the digit you are rounding to as it is
To round to a significant figure:
The first non-zero digit (before or after the decimal place in a number) is the first significant figure. They
are the digits which give us useful information about the accuracy of a measurement.
There are three rules on determining how many significant figures are in a number:
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  Non-zero digits are always significant.
 Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.
 A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are significant.
E.g.:
3.14159 has six significant digits. That is to say, all the numerals ("digits") give us useful information.
1000 has one significant digit: only the 1 is interesting (only it tells us anything specific); we don't know
anything for sure about the hundreds, tens, or units places; the zeroes may just be placeholders.
1000.0 has five significant digits because the ".0" tells us something interesting about the presumed
accuracy of the measurement being made (accurate to the tenths place).
0.00035 has two significant digits: only the 3 and 5 tell us something; the other zeroes are placeholders,
only providing information about relative size.
0.000350 has three significant digits: the last zero tells us that the measurement was made accurate to
that last digit, which just happened to have a value of zero.
Addition and subtraction rule of significant figures
The sum of the numbers cannot be more precise than the least precise number. You do not really use
significant digits.
E.g.:
245,568 + 35,2 = 280,768  280,8
Multiplication and division rule of significant figures
The LEAST number of significant figures in any number of the problem determines the number of
significant figures in the answer.
This means you MUST know how to recognize significant figures in order to use this rule.
E.g.:
2,51 * 35 = 87,85  88

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FRACTIONS
A fraction is part of a whole number.
𝑎
Common fractions (also called vulgar fractions) are written in the form . The number on the top, a, can
𝑏
be any number and it is called the numerator. The number of the bottom, b, can be any number except
0 and is called the denominator. The numerator and the denominator are separated by an horizontal
line.
Proper fraction: when the numerator is less than the denominator.
Improper fraction: when the numerator is more than the denominator.
Mixed fraction: a whole number and a proper fraction together.
CHANGE DECIMAL NUMBERS TO FRACTIONS
To convert a Decimal to a Fraction follow these steps:

 Step 1: Write down the decimal divided by 1.

 Step 2: Multiply both top and bottom by 10 units for every number after the decimal point. (For
example, if there are two numbers after the decimal point, then use 100, if there are three then
use 1000...)
 Step 3: Simplify (or reduce) the fraction.
E.g.: 0,71 -> 71/100
Recurring/Repeating decimals:
A decimal number that has digits that repeat forever.

To convert a Repeating decimal into a fraction, follow these steps:

Case N°1, one repeated decimal.

 Step 1: write the repeating number as an equation. Pick one variable and write…
𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝟒 …
 Step 2: multiply by ten raised to the number of repeated figures that the number has, in both
sides…
101 ∗ 𝑥 = 101 ∗ 𝟎, 𝟒 …
 Step 3: solve…
10 ∗ 𝑥 = 4,4 …
 Step 4: take away the repeating number in both sides…
10𝑥 − 𝟎, 𝟒 … = 4,4 … − 𝟎, 𝟒 …
 Step 5: using the first equality, replace it in the equation and solve…
10𝑥 − 𝒙 = 4
 Step 6: clear the variable
9𝑥 = 4

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 4
𝑥=
9
Case N°2, one non-repeated decimal and two more repeated.
 Step 1: same as before…
𝑥 = 0,83636 …
 Step 2: multiply by 10 raised to the number of places you need to move the non-repeated
number, in both sides…
101 ∗ 𝑥 = 101 ∗ 0,83636 …
 Step 3: solve…
𝟏𝟎𝒙 = 𝟖, 𝟑𝟔𝟑𝟔 …
 Step 4: multiply by 10 raised to the number of repeated numbers you have, in both sides…
100 ∗ 10𝑥 = 100 ∗ 8,3636 …
 Step 5: solve…
1000𝑥 = 836,36 …
 Step 6: take away the repeating number obtained in Step 3, in both sides…
1000𝑥 − 𝟖, 𝟑𝟔𝟑𝟔 … = 836,36 … − 𝟖, 𝟑𝟔𝟑𝟔 …
 Step 5: using the equality obtained in Step 3, replace it in the equation and solve…
1000𝑥 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 = 828
 Step 6: clear the variable
990𝑥 = 828
828
𝑥=
990
CHANGE FRACTIONS TO DECIMAL NUMBERS
To convert a Fraction to a Decimal, follow these steps:
Step 1: Find a number you can multiply by the bottom of the fraction to make it 10, or 100, or 1000, or
any 1 followed by 0s.
Step 2: Multiply both top and bottom by that number.
Step 3: Then write down just the top number, putting the decimal point in the correct spot (one space
from the right hand side for every zero in the bottom number).
-E.g. N°1: Convert 3/16 to a Decimal
Step 1: We have to multiply 16 by 625 to become 10.000
Step 2: Multiply top and bottom by 625:
Step 3: Write down 1875 with the decimal point 4 spaces from the right (because 10.000 has 4 zeros);
Answer = 0,1875
-E.g. N°2: Convert 1/3 to a Decimal
Step 1: There is no way to multiply 3 to become 10 or 100 or any "1 followed by 0s", but we can
calculate an approximate decimal by choosing to multiply by 333.
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Step 2: Multiply top and bottom by 333:
Step 3: Now, 999 is nearly 1.000, so let us write down 333 with the decimal point 3 spaces from the right
(because 1.000 has 3 zeros):
Answer = 0,333 (accurate to only 3 decimal places)
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
Is you multiply or divide both the numerator ans the denominator by the same number, the new faction
still represents the same amount of the whole number as the original fraction. The new fraction is
known as an equivalent fraction.
E.g.:
2 2∗4 8 25 25:5 5
3
= 3∗4 = 12 ; 35
= 35:5 = 7

Notice in the second example that the original fraction has been divided to smaller terms and that as 5
and 7 have no common factor other than 1, the fraction cannot be divided any further. The fraction is
now expressed in its simplest form (sometimes called the lowest terms).
So, simplifying a fraction means expressing it using the lowest possible terms.

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ESTIMATION
Estimation is finding a number that is close enough to the right answer.
You are not trying to get the exact right answer, what you want is something that is good
enough (usually in a hurry!)
Imagine you walk around and live your life, applying estimation then you could easily estimate:

 how much a bill will be

 which item is the best value for money
 the size, areas and angles of things…
Also, it would be great if you could quickly guess how many people are in a room, how many cars in the
street, how many boxes on the shelf, or even how many seagulls on the beach.
We are not talking exact answers here, but answers that are good enough for your life.
Tips and triks

 Concentrate on the first digit of each number... it will have the biggest impact on the answer.
You can then look at the other digits to make small adjustments to your answer.
E.g.: 2156 + 3809.
Add 2000 and 3000 to get 5000. Then look at the rest of the numbers: "156 plus 809 is nearly a
thousand", so increase your answer to 6000.
 Round the numbers up or down before the calculation.
E.g.: 206 × 390.
Because 206 is nearly 200, and 390 is nearly 400, the answer will be close to
200 × 400 = 80.000
 Check the number of zeros in your calculation!
In the previous example we calculated 200 × 400 = 80.000. How did we know how many zeros?
After multiplying 2×4 to get 8, I took the two zeros from 200 plus the two zeros from 400, to make four
zeros after the 8: 80000

 When adding a lot of similar numbers, look at the numbers and choose an average, and then
multiply that average by how many numbers
E.g.: What is 345 + 380 + 310 + 375 + 330 + 362?
There are 6 numbers, which seem to be around 350:
6 × 350 = 2100

 When doing division, change the numbers to fit in with the multiplication tables
E.g.: what is 176 divided by 3?
Change 176 to 180 (because 3×6=18) and then do:
180 / 3 = 60
Finally adjust a little lower to 59

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  Group numbers together that will be easy to work on
E.g.: what is 52 × 13 × 20.
The two outer number, 52 and 20 multiply to be about 1000 (5×2=10),
THEN multiply by 13 to get 13.000

 With decimals, percents and fractions try to think what the number means. Think: is it close to
1? Close to half? Close to zero?
E.g.: 1,6 × 30.
1,6 is close to 1,5, which is 1 and a half.
So 1,6 × 30 is close to 30 plus half of 30, which is 30 + 15 = 45.
Adjust a little higher for an estimate of 47

 A percentage is like a decimal: 10% is 0,1, 50% is 0,5, etc.

E.g.: what is 20% of $15?
20% is 0,2, or two-tenths.
One tenth of $15 is $1,50, so two tenths is $3,00
 Also, a fraction might be close to zero, close to half or close to one.
E.g.: what is 4/9 times 12?
4/9 is nearly half so the answer must be close to half of 12, or 6.

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VENN DIAGRAMS
Sets
A set is a collection of things.
For example, the items you wear is a set that includes: socks, shirt, pants, jacket, and so on.
You write de sets inside curly brackets:
{𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑠, 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑡, 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡, … }
You can also have sets of numbers, like:
 Hole numbers: {−1, 0, 1, 2, … }
 Prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, … }
Let’s make a set made up of your seven best friends, called set “A”:
𝐴 = {𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑥, 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑦, 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑤, 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑠, ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑗𝑎𝑑𝑒}
Now, let’s say that Alex, Casey, Drew and Hunter play Soccer and also that Casey, Drew and Jade play
Tennis.
The set of best friends who play Soccer is called set “B” and the set of tennis players is called “C”:
𝐵 = {𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑥, 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑦, 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑤, ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟}
𝐶 = {𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑦, 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑤, 𝑗𝑎𝑑𝑒}
We will draw the sets in two different circles to build a Venn Diagram:

Union:
You can list the friends that play football or tennis, using the union of the diagrams which is represented
with the symbol: “ᴗ”.
𝐵ᴗ𝐶 = {𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑥, 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑦, 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑤, ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑗𝑎𝑑𝑒}
And the graphic representation for this case would be:

What information can you see in this Venn Diagram?

1. All the Soccer players
2. All the Tennis players
3. The friends that are both Soccer and Tennis players!
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Intersection:
In this case, you can list the friends that only are in BOTH sets. That means, the ones who play Soccer
AND Tennis, which are: Casey and Drew.
You can represent them by using the intersection of two sets, using the symbol: “ᴖ”.
𝐵ᴖ𝐶 = {𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑦, 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑤}
And the graphic representation:

Empty set:
An empty set has no elements:
𝑋 = {} = Ф
Universal set:
An universal set has everything. But everything that we are interested in.
𝑈 = {𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑥, 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑦, 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑤, 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑠, ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑗𝑎𝑑𝑒}

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SEQUENCES
A sequence can be thought of as a set whose elements (items in the list) have been listened in a
particular order, with some connection between the elements.
Infinite or Finite
When the sequence goes on forever it is called an infinite sequence, otherwise it is a finite sequence.
E.g.:
{1, 2, 3, 4...} is a very simple sequence (and it is an infinite sequence).
{20, 25, 30, 35...} is also an infinite sequence.
{1, 3, 5, 7} is the sequence of the first 4 odd numbers (finite).
{4, 3, 2, 1} is 4 to 1 backwards.
{1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32...} is an infinite sequence where every term doubles.
{a, b, c, d, e} is the sequence of the first 5 letters alphabetically.
{f, r, e, d} is the sequence of letters in the name "fred".
{0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1...} is the sequence of alternating 0s and 1s (It is an alternating order in this case)
In Order
When we say the terms are "in order", we are free to define what order that is. They could go forwards,
backwards... or they could alternate...
Like a Set
A Sequence is like a Set, except:

 The terms are in order (with Sets the order does not matter).
 The same value can appear many times (only once in Sets).
E.g.: {0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1...} is the sequence of alternating 0s and 1s.
The set is just {0,1}
Notation

Sequences also use the same notation as sets: list each element, separated by a comma, and then
put curly brackets around.

The curly brackets { } are sometimes called "set brackets" or "braces".

A Rule
A Sequence usually has a Rule, which is a way to find the value of each term.
Example: the sequence {3, 5, 7, 9...} starts at 3 and jumps 2 every time:

As a Formula
Saying "starts at 3 and jumps 2 every time" is fine, but it doesn't help us calculate the:
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100th term, or
nth term,
where n could be any term number we want.
So, we want a formula with "n" in it (where n is any term number).
Firstly, we can see the sequence goes up 2 every time, so we can guess that a Rule is something like "2
times n" (where "n" is the term number), but also we know that the first term is 3, so lets test Rule:
2n+1

n Term Test Rule

1 3 2n+1 = 2×1 + 1 = 3

2 5 2n+1 = 2×2 + 1 = 5

3 7 2n+1 = 2×3 + 1 = 7

Now we can calculate, for example, the 100th term in an easy way:
2 × 100 + 1 = 201
Many Rules
We can find more than one Rule that works for the same sequence.
E.g.: the sequence {3, 5, 7, 9...}
We have just write down the Rule for {3, 5, 7, 9...} is: 2n+1
And so we get: {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13...}
Another Rule could be "odd numbers without a 1 in them":
And we get: {3, 5, 7, 9, 23, 25...}
A completely different sequence!
And we could find more rules that match {3, 5, 7, 9...}.
So it is best to say "A Rule" rather than "The Rule" (unless we know it is the right Rule).
Notation
Each number, letter or object in the sequence is called a “term”. Any two terms that are next to each
other are called consecutive terms.

xn is the term
n is the term number

E.g.:
Calculate the first 4 terms of this sequence:
{an} = {(-1/n)n }
Calculations:
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a1 = (-1/1)1 = -1
a2 = (-1/2)2 = 1/4
a3 = (-1/3)3 = -1/27
a4 = (-1/4)4 = 1/256
Answer:
{an} = {-1, 1/4, -1/27, 1/256...}
Special Sequences
Now let's look at some special sequences, and their rules.
Arithmetic Sequences
In an Arithmetic Sequence the difference between one term and the next is a constant.
In other words, we just add some value each time on to infinity.
E.g.: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22…
This sequence has a difference of 3 between each number.
Its Rule is xn = 3n-2
In general, we can write an arithmetic sequence like this:
{a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, ...}
Where “a” is the first term and “d” is the difference between the terms or "common difference".
And we can make the rule:
xn = a + d(n-1)
(We use "n-1" because “d” is not used in the 1st term).
Geometric Sequences
In a Geometric Sequence each term is found by multiplying the previous term by a constant.
E.g.: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128…
This sequence has a factor of 2 between each number.
Its Rule is xn = n2
In general, we can write a geometric sequence like this:
{a, ar, ar2, ar3...}
Where: “a” is the first term and “r” is the factor between the terms or "common ratio".
Note: r should not be 0.
When r = 0, we get the sequence {a, 0, 0...} which is not geometric.
And the rule is:
xn = arn-1
(We use "n-1" because ar0 is the 1st term)

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MEASUREMENT
Basic units
Length: how long or tall is something. The units that are used are:
 Millimeters (mm)
𝟏𝒎𝒎 = 0,1𝑐𝑚 = 0,001𝑚 (1𝑥10−3 ) = 0,000001𝑘𝑚 (1𝑥10−6 )
 Centimeters (cm)
10𝑚𝑚 = 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 0,01𝑚 (1𝑥10−2 ) = 0,00001𝑘𝑚 (1𝑥10−5 )
 Meters (m)
1000𝑚𝑚(1𝑥103 ) = 100𝑐𝑚 = 𝟏𝒎 = 0,001𝑘𝑚 (1𝑥10−3 )
 Kilometers (km)
1000000𝑚𝑚(1𝑥106 ) = 100000𝑐𝑚(1𝑥105 ) = 1000𝑚(1𝑥103 ) = 𝟏𝒌𝒎
Mass: the amount of material in an object (incorrectly called weight). The units that are used are:
 Milligrams (mg)
𝟏𝒎𝒈 = 0,001𝑔 (1𝑥10−3 ) = 0,000001𝑘𝑔 (1𝑥10−6 ) = 1𝑥10−9 𝑡
 Grams (g)
1000𝑚𝑔(1𝑥103 ) = 𝟏𝒈 = 0,001𝑘𝑔 (1𝑥10−3 ) = 0,000001𝑔(1𝑥10−6 )𝑡
 Kilograms (kg)
1000000𝑚𝑔(1𝑥106 ) = 1000𝑔(1𝑥103 ) = 𝟏𝒌𝒈 = 0,001𝑡 (1𝑥10−3 )
 Tonnes (t)
1𝑥109 𝑚𝑔 = 1000000𝑔(1𝑥106 ) = 1000𝑘𝑔(1𝑥103 ) = 𝟏𝒕
Capacity: inside volume of a container; how much can hold it. The units that are used are:
 Milliliters (ml)
 Centiliters (cl)
 Liters (l)
Area: the amount of space taken up by a flat (two dimensional) shape, always measured in square units:
 Square millimeter (mm2)
𝟏𝒎𝒎𝟐 = 0,01𝑐𝑚2 = 0,000001𝑚2 (1𝑥10−6 ) = 1𝑥10−12 𝑘𝑚2
 Square centimeter (cm2)
100𝑚𝑚2 = 𝟏𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 0,0001𝑚2 (1𝑥10−4 ) = 0,00001𝑘𝑚 (1𝑥10−10 )
 Square Meter (m2)
1000𝑚𝑚2 (1𝑥106 ) = 10000𝑐𝑚2 (1𝑥104 ) = 𝟏𝒎 = 0,000001𝑘𝑚 (1𝑥10−6 )
 Hectare (ha)
1𝑥1010 𝑚𝑚2 = 1𝑥108 𝑐𝑚2 = 1𝑥104 𝑚2 = 𝟏𝒉𝒂 = 0,01𝑘𝑚2
 Square Kilometer (km2)
1𝑥1012 𝑚𝑚 = 1𝑥1010 𝑐𝑚2 = 1000000𝑚2 (1𝑥106 ) = 𝟏𝒌𝒎
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Volume: the amount of space taken up by a three-dimensional object, in cubic units:

 Cubic millimeter (mm3)

 Cubic centimeter (cm3)
 Cubic Meter (m3)
 Milliliter (ml)
CONVERSION GRAPHS
Sometimes we might need to convert a measurement from one system of units to another, or the other
way around. Conversion graphs
There are different unit systems all over the world, such as Metric, Imperial, international, and others…
Metric Imperial
mm/cm Inches
Meters Feet/yards
Kilometers Miles
E.g.:
From Miles (imperial system) to kilometers (metric system):

From Celsius to Fahrenheit:

From kilograms to pounds/other:

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 From U$S to UK pounds:

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

Unit Quantity Dimension

Name
symbol name symbol

Metre m Length l(small L)

Kilogram kg Mass m

Second s Time t

Ampere A electric current I

Kelvin K Temperature T

Mole mol amount of substance N or n

candela cd luminous intensity (intensity of light) C

TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS
Celsius scale:
Celsius (known until 1948 as centigrade) is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish
astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before
his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a
unit to indicate a temperature interval (a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty).
From 1744 until 1954, 0 °C was defined as the freezing point of water and 100 °C was defined as the
boiling point of water, both at a pressure of one standard atmosphere. Now, the IS defines degrees
centigrade using the absolute zero at -273,15°C, same as 0° K (Kelvin).
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FORMULAE:
5
To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius: 𝑇°𝐶 = 9 ∗ (𝑇°𝐹 − 32)

To convert from Kelvin to Celsius: 𝑇°𝐶 = 𝑇°𝐾 − 273,15

Fahrenheit scale:
Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by the physicist Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit (1686–1736), after whom the scale is named. It uses the degree Fahrenheit (symbol °F) as
the unit. The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points: the temperature at which water freezes
into ice is defined as 32 °F, and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 °F, a 180 °F separation, as
defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure.
FORMULAE:
9
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: 𝑇°𝐹 = 5 ∗ 𝑇°𝐶 + 32
9
To convert from Kelvin to Fahrenheit: 𝑇°𝐹 = 5 ∗ 𝑇°𝐾 − 459,6

Kelvin scale:
The kelvin is a unit of measure for temperature based upon an absolute scale. It is one of the seven base
units in the International System of Units (SI) and is assigned the unit symbol K. The Kelvin scale is an
absolute, thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at
which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics.
FORMULAE:
To convert from Celsius to Kelvin: 𝑇°𝐾 = 𝑇°𝐶 + 273,15
5
To convert from Fahrenheit to Kelvin: 𝑇°𝐾 = (𝑇°𝐹 + 459,67) ∗ 9

MASS CONVERTIONS
Tonnes Kilograms Grams Pounds Ounce
0,001 1 1000 2,205 35,274
1*10-6 0,001 1 0,002205 0,035274
4,54*10-4 0,4536 453,6 1 16
0,02835 28,35 0,0625 1

LENGHT CONVERTIONS
Meter Centimeter Foot Inch
1 100 3,28 39,37
0,01 1 0,0328 0,3937
0,3048 30,48 1 12
0,0254 2,54 0,0833 1

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TIME
Always remember that time is written in hours and minutes, and that there are 60 minutes in an hour.
This is very important when calculating time. If you put 1,5 hours into your calculator, it will assume the
number is decimal and work with parts of 100, not parts of 60. So, you will need to treat minutes and
hours separately.
“You cannot subtract 15min from 5 minutes in the context of time because you can’t have negative
minutes)”
When you have this problem, you should carry one hour over to the minutes, so that 3h 5min becomes
2h 65min.
UPPER AND LOWER BOUNDS
When we are told that a measurement has been rounded to a determinate nearest unit, then there is a
range of possibilities in the measurement that are not shown.
E.g.:
If we are told that a piece of wood is 12cm long to the nearest cm, then what is the range of possible
lengths it could be?
It must be at least 11.5cm long to round up to 12cm., but also it must be less than 12.5cm, to round
down to 12cm. Don’t forget that if it was 12.5cm or more we would round up to 13cm.
Since 11.5 cm is the lower limit, and 12.5cm is the upper limit (not including it) we call these the ‘lower
bound’ and 'upper bound' respectively.

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PERCENTAGES
A percentage is a fraction with a denominator of 100. The symbol used to represent percentage is “%”.
40
To find 40% of 25, you simply need to find: 100 of 25... Using the multiplication of fractions:

40 40 25 2 25 2 5
∗ 25 = ∗ = ∗ = ∗ = 10
100 100 1 5 1 1 1
So, 40% of 25 = 10
Equivalent forms
A percentage can be converted into a decimal by dividing by 100 (notice that the decimal point moves
45 3,1
two places to the left). So, 45% = 100 = 0,45 and 3,1% = 100 = 0,031.

A decimal can be converted to a percentage by multiplying by 100 (notice that the decimal point moves
65 70
two places to the right). So, 0,65 = 100 = 45% and 0,7 = 100 = 70%.

Converting percentages to vulgar fractions (and vice versa) involves a few more stages.
Finding one number as a percentage of another
To write one number as a percentage of another number, you start writing the first as a fraction of the
second number, and then multiply by 100.
E.g.:
16 16 1
= = ∗ 100 = 0,33 … ∗ 100 = 𝟑𝟑, 𝟑 … %
48 48 3
Percentage increases and decreases
Suppose the cost of a book increases from $12 to $15. The actual increase is $3.
3 1
As a fraction of the original value, the increase is = . This is the fractional change and you can write
12 4
this fraction as 25%. In this example, the value of the book has increase by 25% and the original value.
This is called the percentage increase. If the value had reduced (for example if something was on sale in
a shop) then it would have been a percentage decease.
“Always increases and decreases are stated as percentages of the original value”
Increasing and decreasing by a given percentage
If you know what percentage you want to increase or decrease an amount by, you can find the actual
increase or decrease by finding a percentage of the original. And to know the new value, you add the
increase to or subtract the decrease from the original value.
E.g.:
Increase 56 by: 10%
First, you need to calculate 10% of 56 to work out the size of the increase:
10
10% ∗ 56 = ∗ 56 = 5,6
100
Then, you need to add this to the original value:
56 + 5,6 = 𝟔𝟏, 𝟔

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If you want to know just the final value, you can use this method:
First, consider the original to be 100% then adding 10% to this will give 110% of the original. So in
110
fractions, you have to multiply by 100, which gives .

Reverse percentages
Sometimes you are given the value or amount of an item after a percentage increase or decrease has
been applied to it and you need to know what the original value was. To solve this, we are going to use
reverse percentage as in the example:
E.g.:
You know that the actual sale price of an item is $135, and you also know that the reduction in
percentage applied was 10%, so we are going to write it down as an equation, considering that the old
price is 90% of the new one:
90
∗ 𝑋 = 135
100
0,90 ∗ 𝑋 = 135
135
𝑋= = 150
0,9
The old price was $150.
“Remember that it is a mistake to increase the reduced value in 10%.”
WRONG  1,10 ∗ 135 = 148,5

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MANAGING MONEY
Knowing how to work well with money in an important skill that you will use again and again throughout
your life. As you get older, the problems you have to solve may become more complicated as you start
earning and spending money, borrowing money and saving it.
EARNING MONEY
When you work, you earn money (get paid) for the work you do. Earnings can be worked out in different
ways. Make sure you understand and difference the next terms:
 Wages: pay based on a fixed number of hours worked. Usually paid weekly. Extra hours are
called overtime and these are paid at a higher rate.
 Salary: pay based on a fixed yearly amount, usually paid monthly. Overtime may be payed, or
workers may be given time off in exchange.
 Piece work: pay based on the number of items produced.
 Commission: pay based on a percentage of sales made, sometimes a low wage, called a retainer
is paid as well as commission.
Gross income: refers to the total amount a person earns.
Deductions: such as income tax, pension contributions, unemployment and health insurance and union
dues are often taken from the gross income before the person is paid.
Net income: the amount of money that is left over after deductions are taken.
Net income = Gross income – Deductions
BORROWING AND INVESTING MONEY
When you borrow money or buy things on credit, you are normally charged interest for the use of the
money. Similary, when you save or invest money, you are paid interest by the bank or financial
institution in return for allowing them to keep and use your money.
Simple interest
This is a fixed percentage of the original amount borrow or invested.
In other words, if you borrow $100 at an interest rate of 5% per year, you will be charged $5 interest for
every year of the loan.
Simple interest involve adding the interest amount to the original amount at regular intervals. The
formula used to calculate simple interest is:
𝑃𝑅𝑇
𝐼=
100
Where:
𝑃 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑.
𝑅 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆.
𝑇 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆.
E.g.:
1) $500 is invested at 10% per annum simple interest. How much interest is earned in three years?
10% of $500 = $50
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After three years, $50x3 = $150
I = $150
P+I = $500 + $150 = $650
2)
𝑃𝑅𝑇 $500 ∗ 10 ∗ 3 $15000
𝐼= = = = $150
100 100 100
𝑃 = $500
𝑃 + 𝐼 = $500 + $150 = $650
Compound interest
Simple interest is calculated on the original amount saved or borrowed. It is more common, however, to
earn or to be charged COMPOUND INTEREST. With a loan where you are charged compound interest,
the interest is added to an amount you owe at regular intervals so the amount you owe increases for
the next period. When you invest money for a fixed period, you can earn compound interest. In this
case, the interest earn is added to the amount each period and you then earn interest on the amount
plus the interest for the next period.
“They are series of simple interest calculations.”
E.g.:
Priya invests $100 at a rate of 10%, compounded annually. How much money will she have after three
years?
Year N°1:
𝑃𝑅𝑇 100 ∗ 10 ∗ 1
𝐼= = = $10
100 100
𝑃 + 𝐼 = $100 + $10 = $110
Year N°2:
𝑃𝑅𝑇 110 ∗ 10 ∗ 1
𝐼= = = $11
100 100
Noting that the “Principal” for year two is: $110:
𝑃 + 𝐼 = $110 + $11 = $121
Year N°3:
𝑃𝑅𝑇 121 ∗ 10 ∗ 1
𝐼= = = $12,10
100 100
Noting that the “Principal” for year three is: $121:
𝑃 + 𝐼 = $121 + $12,10 = $133,10

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 Total ($)
Year (T) Working using a multiplier
10% interest compounded annually
1 110 100x1.1 = 110
2 121 100x1.1x1.1 = 121
3 133.10 100x1.1x1.1x1.1 = 133.10
4 146.41 100x1.1x1.1x1.1x1.1= 146.41
5 161.05 100x(1.1)5 = 161.05
6 177.16 100x(1.1)6 = 177.16

So, if you pay attention to the last two files in the table, you can deduce the formula to calculate the
value of an investment, for example, when it is subject to compound interest.
𝑟 𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
Where:
P = the amount invested.
r = the percentage rate of interest.
n = the number of years of compound interest.
E.g. (using the formula):
$1500 is invested at 5% p.a. compound interest. What will the investment be worth after 5 years?
𝑟 𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
5 5
𝑉 = 1500 (1 + ) = 1500 ∗ 1.055 = $1914.42
100

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RATIO
Working with ratio
A ratio is a numerical comparison of two amounts in a particular order. The order in which you write the
amounts is very important. It is usually written in the form “a : b”. Ratio is used when working with scale
on maps, models and plans.
E.g.: If there is one teacher for every 25 students in a school, then the ratio of teachers to students is:
1:25.
1
Ratios can also be written as fractions. A ratio of 1:25 can be written as 25 and a ratio of 5:3 can be
5
written as 3.

“When you write down quantities as a ratio, you must make sure they are both on the same units before
you start.”
E.g.: the ratio of 20¢ to $1 is not 20:1, it is 20:100 because there are 100 cents in a peso.
20 2 1
Ratios can be simplified as fractions. E.g.: 𝟐𝟎: 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 100 = 10 = 5 = 𝟏: 𝟓.

Equivalent ratios
They are basically the same as equivalent fractions. If you multiply or divide the terms of the ratio by the
same number (except 0) you get an equivalent ratio.
These are very useful when you need to solve problems involving a missing amount.
Dividing a quantity in a given ratio
Ratios can be used to divide or share quantities. There are different ways to solve these problems, but
now we are going to explain one: The unitary method.
1st: Add the number in the ratio to find the total number of parts involved
2nd: divide the quantity by the total number of parts to find the quantity per part (the value of one part).
3rd: Multiply the values in the ratio by the quantity per part to find the value of each part.
E.g.:
Share $24 between Jess and Anne in the ratio 3 : 5.
1st: 3 + 5 = 8
24
2nd: 8
= 3  Value of one part

3rd:
3 ∗ 3 = 9  Jess gets $9
3 ∗ 5 = 15 Anne gets $15

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SCALES
Scales drawings (maps, plans, etc.) and models are ratios. They can be expressed as:
“𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∶ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ”
The scale of a map, plan or model is usually given as a ratio in the form of 1 : n. E.g.: the architects who
design the new Louvre building for Abu Dhabi made a 6 metres wide scale model of the domed roof
using aluminum rods to test how light would enter the dome. The scale of this model is 1 : 33.
A scale of 1 : 33 means that a unit of measurement on the model must be multiplied by 33 to get the
length (in the same units) of the real building. So if the diameter of the dome in the model was 6 metres,
then the diameter of the real dome will be 6mx33 = 198m.
Expressing a ratio in the form of 1:n
All ratio scales must be expressed in the form of 1 : n or n : 1.
To change a ratio so that one part is equal to 1, you need to divide both parts by the number that you
want to express as 1.
E.g. 1:
Express 5 : 1000 in the form 1 : n.
1st: Decide which part you want to make 1. In this case we are taking 5.
2nd: Divide both parts into 5.
5 1000
𝟓 ∶ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = : = 𝟏: 𝟐𝟎𝟎
5 5
E.g.: 2:
Express 4mm : 50cm as a ratio scale.
1st: Make sure units are both the same  50𝑐𝑚 = 500𝑚𝑚
2nd: Express as a ratio: 𝟒 ∶ 𝟓𝟎𝟎.
3rd: Divide by one of the two numbers to express in the form of 1 : n.
4 500
𝟒 ∶ 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = : = 𝟏: 𝟏𝟐𝟓
4 4

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RATE
Is a comparison of two different quantities. In a rate, the quantity of one thing is usually given in relation
to one unit of the other thing.
“The units of both quantities must be given”
E.g.: 750 ml per bottle or 60Km/h, speed in physics (which compares distance travelled to the time
taken) or beats per minute in medicine…
Other examples of rates in daily life are cost per kilogram of foods, kilometers per litres of petrol and
exchange rates of foreign currencies.
Rates can be simplified just like ratios. They can also be expressed in the form of 1 : n. You solve rate
problems in the same ways you solve ratio and proportion problems.
E.g.:
492 people live in an area of 12km2. Express this as a rate in its simplest terms.
492 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 12𝑘𝑚2
492
𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚2
12
41 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚2
Average speed
This is one of the most commonly used rates. You need to be able to work with speed, distance and time
quantities to solve problems.
Use the distance-time-speed triangle shown at the right when you have to
solve problems related to distance, time or speed.

If you cover the letter of the quantity you need to find, then the remaining letters in the triangle give
you the calculation you need to do: multiplication if they are one beside the other, or division if they are
one above the other.

E.g.:
A bus travels 210 km in three hours, what is the average speed in km/h?
𝐷
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇 . Distance: 210 km, Time: 3 hours.

210𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = 70
3ℎ ℎ

Support material for Maths – 2020

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KINEMATIC GRAPHS
Distance-time graphs
Graphs that show the connection between the distance an object has travelled and the time taken to
travel that distance are called distance-time graphs or travel graphs. On such graphs, time is normally
shown along the horizontal axis and distance on the vertical. The graphs normally start at the origin
because at the beginning no time has elapsed (passed) and no distance has been covered.
Look at the graph. It shows a journey that contains:
 A cycle for 4 minutes from home to a bus stop 1 km away.
 A 2 minutes wait for the bus
 7 km journey on the bus that takes 10 minutes.
The line of the graph remains horizontal while the person is not moving
because no distance is being travelled at this time. The steeper the line,
the faster the person is travelling.
PROPORTION
In Maths, this is an equation or relationship between two ratios. In general, 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑐: 𝑑.
Quantities are said to increase or decrease in proportion if multiplying (or dividing) one quantity by a
value, results in multiplying (or dividing) the other quantity by the same value.
In other words, there is a constant ratio between the corresponding elements of two sets.
Direct Proportion
When two quantities are in direct proportion they increase or decrease at the same rate. In other
words, the ratio of the quantities is equivalent. If there is an increase or decrease in one quantity, the
other will increase or decrease in the same proportion.
Here are some examples of quantities that are in direct proportion:
Speed (km/h) 0 45 60 75 90 120
Distance covered in an hour (km) 0 45 60 75 90 120
As Distance is Speed * time, the faster you drive in a set time, the further you will travel in that time.
So speed is directly proportional to distance.
Number of items 0 1 2 3 4
Mass (kg) 0 2 4 6 8
If one item has a mass of 2 kg, then two of the same item will have a mass of 4kg and so on.
Graphs of directly proportional relationships
If you graph a directly proportional relationship, you will get a
straight line that passes through the origin.
This graph shows the amount of Indian rupees you would get for
different amounts of US dollars at an exchange rate of U$S1:Rs45

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