Syed Mirsab Rizvi

Prof. Emerson
CIS 215
12 May 2020
FINAL
DATA & INFORMATION
When the data is processed and transformed in such a way that it becomes useful to
the users, it is known as ' information '. While data is an unsystematic fact or detail
about something, information is a systematic and filtered form of data, which is useful.

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four
fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and the correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without
introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the
accuracy of the delivered date.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data have to be delivered in a timely manner without
any delay; such a data delivery is called real-time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the
timeliness of data being transmitted.

COMPUTER NETWORK
Computer Networks are used for data communications. A computer network can be
defined as a collection of nodes. A node can be any device capable of transmitting or
receiving data. The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication
links.
There are a few categories of networks:
1. Local Area Networks (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

PROTOCOLS
A Protocol is one of the components of a data communications system. Without a
protocol, communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data
and expect the receiving device to receive and further interpret it correctly. For
successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain
rules called a protocol. A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data
communications.
There are three key elements of a protocol:
 1. Syntax
2. Semantics
3. Timing

ANALOG & DIGITAL

An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the
wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number
of values along its path as can be seen in the figure below. A simple analog signal is a
sine wave that cannot be further decomposed into simpler signals.
Information can also be explained in the form of a digital signal. Digital is a signal that
has discrete values. The signal will have a value that is not continuous. Information in a
digital signal can be represented in the form of voltage levels.

Composite Signal
A composite signal is a combination of two or more simple sine waves with different
frequencies, phases, and amplitudes. If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the composite
signal is non-periodic, the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with
continuous frequencies.

Each composite signal has the lowest possible(minimum) frequency and the highest
possible (maximum) frequency. From the point of view of transmission, there are two
types of channels:

Low pass Channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as ‘0’ and the highest frequency as some
non-zero frequency ‘f1’. This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.

Bandpass channel This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero frequency
‘f1’ and highest frequency as some non-zero frequency ‘f2’. This channel can pass all
the frequencies in the range f1 to f2.

We can easily transmit a signal with a frequency below 100Hz, such a channel whose
bandwidth is more than the bandwidth of the signal is called the Wideband channel.

Logically a signal with frequency say 120Hz will be blocked resulting in loss of
information, such a channel whose bandwidth is less than the bandwidth of the signal is
called Narrowband channel
Bandwidth of a signal

The bandwidth of Signals. The bandwidth of a signal is defined as the difference

between the upper and lower frequencies of a signal generated.

Bandwidth of a channel

Bandwidth refers to the data throughput capacity of any communication channel. As

bandwidth increases, more information per unit of time can pass through the channel. A
simple analogy compares a communication channel to a water pipe.
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel.
The data rate governs the speed of data transmission. A very important consideration in
data communication is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel.
Data rate depends upon 3 factors:
● The bandwidth available
● Number of levels in digital signal
● The quality of the channel – level of noise
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a
noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

Layered task.
In the layered architecture of the Network Model, one whole network process is divided
into small tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer that works
dedicatedly to process the task only.

OSI Model
For IT professionals, the seven layers refer to the Open ​Systems​ Interconnection (OSI)
model, a conceptual framework that describes the functions of a networking or
telecommunication system. The model uses layers to help give a visual description of
what is going on with a particular networking system.

The Physical Layer: The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception
of unstructured raw data between a device and a physical transmission medium.

The Data Link Layer: The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link
between two directly connected nodes.
The Network Layer: The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable length data sequences (called packets) from one node to another
connected in "different networks".

The Transport Layer: The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means
of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host while
maintaining the quality of service functions.

The Session Layer: The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between
computers. It establishes, manages, and terminates the connections between the local
and remote applications.

The Presentation Layer: The presentation layer establishes context between

application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax
and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them.

The Application Layer: The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end-user,
which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the
software application

The OSI Model breaks down this data transfer/communication procedure into different
components called layers. For example, the Physical Layer in which the “physical”
wiring and connections take place, the Data Link Layer in which switching takes place,
etc.

The encapsulation process takes place in the sending computer while the
de-encapsulation process takes place in the receiving computer. After encapsulation,
each layer uses a specific name or term to represent the encapsulated data

Network Layer
1. The main function of this layer is to deliver packets from source to
destination across multiple networks.

2. It provides connection services, including network layer flow control,

network layer error control, and packet sequence control.

3. It translates logical network address into physical machine address i.e the
numbers used as destination IDs in the physical network cards.
Transport Layer
1. The transport layer is responsible for the source to destination delivery of
the entire message.

2. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented.

3. It divides each message into the packets at the source and reassembles
then at the destination.

Session Layer
1. The session layer establishes a session between the communicating devices
called dialog and synchronizes their interaction.

2. The session layer at the sending side accepts data from the presentation layer
adds checkpoints to it called syn bits and passes the data to the transport layer.

3. The checkpoints or synchronization points are a way of informing the status of

the data transfer.

TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set
of standardized rules that allow computers to communicate on a network such as
the internet. It has multiple layers and higher-layer protocols are supported by
lower-layer protocols. It existed even before the OSI model was developed.
Originally had four layers (bottom to top):

1. Host to Network Layer :

The Host to the network layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to the Physical
and Datalink Layer of the OSI model.

The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP reference model. It
combines the link layer and the physical layer of the ISO/OSI model. At this
layer, data is transferred between adjacent network nodes in a WAN or between
nodes on the same LAN.

2. Internet Layer :
 The Network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Network Layer of the
OSI model

The Internet layer in the TCP/IP reference model is responsible for transferring
data between the source and destination computers. The Internet layer accepts
data from the Transport layer and passes the data to the Network Interface
layer.

3. Transport Layer :
The Transport Layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to the Transport Layer of
the OSI model

The Transport Layer in TCP/IP Model. The transport layer is responsible for
error-free, end-to-end delivery of data from the source host to the destination
host. It facilitates the communicating hosts to carry on a conversation. It
provides an interface for the users to the underlying network.
The transport layer contains three protocols:
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
I. TCP is a reliable connection-oriented, reliable protocol. i.e. a connection is
established between the sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted.

UDP – User Datagram Protocol

I. UDP is a simple protocol used for the process to process transmission. It is an
unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not require flow
control or error control.

SCTP – Stream Control Transmission Protocol

I. SCTP is a relatively new protocol added to the transport layer of the TCP/IP
protocol suite. It combines the features of TCP and UDP.

4. Application Layer :
The Application layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to the Application Layer
of Session, Presentation & Application Layer of OSI model.

The application layer is the highest abstraction layer of the TCP/IP model that
provides the interfaces and protocols needed by the users. It combines the
 functionalities of the session layer, the presentation layer, and the application
layer of the OSI model. It facilitates the user to use the services of the network

ADDRESSING IN TCP/IP

The TCP/IP protocol suited involves 4 different types of addressing:

1. Physical Address
i. Physical Address is the lowest level of address, also known as link address.
ii. It is local to the network to which the device is connected and unique inside
it.

2. Logical Address

i. Logical Addresses are used for universal communication.

Ii. Logical Address is also called as IP Address (Internet Protocol address).
iii. IP addresses are universally unique. iv. Currently, there are two versions of
IP addresses being used:
a. IPv4: 32-bit address, capable of supporting 232 nodes
b. IPv6: 128-bit address, capable of supporting 2128 nodes

3. Port Address

i. A logical address facilitates the transmission of data from source to destination

device. But the source and the destination both may be having multiple processes
communicating with each other.

4. Specific Address

i. Port addresses address facilitates the transmission of data from process to process
but still, there may be a problem with data delivery

ii. Again the responsibility of the port address is over here and there is a need for
addressing that helps identify the different instances of the same process.

IP PROTOCOL – IPV4
IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used for packet-switched networks. It operates on a
best-effort delivery model, in which neither delivery is guaranteed, nor proper
sequencing or avoidance of duplicate delivery is assured. Internet Protocol Version 4
(IPv4) is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol and a widely used protocol in data
communication over different kinds of networks. IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used
in packet-switched layer networks, such as Ethernet. It provides a logical connection
between network devices by providing identification for each device. There are many
ways to configure IPv4 with all kinds of devices – including manual and automatic
configurations – depending on the network type.

IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses for Ethernet communication in five classes: A, B, C, D and
E. Classes A, B, and C have a different bit length for addressing the network host.
Class D addresses are reserved for military purposes, while class E addresses are
reserved for future use.

IPv4 uses 32-bit (4 bytes) addressing, which gives 232 addresses. IPv4 addresses are
written in the dot-decimal notation, which comprises of four octets of the address
expressed individually in decimal and separated by periods, for instance, 192.168.1.5.

ENCODING
In communications and information processing, encoding is the process by which
information from a source is converted into symbols to be communicated. In a computer
system, we have to use encoding to represent the Information in the format that
computer understands i.e. “binary” language. Encoding enables us to improve
communication in places where written languages are difficult to use or impossible.

MINIMIZING ERRORS
One way to represent the information is to use sound beep. The different sound
intensities can be utilized to represent around 162 different symbols. Practically we
won‘t be able to distinguish between all 162 sound levels. So it will lead to errors in
identifying a symbol correctly. We should follow the representation that minimizes the
errors.

MULTIMEDIA

Now a day the computers that we use have additional facilities such as:
1. Drawing, capturing, storing, and viewing pictures of different formats.
2. Recording, storing the sound/songs, and playing them back.
3. Capturing, editing, storing the video information, and playing them back.
Since the video, pictures are not made of alphabets; we cannot represent them with the
help of the character codes like ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) or EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code), etc.
So we use the concept of multimedia in order to code the picture or videos.

With the help of multimedia techniques, it‘s possible to use the computer system to
store, play, and process the audio, video, and picture information along with the textual
data.

Pictures/Images:
We can represent the data in the form of Images / Pictures. Images are represented by
the pixels i.e. the smallest element in the picture.

Video:
The animation is used as a basic technique for creating videos. We get the animation if
we show a set of pictures rapidly, the human eye gets an illusion that the picture is in
motion.

Sound:
A sound wave in its most basic form continuous in nature.

Quantization:

Quantization is the process in which we assign the numbers to the discrete values
depending upon their amplitude values. Quantizer converts the sampled signal into an
approximate quantized signal which consists of only a finite number of predecided
voltage levels. Each sampled value at the input of the quantizer is approximated or
rounded to the nearest standard predecided voltage level (Quantization levels).

Sampling:
When we transfer the signal using pulse code modulation and digital modulation the
signal must be in the discrete-time form. Sampling Quantization Encoding 66 If the
message is generated from the computer system or any other digital source then it is in
the proper form for processing by the digital communication system. But in real life, the
signal can be of analog type (e.g. voice). In such a case it has to be first converted into
a discrete-time signal. For this, we use ―Sampling‖ method. Thus using the sampling
process we convert the continuous-time signal (analog) into the discrete-time signal
(digital). The sampling process should satisfy the following requirements:
1. The sampled signal should represent the original signal.
2. It should be possible to reconstruct the original signal from its sampled form.