Code of Practice on Wind Effects

in Hong Kong 2019

 Code of Practice

on

Wind Effects in Hong Kong

2019
FOREWORD
This Code of Practice on Wind Effects in Hong Kong 2019 (Code) was prepared
on the basis of a consultancy study commissioned by the Buildings Department
under the direction of a Steering Committee. The Steering Committee of the
consultancy included members from the academia, professional institutions and
relevant government departments.

The new features introduced in this Code are:

(a) Calculation of across-wind and torsional forces
(b) Load combination factors for lateral and torsional forces for buildings
(c) Calculation of the direct sheltering effect of surrounding buildings, using
the concept of displacement height to reduce the effective height of
buildings for assessing reference wind pressures and force coefficients
(d) Calculation of acceleration and evaluation of occupant comfort
(e) Wind directionality factor accounting for the reduced probability of
strong winds from various directions
This Code also provides information on:
(a) Force and pressure coefficients for design of typical buildings in Hong
Kong
(b) An updated vertical distribution of along-wind forces, through a size and
dynamic factor which increases with height
(c) Guidance for the design of building attachments
(d) Further guidance on requirements for wind tunnel testing

As the Code has been prepared in a simple format for ease of application,
reference should be made to the Explanatory Notes to the Code (EN), which give
a summary of background information and considerations reviewed in the
formulation of the Code. The EN also explains in depth the major updates and
features in the Code and to address on situations where application of the Code
may require special attention.

The contributions on the formulation of the Code by the members of the Steering
Committee are greatly appreciated.

Acknowledgement is given to the Hong Kong Observatory as the source of the

cloud imagery on the cover page. The cloud imagery was originally captured by
Himawari-8 Geostationary Meteorological Satellite of Japan Meteorological
Agency.

This Code will be reviewed regularly. The Buildings Department welcomes

suggestions for improving the Code.

Buildings Department
First Issue : September 2019

Page I
Contents

Page

FOREWORD I
Contents II

1 General 1
1.1 Scope 1
1.2 Symbols 1

2 Calculation of Wind Actions 5

2.1 Procedure for Calculating Wind Forces 5
2.2 Wind Forces on Buildings 8
2.3 Wind Forces on Building Elements 14
2.4 Wind Acceleration of Buildings 15
2.5 Minimum Wind Loads for Temporary Structures 16

3 Design Wind Pressures 17

3.1 General 17
3.2 Wind Reference Pressure at Effective Height 17
3.3 Sheltering Effects 18
3.4 Topography Effects 18

4 Force and Pressure Coefficients 19

4.1 General 19
4.2 Force Coefficients for Buildings 19
4.3 Pressure Coefficients for Building Elements 24

5 Size Factor and Size and Dynamic Factor 30

5.1 Size Factor 30
5.2 Size and Dynamic Factor for Buildings 32

6 Requirements for Wind Tunnel Testing 33

6.1 General Requirements 33
6.2 Target Reliability for Loads 36
6.3 Additional Requirements for Cladding 36
6.4 Minimum Loads in Sheltered Locations 36
6.5 Code Wind Pressures and Treatment of Wind Directionality 37
6.6 Requirements for Verification 38

Page II
Appendix A
Supplementary Information for Section 3: Design Wind Pressures

A1 Wind Climate
A1.1 Wind Directionality
A1.2 Wind Pressure with Selected Return Periods for Acceleration
Calculation

A2 Exposure Adjustment for Direct Shelter

A3 Topographic Multiplier

Appendix B
Supplementary Information for Section 4: Force and Pressure Coefficients

B1 Pressure Coefficients for Building Envelope with Dominant

Openings
B1.1 Definition of Dominant Opening
B1.2 External Pressure Coefficients for Building Envelope
B1.3 Internal Pressure Coefficients for Building Envelope with
Dominant Openings

B2 Pressure Coefficients for Building Attachments

B2.1 Sunshades, Architectural Fins and Signboards
B2.2 Balconies
B2.3 Canopies Attached to Buildings

B3 Pressure Coefficient for Free-standing Walls

Appendix C
Supplementary Information for Section 5: Size Factor and Size and Dynamic
Factor

C1 Equations for Calculation of Size Factor

C2 Damping of Buildings and Other Structures

Page III
List of Tables
Table 2-1 Load combination factors for buildings that may be treated as
rectangular
Table 3-1 Wind reference pressure, Qo,z
Table 4-1 Net pressure coefficients for an enclosed building envelope
without dominant openings, Cp
Table 4-2 Net pressure coefficients for open frameworks
Table A1-1 Directionality factor on pressure, Sθ
Table A1-2 Return period factor on pressure, Sr
Table B1-1 External pressure coefficients for building envelope with
dominant openings, Cpe
Table B1-2 Internal pressure coefficients for building envelope with
dominant openings, Cpi
Table B2-1 Net pressure coefficients for sunshades, architectural fins and
signboards
Table B2-2 Net pressure coefficients for balcony slabs, balcony walls and
balustrades, Cp
Table B3-1 Net pressure coefficient for free-standing walls
Table C2-1 Damping ratio for typical RC buildings, ξ x , ξ y
Table C2-2 Damping ratio for typical steel buildings, ξ x , ξ y

Page IV
List of Figures
Figure 2-1 Flow-chart for wind actions on structure
Figure 2-2 Flow-chart for wind actions on building elements
Figure 2-3 Definition of variable torsion
Figure 2-4(a) Co-ordinate system for along-wind and across-wind actions -
Lateral loading effects due to wind from direction X1
Figure 2-4(b) Co-ordinate system for along-wind and across-wind actions -
Lateral loading effects due to wind from direction X2
Figure 2-5 Co-ordinate system for wind forces
Figure 2-6 Acceptable occupant comfort level
Figure 4-1 Basic definitions of building plan dimensions
Figure 4-2 Force coefficient for simple rectangular prismatic shaped
building, Cf
Figure 4-3 Basic dimensions for considering corner effects
Figure 4-4(a) Basic dimensions for U-shaped buildings
Figure 4-4(b) Basic dimensions for X-shaped buildings
Figure 4-4(c) Basic dimensions for double Y-shaped buildings
Figure 4-4(d) Basic dimensions for single Y-shaped buildings
Figure 4-4(e) Basic dimensions for single L-shaped buildings
Figure 4-4(f) Basic dimensions for single Z-shaped buildings
Figure 4-5(a) Wind reference height and zone scaling dimensions for a tower
set back from edge of podium
Figure 4-5(b) Wind reference height and zone scaling dimensions for tower at
podium edge
Figure 4-6(a) Zone key for pressure
Figure 4-6(b) Dimensions for pressure zones in Figure 4-6(a)
Figure 5-1 Half perimeter of the loaded area, L0.5p
Figure 5-2 Size factor, Ss
Figure 5-3 Half-perimeter of the loaded area, L0.5p, due to several openings
contributing to the dominant opening area, Ao
Figure 6-1 Minimum adopted wind loads from a test
Figure A2-1 Plan showing ±45 degrees of the considered wind direction
Figure A2-2 Definition of Hi and Xi (on elevation)
Figure A2-3 Variation of Hdi/H with Xi/H and Hi/H
Figure A2-4 Variation of building height across sector (a demonstration case
on plan with four unequal divisions)

Page V
Figure A3-1(a) Definition of topographic dimensions for hills and ridges
Figure A3-1(b) Definition of topographic dimensions for cliffs and escarpments
Figure A3-2(a) Topographic location factor, s, for upwind section for both hills
/ ridges and cliffs / escarpments (significant zone in orange
colour in Figure A3-1(a) and Figure A3-1(b))
Figure A3-2(b) Topographic location factor, s, for downwind section for hills
and ridges (significant zone in blue colour in Figure A3-1(a))
Figure A3-2(c) Topographic location factor, s, for downwind section for cliffs
and escarpments (significant zone in blue colour as defined in
A3-1(b))
Figure B1-1 Wind pressure on external walls due to dominant opening
Figure B1-2 Wind pressure on internal walls due to dominant opening not
located in corner
Figure B1-3 Wind pressure on internal walls due to dominant opening
located in upwind corner
Figure B1-4 Wind pressure on internal walls due to dominant opening
located in downwind corner
Figure B2-1 Sunshades, architectural fins and signboards
Figure B3-1 Pressure zone definition for free-standing walls

Page VI
1 General

1.1 Scope
The Code of Practice on Wind Effects in Hong Kong 2019 (Code)
stipulates the approach for calculating the wind loads for the structural
design of buildings or parts of buildings, referred hereinafter as
“Standard Method”. Compliance with the requirements of this Code
is deemed to satisfy the relevant provisions of the Buildings
Ordinance and related regulations.
Values of wind loads for use in design shall be established. The
values shall be appropriate for the type of structure or structural
element, its intended use, design working life and exposure to wind
loads.
The Standard Method is intended to cover normal building
constructions. Users of this Code should satisfy themselves that the
guidance is rationally applicable to the form of structure under
consideration.
The Standard Method is applicable to typical buildings with a height
up to 200m. The wind tunnel testing method should be used for any
of the following conditions:
(a) buildings of height exceeding 200m;
(b) buildings having an unusual shape not covered by this Code;
(c) buildings in locations where complicated local topography or
surroundings adversely affect the wind conditions;
(d) buildings with codified across-wind moment substantially
larger than the along-wind moment as detailed in clause 2.2.3;
or
(e) buildings with B/D>6, except for those satisfying the
conditions in clause 2.2.4 so that the torsional load cases can
be neglected.
Guidance for wind tunnel testing is provided in Section 6.

1.2 Symbols
The symbols used in this Code shall have the following meanings with
respect to a structure, member or condition to which a clause is
applied.
Except where specifically noted, this Code uses the SI units. Angles
are given in degrees.
For subscripts, lower case letters are used.

Page 1
 2
𝐴𝐴z peak acceleration at height Z (m/s )
𝐵𝐵 breadth of building, the horizontal dimension of the building
normal to the direction of the wind
𝑏𝑏 scaling length defining loaded areas for pressure coefficients,
taken as the smaller of B or 2H
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 force coefficient determined in accordance with Section 4
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 net pressure coefficient, or total pressure coefficient for
building elements
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 external pressure coefficient
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 internal pressure coefficient
𝐷𝐷 depth of building, the horizontal dimension of the building
parallel to the direction of the wind
𝑑𝑑 diameter of circular cylinder
𝑒𝑒1 ,𝑒𝑒2 eccentricity for calculating variable torsional load
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥1 , 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥2 along-wind forces
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 , 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2 across-wind forces
𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦 peak factor on standard deviation of across-wind resonant
response in one hour = �2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 (1800 𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 )
𝐻𝐻 height of building structure (up to the top roof) above ground
level for the approaching wind direction under consideration.
Note that for sloping terrain, building height for different
directions may be different.
𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏 height of building structure above ground level, excluding the
height of irregular roof features above main roof
𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 effective building height, based on 𝐻𝐻, taking account of the
sheltering effect of surrounding buildings. It is obtained by
taking 𝑍𝑍 = 𝐻𝐻 for the 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 formula in Appendix A2.
𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 height of obstructing buildings in the surroundings
𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 reduction in reference height due to sheltering effect
(‘displacement height’)
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 height of hill defined on the windward side. See Appendix A3
ℎ when not subscripted, parapet height, free-standing wall
height, attached canopy height, or signboard height
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,ℎ wind turbulence intensity at effective building height 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝
𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,ℎ wind turbulence intensity at building height 𝐻𝐻
𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧 wind turbulence intensity at height 𝑍𝑍
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 wind turbulence intensity at effective height 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝
𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 half-perimeter length around a tributary area
𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥,𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 peak across-wind moment at base (ground) level

Page 2
𝑀𝑀ℎ mass of the building above 2𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏 /3. 25% of imposed loads can
be added with the dead loads together as the mass source for
𝑀𝑀ℎ . For E&M room, either still follow the rule or use the actual
imposed loads together with dead loads for 𝑀𝑀ℎ .
𝑁𝑁 frequency of fundamental mode of lateral vibration, 𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 or 𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 .
For buildings of typical construction below 100m height, the
expression, 𝑁𝑁 = 46/𝐻𝐻 may be used. Otherwise, the natural
frequencies shall be obtained from a modal dynamic analysis
using best-estimates of stiffness and mass.
𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 fundamental frequency for a mode mainly aligned with the
along-wind direction
𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 fundamental frequency for a mode mainly aligned with the
across-wind direction
𝑃𝑃 net pressure on a surface
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 pressure on external surface
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 pressure on internal surface
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 wind reference pressure determined from Table 3-1 at the
effective height, 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 , for open exposure in flat terrain
𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 wind reference pressure, 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 , corrected for effects topography
and wind direction at height 𝑍𝑍
𝑄𝑄ℎ wind reference pressure, 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 , at effective building height, 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝
𝑅𝑅 return period of wind (years)
𝑟𝑟 radius
𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,𝑧𝑧 size and dynamic factor on applied forces for overall structure
design of buildings
𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 factor on wind pressure for return period, 𝑅𝑅 (with 63.2%
likelihood of exceedance within this period)
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 size effect factor depending on the “half-perimeter” length,
𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 , of the loaded area (𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 may be greater than 1.0 for small
elements)
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 size effect factor for internal pressure under dominant opening
case, depending on the size of the dominant opening or
openings. The size factor is defined in Section 5.1.
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 topographic multiplier on wind pressure, evaluated at 2𝐻𝐻⁄3.
See Appendix A3.
𝑠𝑠 topographic location factor. See Appendix A3.
𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 directionality factor on wind pressure
Δ𝑇𝑇𝑧𝑧 variable torsional load per unit height about a vertical axis
through the centre of width at height, 𝑍𝑍
𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 mean-hourly wind speed
𝑤𝑤 when not subscripted, width of wedge in re-entrant or
chamfered corners
𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧 along-wind load per unit height, at height, Z

Page 3
 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,𝑥𝑥2 set of along-wind forces in direction 𝑋𝑋1 , 𝑋𝑋2 , etc., causing shears
and moments at all heights, applied at centres of area
𝑋𝑋, 𝑋𝑋1 , 𝑋𝑋2 , 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. along-wind directions. For building that may be treated as
rectangular, 𝑋𝑋1 and 𝑋𝑋2 will be orthogonal.
𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 subscripts denoting the nominal along-wind directions
𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 distance downwind from crest of hill or escarpment. See
Appendix A3.
𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 separation distance between the building and upwind
surrounding buildings, used to calculate 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝
𝑌𝑌, 𝑌𝑌1 , 𝑌𝑌2 , 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. across-wind directions
𝑍𝑍 height above ground level
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 effective height, taking account of sheltering effect of
surroundings
𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡 height of site on a hill. See Appendix A3.
𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ultimate wind load factor, taken as 1.4.
𝜉𝜉𝑥𝑥 , 𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦 ratio of damping to critical damping in the relevant direction of
vibration
𝜃𝜃 direction the wind comes from (rotating east from north), or
wind direction from the normal to building face
-3 3 3
𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 mass density of air, taken as 1.2x10 T/m (=1.2 kg/m )
𝜑𝜑 solidity ratio of walls or frames
𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝 effective slope of topographic feature. See Appendix A3.
𝜓𝜓𝑢𝑢 upwind slope of topographic feature. See Appendix A3.
𝜂𝜂𝑦𝑦 mode deflection variation with height in the across-wind
direction ≈ (𝑍𝑍⁄𝐻𝐻)𝜂𝜂𝑦𝑦 . This is typically in the range 1.0-2.0 for
buildings, determined by comparison with modal analysis.

Page 4
2 Calculation of Wind Actions

2.1 Procedure for Calculating Wind Forces

An outline of the Standard Method is given in the flowcharts shown in
Figure 2-1 and Figure 2-2, showing the stages of calculation and
listing the conditions for carrying out wind tunnel testing.

2.1.1 Wind Forces on Buildings

(a) Determine along-wind forces (in the direction of the wind) as in
clause 2.2.1.
(b) Determine torsional forces as in clause 2.2.2.
(c) Determine across-wind base moment, if required, in clause 2.2.3.
(d) Apply the wind forces in two orthogonal directions with
torsional forces to the buildings using the load combinations as
in clause 2.2.4.

2.1.2 Wind Forces on Building Elements

Clause 2.3 determines wind pressures and wind forces for building
elements.

2.1.3 Acceleration of Buildings Affecting Occupants

Clause 2.4.1 determines peak acceleration and clause 2.4.2 provides
acceptable acceleration limits.

Page 5
Page 6
Figure 2-1 Flow-chart for wind actions on structure
Page 7
Figure 2-2 Flow-chart for wind actions on building elements
2.2 Wind Forces on Buildings

2.2.1 Along-wind Force

Wind load per unit height at a height, 𝑍𝑍, for a building on level ground
is calculated using the equation below:
𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧 = 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,𝑧𝑧 𝐵𝐵 - Equation 2-1
Where
𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧 along-wind load per unit height, at height, 𝑍𝑍
𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 wind reference pressure adjusted for effects from sheltering,
topography and wind direction in accordance with
clause 3.1
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 force coefficient determined in accordance with clause 4.2

𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,𝑧𝑧 size and dynamic factor from clause 5.2

𝐵𝐵 breadth of building
The components of this equation may vary with height as described in
Section 3 for wind pressure, 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 , in Section 4 for force coefficients, 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 ,
and in clause 5.2 for the size and dynamic factor, 𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,𝑧𝑧 .
Additional variable torsional moments at the same height, 𝛥𝛥𝑇𝑇𝑧𝑧 , are
obtained by offsetting 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧 from the centre of area, as described in
clause 2.2.2.

2.2.2 Torsional Force

For buildings that may be treated as rectangular, the variable torsional
load at height, 𝑍𝑍, 𝛥𝛥𝑇𝑇𝑧𝑧 , is derived assuming the along-wind force, 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧 ,
in each direction (see Figure 2-3), is applied at a point offset from the
geometric centre of area by a horizontal distance given by:
𝑒𝑒 = ±0.05𝐵𝐵 for 𝐵𝐵/𝐷𝐷 ≤ 1
𝑒𝑒 = ±0.20𝐵𝐵 for 𝐵𝐵/𝐷𝐷 = 6
Use linear interpolation for intermediate values of 𝐵𝐵/𝐷𝐷. For
extrapolation outside this range, data from wind tunnel testing should
be used.
For non-rectangular building shapes that may be treated as rectangular,
see clause 4.2 for relevant dimensions 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐷𝐷.
For buildings that may be treated as rectangular,
𝛥𝛥𝑇𝑇𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒1 ∙ 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,𝑥𝑥1 or 𝛥𝛥𝑇𝑇𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒2 ∙ 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,𝑥𝑥2
whichever is of greater magnitude.

Page 8
 Figure 2-3 Definition of variable torsion

2.2.3 Across-wind Base Moment

Buildings with height less than 100 m, with 𝐻𝐻⁄𝐵𝐵 for all directions less
than 5, and with fundamental frequencies greater than 0.5 Hz, will
satisfy the check in this section. The calculated along-wind forces
may be used without modification.
Otherwise, for buildings that may be treated as rectangular, the across-
wind base moment for two orthogonal wind directions should be
assessed as in Equation 2-2 and, if necessary, the along-wind forces
should be increased as described below.

Page 9
The across-wind base moment at ground level due to dynamic across-
wind forces should be calculated as below, using consistent units, i.e.
T, m, s, and kPa:
3.3
𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 0.215�2𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 𝑄𝑄ℎ ⁄𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏 2
𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥,𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 = ± 0.5 0.15 � �
𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 1.3 (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)𝑏𝑏 1+3.7𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,ℎ 3

- Equation 2-2
Where
𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦 peak factor on standard deviation of across-wind resonant
response in one hour = �2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 (1800 𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 )

𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ultimate wind load factor, taken as 1.4

𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦 ratio of damping to critical damping in across-wind
direction of vibration in Appendix C2
𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 mass density of air, taken as 1.2x10-3 T/m3
𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 fundamental frequency for mode mainly aligned with the
across-wind direction
(𝐵𝐵𝐷𝐷)𝑏𝑏 the average plan area of the enclosing rectangle over the top
third of the building
𝑄𝑄ℎ wind reference pressure, 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 , at effective building height, 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝
𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,ℎ wind turbulence intensity at building height, 𝐻𝐻 , may be
taken as 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,ℎ in Equation 3-3 or 3-4, from wind tunnel
testing, or be calculated by the method of the Engineering
Sciences Data Unit (ESDU)
𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏 height of building structure above ground level, but
excluding the height of irregular roof features above main
roof.
Where the calculated across-wind base moment is larger than the
along-wind base moment, then the along-wind forces should be
factored upwards to match the across-wind moment. i.e.
𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 )
(a) If �𝑀𝑀−𝑦𝑦2𝑦𝑦2 �
> 1 , 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,−𝑥𝑥2 should be factored with
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 )
�𝑀𝑀−𝑦𝑦2𝑦𝑦2 �
,

𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 )
(b) If �𝑀𝑀+𝑦𝑦2𝑦𝑦2 �
> 1 , 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,+𝑥𝑥2 should be factored with
𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 ,𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 )
,
�𝑀𝑀+𝑦𝑦2𝑦𝑦2 �

𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 )
(c) If �𝑀𝑀−𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦1 �
> 1 , 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,−𝑥𝑥1 should be factored with
𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 )
�𝑀𝑀−𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦1 �

Page 10
 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 ,𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 )
(d) If �𝑀𝑀+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦1 �
> 1 , 𝑊𝑊𝑧𝑧,+𝑥𝑥1 should be factored with
𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 ,𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 )
�𝑀𝑀+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦1 �

𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀 ,𝑀𝑀 ) 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥(𝑀𝑀−𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 ,𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥2 )

If the factor 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥��𝑀𝑀 −𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1�,�𝑀𝑀+𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥1 or 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥��𝑀𝑀−𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦1 �,�𝑀𝑀+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦1 ��
is greater than
−𝑦𝑦2𝑦𝑦2 +𝑦𝑦2𝑦𝑦2 ��
1.5, then wind tunnel testing must be conducted. The along-wind and
the across-wind effects for wind directions 𝑋𝑋1 and 𝑋𝑋2 are shown in
Figure 2-4(a) and Figure 2-4(b).

Figure 2-4(a) Co-ordinate system for along-wind and across-wind actions -

Lateral loading effects due to wind from direction X1

Page 11
Figure 2-4(b) Co-ordinate system for along-wind and across-wind actions -
Lateral loading effects due to wind from direction X2

2.2.4 Combinations of Wind Forces for Design

The lateral loads in the two orthogonal directions and the torsional
load should be applied simultaneously to the building with
combination factors in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1 Load combination factors for buildings that may be
treated as rectangular

Case 𝑾𝑾𝒛𝒛,𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝑾𝑾𝒛𝒛,𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝜟𝜟𝑻𝑻𝒛𝒛

= 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝒙𝒙(𝑾𝑾𝒛𝒛,+𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 , 𝑾𝑾𝒛𝒛,−𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 ) = 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝒙𝒙(𝑾𝑾𝒛𝒛,+𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 , 𝑾𝑾𝒛𝒛,−𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 )

1 ±1.00 ±0.55 ±0.55

2 ±0.55 ±1.00 ±0.55

3 ±0.55 ±0.55 ±1.00

The resultant of loads at each level must act through the centre-of-area
at each level (which may vary with height). The co-ordinate system is
shown in Figure 2-5.

Page 12
 Figure 2-5 Co-ordinate system for wind forces

All buildings should be designed to be capable of resisting the

torsional loads of this Code in conjunction with the lateral loads.
However, if torsional loads are well resisted by certain forms of
construction, the torsion loadcases above may be formally ignored in
the following cases:
(a) buildings of single storey up to 10m height;
(b) buildings of up to 70 m height with a peripheral lateral load
resisting construction;
(c) buildings which pass the torsional regularity check. The check
is that in each lateral direction X1 and X2 in turn, the maximum
inter-story drift in each storey due to the torsion load must be
less than 25% of that due to the lateral load (for buildings with
a vertically continuous lateral and torsional resisting structure,
this check may be made only at the base and at higher storeys
where the resisting capacity reduces by more than 25% when
compared with nearby storeys); or
(d) where the torsional inter-story drift calculated above are not
greater than 50% of the lateral drift, the Case 3 in Table 2-1
(primarily torsion) loadcases do not need to be calculated.

Page 13
2.3 Wind Forces on Building Elements
Net pressures on solid surface areas of enclosed building without
dominant openings (defined in Appendix B1.1) are given by:
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 - Equation 2-3a
Where
𝑃𝑃 net pressure on surface
𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 wind reference pressure adjusted for effects from sheltering,
topography and wind direction in accordance with
clause 3.1. The reference height, Z, is defined with the
pressure coefficients, but is normally the building height, 𝐻𝐻.
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 net pressure coefficient (total pressure coefficient including
the contribution from internal pressures), in accordance
with clause 4.3.1
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 size factor depending on the “half-perimeter” length, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 ,
of the loaded area. The size factor is defined in clause 5.1.
Equation 2-3a is also used for calculating the net pressures on open
frameworks, building attachments and free-standing walls.
Net pressures on surface areas of buildings with dominant openings
are determined from the difference between pressures on opposite
surfaces. For a typical single skin cladding panel the net pressure is
given by:
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 − 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 - Equation 2-3b
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 = 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 - Equation 2-3c

𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 = 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑝𝑝 - Equation 2-3d

Where
𝑃𝑃 net pressure on surface
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 pressure on external surface
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 pressure on internal surface
𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 wind reference pressure, adjusted for sheltering, topography
and wind direction in accordance with clause 3.1. The
reference height, Z, is defined with the pressure coefficients,
but is normally the building height, 𝐻𝐻.
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 external pressure coefficient in accordance with Appendix
B1.2
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 internal pressure coefficient in accordance with Appendix
B1.3

Page 14
 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 size factor depending on the “half-perimeter” length, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 ,
of the loaded area. The size factor is defined in clause 5.1
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑝𝑝 size factor for internal pressure under dominant opening
case, depending on the size of the dominant opening or
openings. See clause 5.1.

2.4 Wind Acceleration of Buildings

2.4.1 Peak Acceleration

The peak acceleration (in m/s2) for orthogonal wind directions may be
assessed separately at any height, 𝑍𝑍, and return period, 𝑅𝑅, using the
formula below. Consistent units (i.e. T, m, s, and kPa) should be used.
3.3
𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 0.215�2𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄ℎ ⁄𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝜂𝜂𝑦𝑦 𝑍𝑍 𝜂𝜂𝑦𝑦
𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 = 0.5 1.3 � � . .� �
𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 (𝐵𝐵𝐷𝐷)0.15
𝑏𝑏
1 + 3.7𝐼𝐼 𝑣𝑣,ℎ 3𝑀𝑀ℎ 3 𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏

- Equation 2-4
𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦 peak factor on standard deviation of resonant response in
one hour = �2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 (1800 𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 )

𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦 ratio of damping to critical damping in across-wind

direction of vibration in Appendix C2
𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦 fundamental frequency for mode mainly aligned with the
across-wind direction
(𝐵𝐵𝐷𝐷)𝑏𝑏 is the plan area of the enclosing rectangle, averaged over
the top third of the building, excluding upper level cut-
backs. If (𝐵𝐵𝐷𝐷)𝑏𝑏 > 𝐻𝐻 2 ⁄9, take (𝐵𝐵𝐷𝐷)𝑏𝑏 = 𝐻𝐻 2 ⁄9.
𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 factor on wind pressure for different return period in
Appendix A1
𝑄𝑄ℎ wind reference pressure, 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 , at effective building height, 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝
𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 mass density of air, taken as 1.2x10-3 T/m3
𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,ℎ wind turbulence intensity at building height, 𝐻𝐻 , may be
taken as 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,ℎ in Equation 3-3 or 3-4, from wind tunnel
testing, or as calculated by the ESDU method
𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏 height of building structure above ground level, but
excluding the height of irregular roof features above main
roof
𝑀𝑀ℎ mass of the building above 2𝐻𝐻𝑏𝑏 ⁄3
𝜂𝜂𝑦𝑦 parameter used to describe the approximate mode
deflection variation with height. Where this is not obtained

Page 15
 by comparison with a modal analysis, it may be assumed to
be 1.5 for calculation of accelerations within the top quarter
height of a building.

2.4.2 Peak Acceleration Limits

The occupant comfort is considered acceptable if the 1-year and
10-year peak accelerations are less than the limits stipulated in
Figure 2-6 below.

Figure 2-6 Acceptable occupant comfort level

2.5 Minimum Wind Loads for Temporary Structures

Wind loads on temporary buildings and associated constructions that
are not used for residency, and which will remain in position for a
period of not more than one year, may be designed for a minimum of
70% of the design loads for permanent buildings.
For designing hoarding and covered walkway associated with
construction site, contractor shed, bamboo shed, tent or marquee that
are not for residential use, 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 is taken as 37% of 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 defined in
clause 3.2 and no other adjustment factor should be applied.

Page 16
3 Design Wind Pressures

3.1 General
Wind pressure, 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 , is given by:
𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 = 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 - Equation 3-1
Where
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 defined in clause 3.2,
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 the topography factor in Section 3.4,
𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 the wind directionality factor in Appendix A1.

3.2 Wind Reference Pressure at Effective Height

Wind reference pressures of this Code are provided at effective height
for open exposure, 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 , as in Table 3-1 below. Ze is defined in
clause 3.3.
Table 3-1 Wind reference pressure, Qo,z

Effective height Wind reference pressure

𝒁𝒁𝒆𝒆 (m) 𝑸𝑸𝒐𝒐,𝒛𝒛 (kPa)
≤ 2.5 1.59
5 1.77
10 1.98
20 2.21
30 2.36
50 2.56
75 2.73
100 2.86
150 3.05
200 3.20
250 3.31
300 3.41
400 3.57
500 3.70
>500 Seek specialist advice

For any effective height between 2.5m and 500m, the pressure can be
calculated as:
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 = 3.7(𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 ⁄500)0.16 - Equation 3-2

Page 17
 The turbulence intensity can be taken as:
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 = 0.087(𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 ⁄500)−0.11 - Equation 3-3
Where
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 wind reference pressure at height, 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 effective height, taking account of surroundings
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 wind turbulence intensity at height 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝
For across-wind base moment and for acceleration calculation, if
0.25 ≤ 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 /𝐻𝐻 ≤ 0.5, the turbulence intensity may be modified as:
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 = [4 − (6𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝐻𝐻)] 0.087(𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 ⁄500)−0.11 - Equation 3-4

3.3 Sheltering Effects

The effects of direct shelter from other buildings surrounding a site
may be taken into account by using a reduced height, i.e. the effective
height, 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 , for calculation of wind pressure, turbulence intensity and
force coefficient. The method of calculating effective height is given
in Appendix A2.
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 may conservatively be taken as the actual height, 𝑍𝑍, above ground
level.

3.4 Topography Effects

The effects of topography should be estimated as defined in
Appendix A3.

Page 18
4 Force and Pressure Coefficients

4.1 General
This section gives force and pressure coefficients for assessing total
wind force on buildings and building elements respectively. They are
for use in the equations of Section 2.

4.2 Force Coefficients for Buildings

For buildings, force coefficients for rectangular plan are given in
clause 4.2.1. Considerations of modifications on rectangular plan are
given in clauses 4.2.2 and 4.2.3. Conditions where building plans can
be treated as rectangles are given in clause 4.2.4.
Force coefficients for buildings of circular plan with height to
diameter ratio not larger than 6 can be taken as 0.75.

4.2.1 Rectangular Buildings

When a building varies from a simple rectangular plan, additional
guidance for using the formulas below is provided in clauses 4.2.1 to
4.2.4.
The force coefficient for a rectangular building as shown in Figure 4-1
is a function of effective height, 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 , breadth, 𝐵𝐵, and depth, 𝐷𝐷, as in
Figure 4-2.
For calculation of overall wind loads (cumulative shear, torsions and
moments), 𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 may vary with height (or conservatively use 𝑄𝑄ℎ ).

Figure 4-1 Basic definitions of building plan dimensions

Page 19
Figure 4-2 Force coefficient for simple rectangular prismatic shaped
building, Cf

0.055 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝐷𝐷

𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = 1.1 + 2
exp�|𝑙𝑙𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 [(0.6𝐵𝐵/𝐷𝐷)(1 − 0.011 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝐷𝐷) ]|[1.7−0.0013(𝐻𝐻𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝐵𝐵) ] �

- Equation 4-1
Where
𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 effective building height, based on H, taking account of
surroundings.
𝐵𝐵 breadth of building
𝐷𝐷 depth of building
Equation 4-1 can be used for 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝐷𝐷 ≤ 12.

Page 20
4.2.2 Effect of Variation of Plan with Height
The force coefficient, 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 , at a particular height should be calculated
using equation 4-1 by adopting local values for 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐷𝐷, the effective
building height, 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 with 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝐷𝐷 equals or less than 12. Steps in plan
size affecting less than 10% of 𝐻𝐻 should be ignored for calculating 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 .
Pressures should be applied to the actual area.

4.2.3 Effect of Corner Shapes

The force coefficient for rectangular buildings with symmetrical
corner cut-outs or chamfers can be reduced using the following factor:
𝑤𝑤
�1 − 2 𝐵𝐵 (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)� - Equation 4-2

Where
𝑤𝑤 , 𝐵𝐵 and 𝜃𝜃 are defined in Figure 4-3 below and
0≤ 𝑤𝑤⁄𝐵𝐵 ≤0.31
For 𝑤𝑤⁄𝐵𝐵 > 0.31, take 𝑤𝑤⁄𝐵𝐵 = 0.31 or treat as X-shaped.
The force coefficient for rectangular buildings with rounded corners
can be reduced based on smooth rounding of the corners with a radius,
r, by the factor:
[1 − 2.5 𝑟𝑟⁄𝐵𝐵] - Equation 4-3
Where
0≤ 𝑟𝑟⁄𝐵𝐵 ≤0.1
For 𝑟𝑟⁄𝐵𝐵 > 0.1 , take 𝑟𝑟⁄𝐵𝐵 = 0.1.
For unsymmetrical corners, the corner that produces least reduction
shall be taken.

Figure 4-3 Basic dimensions for considering corner effects

Page 21
4.2.4 Buildings with Wings (i.e. U-, X-, Y-, Z- and L-shaped)
For a building with wings, the force coefficients should be calculated
as for a rectangular building based on the dimensions of the equivalent
rectangle.

For ‘U’ & ‘X’ shapes, see Figure 4-4(a) and Figure 4-4(b) for the
equivalent rectangle.
For a Y-shaped building, see Figure 4-4(c) and Figure 4-4(d) for the
equivalent rectangle.
For ‘Z’ & ‘L’ shapes, see Figure 4-4(e) and Figure 4-4(f) for the
equivalent rectangle.
For the above, the effect of corner shapes can be taken into account as
shown in Figure 4-4(b) to Figure 4-4(d).

Figure 4-4(a) Basic dimensions for U-shaped buildings

Figure 4-4(b) Basic dimensions for X-shaped buildings

Figure 4-4(c) Basic dimensions for double Y-shaped buildings

Page 22
Figure 4-4(d) Basic dimensions for single Y-shaped buildings

Figure 4-4(e) Basic dimensions for single L-shaped buildings

Figure 4-4(f) Basic dimensions for single Z-shaped buildings

Page 23
4.3 Pressure Coefficients for Building Elements

4.3.1 Net Pressure Coefficients for an Enclosed Building

Envelope without Dominant Openings
For buildings with rectangular corners, if there are no dominant
openings as defined in Appendix B1.1, the net pressure coefficients
(total pressure coefficient including effects of internal pressures) for
the building envelope are obtained from Table 4-1.
Table 4-1 Net pressure coefficients for an enclosed building
envelope without dominant openings, Cp
Case Zones 𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑
applicable
Negative pressure in
A -1.4
edge zone
Wall Negative pressure
B -1.0
elsewhere
Positive pressure A&B +1.1
Negative pressure in
C -2.2
corner zone
Flat roof or roof Negative pressure in
D -1.6
with pitch less edge zone
than 30 degrees Negative pressure
E -1.0
elsewhere
Positive pressure C, D, E +0.3
Negative pressure in
C -1.4
corner zone
Pitch roof of Negative pressure in
D -1.4
greater than 60 edge zone
degree slope Negative pressure
E -1.0
elsewhere
Positive pressure C, D, E +1.1
Notes:
(a) 𝑄𝑄ℎ should be used when calculating the net pressures.
(b) The size factor, 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 , depends on the tributary area (structural span
of the panel) and may be larger than 1.0.
(c) Cladding pressures can be reduced by 20%, below a height of
0.5(𝐻𝐻 − 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ).
(d) Where there are significant steps in building form, i.e. podiums, the
height rules for tower and podium in Figure 4.6(a) and Figure 4.6(b)
should be followed.
(e) Linear interpolation is allowed for roofs with a pitch between 30
and 60 degrees.
(f) Pressure coefficients for roofs of low-rise buildings may also be
obtained from reliable published sources.

Page 24
 For the tower set back from edge of podium as shown in Figure 4-5(a),
zone definitions are given in Figure 4-6(a) and Figure 4-6(b). For
podium roof areas under influence of the tower, pressures on the
adjacent tower elevation/elevations should be adopted.

Figure 4-5(a) Wind reference height and zone scaling dimensions for a
tower set back from edge of podium

Page 25
Figure 4-5(b) Wind reference height and zone scaling dimensions for
tower at podium edge

Page 26
Figure 4-6(a) Zone key for pressure

Page 27
Figure 4-6(b) Dimensions for pressure zones in Figure 4-6(a)

For the tower at the edge of a podium as shown in Figure 4-5 (b), zone
definitions in Figure 4-6 (a) and the extent of the zones in Figure 4-6
(b) should be used. For the design pressure on the podium,
max�𝑏𝑏1𝑡𝑡 , 𝑏𝑏1𝑝𝑝 � and max �𝑏𝑏2𝑡𝑡 , 𝑏𝑏2𝑝𝑝 � should be used for determining the
extent of zone A in Figure 4-6 (b). The reference height should refer
to the requirement in Figure 4-5 (b).

Page 28
4.3.2 Pressure Coefficients for Building Envelope with
Dominant Openings
Dominant openings are defined in Appendix B1, which also provides
a method for deriving building envelope pressures.
Guidance on the determination of the effect of non-dominant openings
is also provided in Appendix B1.

4.3.3 Pressure Coefficient for Open Frameworks

Table 4-2 provides guidance for planar frameworks such as exposed
lattice beams attached to buildings.
Table 4-2 Net pressure coefficients for open frameworks

Solidity ratio φ Pressure coefficient 𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑

0.01 2.0
0.1 1.8
0.2 1.7
0.3 1.6
0.5 1.5
0.8 1.5
0.9 1.6
1.0 2.0
Notes:
(a) The solidity ratio is equal to the effective projected area of
the open framework divided by the area enclosed by the
boundary of the frame normal to the direction of the wind.
(b) Linear interpolation is allowed to obtain intermediate
values.
(c) Pressures are applied to the solid area of the framework
only.

4.3.4 Pressure Coefficients for Other Building Attachments

Additional pressure coefficients for building attachments are given in
Appendix B2.1 to B2.3.

4.3.5 Pressure Coefficients for Free-standing Walls

Pressure coefficients for free-standing walls are given in Appendix B3.

Page 29
5 Size Factor and Size and Dynamic Factor

5.1 Size Factor

The size factor, 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 , depends on the size and location of the loaded area.
The size of the loaded area is evaluated by the half perimeter of the
area, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 , and is given in Figure 5-1. The perimeter is measured
around the tributary area making the main contribution to a load effect.
In case of more complex shapes of loaded area, the half-perimeter is
half the length the taut string that would just extend around all
extremities of the area (i.e. For a circle of diameter, 𝑑𝑑, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 = 𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑/2).
Values of 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 are shown in Figure 5-2 or may be calculated using
Appendix C1.

Figure 5-1 Half perimeter of the loaded area, L0.5p

Page 30
 Figure 5-2 Size factor, Ss
For definition of the corner zone and the edge zone, refer to
Figure 4-6(a) and Table 4-1.
When calculating internal pressures with dominant openings as
defined in Appendix B1.1, the size factor, 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 , corresponds to the half-
perimeter of the largest opening, or the notional perimeter around
several openings (see Figure 5-3), which form the dominant opening
as described in Appendix B1.1, and is evaluated using the ‘Other’
curve of Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-3 Half-perimeter of the loaded area, L0.5p, due to several

openings contributing to the dominant opening area, Ao

Page 31
5.2 Size and Dynamic Factor for Buildings
The combined size and dynamic factor applied to the gust forces at the
top of the building is given by:
2 0.25
𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,ℎ = 0.5 + ��𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏(𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝=𝐵𝐵) − 0.5� + - Equation 5-1
𝐵𝐵0.5 𝐻𝐻𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 2 𝜉𝜉𝑥𝑥

Where
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 size factor, depends on the half-perimeter length, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 = 𝐵𝐵
of the loaded area at the top of the building. For evaluation
of 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 in Figure 5-2, the curve for ‘Other’ should be used.
𝐻𝐻 building height
𝐵𝐵 breadth of building
𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 fundamental frequency for mode mainly aligned with the
along-wind direction
𝜉𝜉𝑥𝑥 ratio of damping to critical damping in the relevant
direction of vibration
This factor can be reduced over the height of the building using the
formula below:

𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,𝑧𝑧 = 𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,ℎ − 1.2�𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞,ℎ − (10⁄𝐻𝐻 )0.14 �(1 − 𝑍𝑍⁄𝐻𝐻 ) - Equation 5-2

These formulas are dimensional with units of metres and Hertz.
For buildings of less than 50m height, the following simplified
formula can be used to calculate 𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞 at all heights:

𝑆𝑆𝑞𝑞 = 1.1 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏�𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝=𝐻𝐻/1.5+2𝐵𝐵� - Equation 5-3

Where
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 size factor, depending on the half-perimeter length, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 , of
the equivalent loaded area. For Equation 5-3, half-
perimeter length, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 = 𝐻𝐻/1.5 + 2𝐵𝐵 should be used.

Page 32
6 Requirements for Wind Tunnel Testing

6.1 General Requirements

The guidance below is intended for modelling complete buildings as
required for overall forces, accelerations and surface pressures. This
applies to typical testing requirement in Hong Kong.

6.1.1 Wind Modelling and Instrumentation

(a) The natural wind is to be represented (*) (physically or analytically)
to account for the variation with height of hourly mean wind
speed, and the turbulence intensity and length-scales appropriate
to the site.
(b) The instrumentation, its response characteristics, and data
recording methods are to be appropriate to the loads under
consideration.
(c) The measurements should enable peak wind loads of reliability
compatible with code intentions to be derived.
(*)
Frequencies of oncoming turbulence corresponding to vortex
shedding processes should be modelled physically. Lower
frequency turbulence may be included analytically.

6.1.2 Modelling of Dynamic Responses

Where resonant dynamic response may be significant, the structure
should be accurately represented (physically or analytically) in mass
distribution and stiffness in accordance with established laws of
dimensional scaling and the effect of damping should be appropriately
reflected.
For buildings close to prismatic form and with 𝐻𝐻/𝐵𝐵 and 𝐻𝐻/𝐷𝐷 less
than 15, it may be assumed for the calculation of resonant (dynamic)
amplification of the wind responses that only the lowest frequency
modes in each lateral direction and in torsion (3 modes in total) need
to be considered.

6.1.3 Topography Modelling

If the loading on a building may be significantly influenced by the
local topography, the effect on the wind properties should be
investigated by small-scale wind tunnel testing or established using
reliable published data.
The topography model should normally be equal to or larger than
1:5000 scale. If the topography model scale needs to be smaller than
1:5000, further considerations are elaborated in the Explanatory Notes
to the Code (EN).

Page 33
 The topography model should include the majority of the topographic
features likely to have a significant influence on the wind conditions
at the site.
A minimum of 18 wind directions at 20o intervals is necessary.
The topographic multiplier obtained from the measured wind profiles
of a topographic wind tunnel test can be calculated using the formula
below:
2
�𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 �1+3.7𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧 ��𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑦
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 = � �𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 �1+3.7𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧 ��𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ
� - Equation 6-1

Where
“topography” means at the site from the topographic test
“approach” is from the wind profile approaching the test model and at
the same height above ground.

6.1.4 Proximity Model

If the loading on a building is likely to be significantly influenced by
the presence of surrounding buildings or topographic features, it is
necessary to include the models of these proximity features in the
wind tunnel testing.
The proximity model should include all buildings which may
significantly affect windiness around the development. A general
guide is that the extent of the proximity model should normally be not
less than 400m radius from the site.
Where the local topography is too large to be sensibly accounted for in
the proximity model, its effects should be accounted for as described
in clause 6.1.3.
A minimum of 36 wind directions at 10o intervals is normally
necessary for pressures and loads.

6.1.5 Model Scale Limitations

The geometric scale and velocity scale employed in the wind tunnel
testing should enable an appropriate level of model details to be
achieved and meet the requirements of a minimum Reynolds number.
A general guide is that the building model should normally be not
smaller than 1:500 in scale. For building models with sharp corners,
the Reynolds number based on the typical breadth of the building
model should not be less than 1x104.
For rounded shapes, this condition is not generally sufficient, and
further evidence of the suitability of the test conditions is required.
This may include larger scale testing to verify suitability of additional
surface ‘trip’ features to ensure suitable turbulence in the surface
boundary layer over the model.

Page 34
 Measurements should be corrected appropriately for wind tunnel
blockage, which may vary with wind direction. Blockage during
testing should not normally be allowed to exceed 10%, including
effects of surrounding buildings. If the visual blockage exceeds 10%,
measurement evidence is required.

6.1.6 Wind Profiles

The variations of hourly mean wind speed, turbulence intensity and
length-scales with height in the wind tunnel, with the proximity and
test model removed, should be similar (after being scaled up with
appropriate geometric scale and velocity scale) to the full-scale values
as assessed using the methods compatible with the Harris and Deaves
model, i.e. as described most fully by computer program ESDU 01008
issued by ESDU. Where the effect of topography is modelled in a
separate wind tunnel study at a smaller scale, the wind profiles
determined from this should be used in matching to the building
model tests, noting that the wind profile in Section 3 closely
represents an ESDU open sea profile.

6.1.7 Requirement to Match Wind Pressures

The relationship below should be used to match the wind pressures of
the code.
ρ𝑎𝑎 2
𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 = �𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 �1 + 3.7𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧 �� - Equation 6-2
2

Where
𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧 is the target peak gust pressure
𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 is the hourly-mean matching speed to be compared with the
approach wind tunnel wind speed profile with zero displacement
height (e.g. as measured over a bare turntable)
𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧 is the turbulence intensity in the wind tunnel
In built-up terrain, the matching height, 𝑍𝑍, should be taken at 150m
(full-scale) above the height of upwind surroundings (the effective
height) or at 2/3 of the building height, whichever is greater. For
open terrain, 𝑍𝑍 should be taken as 2/3 of the building height. In
intermediate circumstances both cases should be considered.
At the matching height, peak gust pressure (converted to full-scale),
calculated by the equation above in the testing condition, should be
corrected to match the target peak gust pressure (full-scale) from
equation 3-1.
The requirements for calculating 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 from wind tunnel testing are
described in clause 6.1.3.

Page 35
6.2 Target Reliability for Loads
Wind loads for structural design should correspond to the expected
peak response in one hour of exposure to ultimate wind pressures,
calculated by multiplying the code reference pressures by the wind
direction factor, 𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 , as introduced in clause 6.5.2 and by the wind load
factor, 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 , from the relevant structural code of practice.

6.3 Additional Requirements for Cladding

Wind loads on cladding panels should be derived for typical panel
sizes, for example half-perimeter length of 2m to 5m, with an 80%
chance of non-exceedance in one hour. Wind loads for panel sizes
significantly larger, if they apply, may also be required for reduced
wind loads.
Internal pressures should be calculated from consideration of the
measured external pressures.

6.4 Minimum Loads in Sheltered Locations

Where particular adjoining or surrounding buildings could provide
significant shelter (determined in Appendix A2 as the buildings that
provide most shelter in each wind direction), the effect on overall
building loads due to their possible removal should also be considered.
New buildings should resist a minimum of 80% of the load of the
Standard Method. This limitation can be relaxed to 70% of the along-
wind load of the Standard Method, if additional wind tunnel testing is
conducted with significant sheltering obstructions removed (in a
Removal Testing Configuration) and the adopted wind loads are not
lower than 80% of the additional testing results.
The principle for removal of sheltering obstruction is that the building
/ building lot that provides the most significant sheltering (i.e. the
most beneficial building) in each wind direction should be considered
for removal. The procedure for determining the most significant
sheltering obstruction is provided in Appendix A2.
New buildings beyond the scope of the Code should resist a minimum
of 80% of the load obtained from the Removal Testing Configuration.
The adopted wind loads should not be lower than 70% of the along-
wind load of the Standard Method.
The rule is demonstrated in Figure 6-1. Otherwise the maximum loads
with existing and likely future surroundings should be used.

Page 36
 Figure 6-1 Minimum adopted wind loads from a test

6.5 Code Wind Pressures and Treatment of Wind

Directionality

6.5.1 Use of Ultimate Wind Loads

Ultimate loads should be determined directly using directionally
adjusted speeds multiplied by �𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 , and the loads should then be
calculated by dividing the ultimate loads by 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 .
The wind loads derived here are intended to be multiplied by the
appropriate load factors, including 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 , from the material codes.

6.5.2 Directionality
The reference pressure can be adjusted to account for the reduced
probability of strong winds from various wind directions using
directionality factors as noted in Appendix A1 for the Sector Method.
Alternatively, 𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 = 1.0 can be used for forces and pressures
determined by using Storm Passage, Up-crossing, or similar methods.

6.5.3 Wind Pressure for Acceleration Calculation

For determination of building accelerations, the code pressures should
be adjusted to an appropriate return period using the return period
factors in Table A1-2 of Appendix A1.
Alternatively, the return period of accelerations can be calculated by
using combined directional probability methods (i.e. Storm Passage
or Up-crossing) and using the resultant (i.e. combined X, Y and
rotational) responses for all wind directions.

Page 37
6.6 Requirements for Verification
Where wind tunnel testing is used to substantiate design loads,
sufficient detail of the test conditions and results should be provided
to enable independent verification of applicability of the modelling.

Page 38
Appendix A
Supplementary Information
for Section 3:
Design Wind Pressures
A1 Wind Climate

A1.1 Wind Directionality

The reference pressure can be adjusted to account for the reduced
probability of strong winds from various wind directions using the
directionality factors in Table A1-1.
Table A1-1 Directionality factor on pressure, Sθ

Wind Direction
Direction factor, 𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽

N 0.82
NE 0.84
E 0.85
SE 0.85
S 0.85
SW 0.84
W 0.82
NW 0.80

The 𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 value between any of the eight directions in Table A1-1 can be
obtained by linear interpolation. The maximum 𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 value in the 90o
studied sector should be adopted when using the Standard Method.
The directionality factor does not apply to circular buildings. For
circular buildings, 𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃 = 1 should be used.

A1.2 Wind Pressure with Selected Return Periods for

Acceleration Calculation
For determination of building accelerations, the wind reference
pressure should be adjusted to the appropriate return period using the
return period factors in Table A1-2.
Table A1-2 Return period factor on pressure, Sr

Return Period, Return Period

R (years) Factor, 𝑺𝑺𝒓𝒓

1 0.25
10 0.55

Page A1
A2 Exposure Adjustment for Direct Shelter
For use with the Standard Method of the Code, the effects of direct
shelter from other buildings surrounding a site can be taken into
account by using a reduced height, i.e. the effective height, 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 , for
calculation of wind reference pressure, turbulence intensity, and force
coefficient.
The effective height, 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 , is taken as the maximum of (𝑍𝑍 − 𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 ) and
(0.25𝑍𝑍), where 𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 is the height of reduction and may be taken as zero
or as the minimum of the following:
(a) 0.8𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 - Equation A2-1
(b) 1.2𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 − 0.2𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒 ≥ 0 - Equation A2-2
(c) 0.75𝐻𝐻 - Equation A2-3
Where
𝐻𝐻 is the actual building height of the proposed building
𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 is the height of obstructing building above ground level
within ±45 degrees of the considered wind direction (Figure
A2-1). 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 is taken as less than or equal to 𝐻𝐻.
𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 is the horizontal distance from the upwind edge of the
proposed building to the obstructing building (Figure A2-2).
It is sufficient to consider buildings within a distance 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 less
than 6 times the proposed building height.
If there is only one obstructing building, no sheltering effect is
allowed. If there are two or more obstructing buildings in the upwind
direction, the reduction in height can be calculated for the building
which provide the second-most sheltering effect in that direction.
Figure A2-3 can be used to determine the most and the second most
obstructing buildings. The largest and the second largest 𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 . 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 are
taken as the following:
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 = 𝑍𝑍 − 𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 , for 𝑍𝑍 ≥ 1.33𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 - Equation A2-4a
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 = 0.25𝑍𝑍, for 𝑍𝑍 < 1.33𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 - Equation A2-4b
Where the surround building heights vary across a sector of ±45
degrees of the considered wind direction, 𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 should be taken as the
weighted average value across the sector calculated as shown in
Figure A2-4 with the effective height in each division calculated
following the rule in the above paragraphs. For ease of calculation,
each sector may be divided into not less than 4 equal divisions.

Page A2
 The obstructing building height should be the actual height of that
building or the reduced height of that building calculated from the
base level of the proposed building, whichever gives smaller
sheltering effect. The details are discussed in the Explanatory Notes.

Figure A2-1 Plan showing ±45 degrees of the considered wind direction

Figure A2-2 Definition of Hi and Xi (on elevation)

Page A3
 Figure A2-3 Variation of Hdi/H with Xi/H and Hi/H

Figure A2-4 Variation of building height across sector (a demonstration

case on plan with four unequal divisions)

Page A4
A3 Topographic Multiplier
For use of topographic multiplier with the Standard Method, 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 can be
calculated as below. The method below for calculation of the
topographic multiplier is applicable to hills and ridges, or cliffs and
escarpments, which, for the cross-section considered, may be taken
reasonably as 2-dimensional.
For the purpose of this Code, local topography is considered
significant when 𝜓𝜓𝑢𝑢 > 0.05 and when a site is located within the
topography significant zone as shown in Figure A3-1(a) and Figure
A3-1(b) and as defined below:
(a) 𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0.5
(b) For sites on the downwind slope where 𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 < 1.5 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝
Where the following definitions of topographic form are applicable:

𝜓𝜓𝑢𝑢 is the maximum slope for a quarter of the hill-height in the

top half of the hill on the windward side
𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝 is the minimum of 𝜓𝜓𝑢𝑢 or 0.3
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 is the height of the hill from the windward side above
surrounding ground with a mean slope of less than or equal
to 5%
𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡 is the height of the highest part of the site measured from
the same datum as 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 . (i.e. 𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 )
𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 is the distance to the site downwind from the crest of the
hill, when applicable

Page A5
 For site on the upwind side, dimensions in orange colour apply;
For site on downwind side, dimensions in blue colour apply.

and cliffs / escarpments.

For 𝑠𝑠 on the downwind side, use the smaller value for hills / ridges

Page A6
Figure A3-1(a) Definition of topographic dimensions for hills and ridges
 For site on the upwind side, dimensions in orange colour apply;
For site on downwind side, dimensions in blue colour apply.

ridges and cliffs / escarpments.

For 𝑠𝑠 on the down wind side, use the smaller value for hills /

Page A7
Figure A3-1(b) Definition of topographic dimensions for cliffs and escarpments
 If a topographic adjustment is not required, then
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 = 1.0
Otherwise, 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 , the topographic multiplier of wind pressure, is
calculated as below:
2
2𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 = �1 + � - Equation A3-1
1+3.7𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧

Where
𝑠𝑠 is the topographic location factor given in
Figures A3-2(a, b or c) or calculated with the Equations
A3-2 to A3-11.
𝑠𝑠 and 𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧 should be calculated at height, 𝑍𝑍 = 2/3𝐻𝐻
𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣,𝑧𝑧 may be taken as 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜,𝑧𝑧 in Equations 3-3 or 3-4.

Figure A3-2(a) Topographic location factor, s, for upwind section for both
hills / ridges and cliffs / escarpments (significant zone in orange colour in
Figure A3-1(a) and Figure A3-1(b))

Page A8
 Figure A3-2(b) Topographic location factor, s, for downwind section for
hills and ridges (significant zone in blue colour in Figure A3-1(a))

Figure A3-2(c) Topographic location factor, s, for downwind section for

cliffs and escarpments (significant zone in blue colour as defined in A3-1(b))

Page A9
(a) For upwind section for both hills / ridges, and cliffs / escarpments
(significant zone in orange colour in Figure A3-1), if the following
conditions:
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒
0.5 ≤ 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 ≤ 1.0 and 0 ≤ 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≤ 2.0
𝑡𝑡

are satisfied, 𝑠𝑠 shall be calculated as:

𝑍𝑍
�−𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏2 �1− 𝑒𝑒 ��
𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏1 · 𝑒𝑒 𝐻𝐻𝑒𝑒 - Equation A3-2

𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 4 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 3 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 2

Where 𝐾𝐾𝑢𝑢1 = 0.1552 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 � − 0.8575 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 � + 1.8133 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒�
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓
−1.9115 � 𝑒𝑒 � + 1.0124
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
- Equation A3-3

𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝 2 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝
𝐾𝐾u2 = 0.3542 � � − 1.0577 � � + 2.6465
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
- Equation A3-4
Otherwise, 𝑠𝑠 = 0.

(b) For downwind section for hills and ridges (significant zone in blue
colour), if following conditions:
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒
0.5 ≤ 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 ≤ 1.0 and 0 ≤ 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≤ 2.0
𝑡𝑡

are satisfied, 𝑠𝑠 shall be calculated as:

𝑍𝑍
�𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑2 �1− 𝑡𝑡 ��
𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑1 · 𝑒𝑒 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 - Equation A3-5

𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 4 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 3 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 2

Where 𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑1 = 0.1552 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 � − 0.8575 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 � + 1.8133 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 �
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓
−1.9115 � 𝑒𝑒 � + 1.0124
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡

- Equation A3-6
𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝 2 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝
𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑2 = −0.3056 � � + 1.0212 � � − 1.7637
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
- Equation A3-7
Otherwise, 𝑠𝑠 = 0.

Page A10
(c) For downwind section for cliffs and escarpments only (significant
zone in blue colour), if following conditions:
𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒
0< 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≤ 3.5 and 0 < 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≤ 2.0
are satisfied, the equations below should be used to calculate the value,
𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒
𝑠𝑠, taking 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≥ 0.1 and 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≥ 0.1
𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝 2 𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝
𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝1 �log10 � �� + 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝2 �log10 � �� + 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝3
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
- Equation A3-8

𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 3 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 2
Where 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝1 = −1.3420 �log10 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 �� − 0.8222 �log10 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 ��
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝
+0.4609 log10 � � − 0.0791
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
- Equation A3-9

𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝 3 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑝𝑝 2
𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝2 = −1.0196 �log10 � �� − 0.8910 �log10 � ��
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒
+0.5343 log10 � �− 0.1156
𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
- Equation A3-10

𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 3 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓 2
𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝3 = 0.8030 �log10 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 �� + 0.4236 �log10 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 ��
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓
−0.5738 log10 � 𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 � + 0.1606
𝑡𝑡

- Equation A3-11

Zψe
For the range 0 < Ht
< 0.1, the formula above should be used by taking
Zψe
= 0.1.
Ht
Xt ψe
For the range 0 < < 0.1, linear interpolation of 𝑠𝑠 should be made
Ht
between the values of 𝑠𝑠 at the crest of the hill, 𝑠𝑠 (0), calculated using
formula in Section (a), and that of 𝑠𝑠(0.1) in an escarpment in this section
Xψ
by taking tH e = 0.1.
t

Downwind of the hill crest, the lower value of 𝑠𝑠 for hills and ridges, or
𝑠𝑠 for cliffs and escarpments should be used.
𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒 𝑍𝑍𝜓𝜓𝑒𝑒
If the condition 0 < 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≤ 3.5 or 0 < 𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
≤ 2.0, does not apply, it should
take 𝑠𝑠 = 0.

Page A11
Appendix B
Supplementary Information
for Section 4:
Force and Pressure Coefficients
B1 Pressure Coefficients for Building Envelope
with Dominant Openings

B1.1 Definition of Dominant Opening

A dominant opening occurs if the opening area, 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 > 1.5𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 , where
𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 Area of the largest opening, or sum of areas of openings of
similar sizes and within the same or similar pressure
zone/zones on the same building face
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 Sum of areas of openings on other faces, including leakage.
The leakage contribution to 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 is defined as 0.1% of the
total external surface area of the other surfaces. Other
numbers may be used with justification and specialist
advice may be sought.
Where openings that are not dominant the internal pressures may be
calculated from consideration of the balance of airflow. See the
Explanatory Notes.

B1.2 External Pressure Coefficients for Building

Envelope
For buildings with rectangular corners in plan, the external pressure
coefficients for the building envelope are given in Table B1-1.
Zone definitions are given in Figure 4-6(a) and Figure 4-6(b). For
buildings with plan shape other than simple rectangles, the zone
definitions can be referred to the Explanatory Notes.
Table B1-1 External pressure coefficients for building envelope
with dominant openings, Cpe
Case Zones applicable 𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆
Negative pressure
A -1.2
in edge zone
Wall Negative pressure
B -0.8
elsewhere
Positive pressure A&B +0.8
Negative pressure
C -2.0
in corner zone
Flat roof or roof Negative pressure
D -1.4
pitch less than 30 in edge zone
degrees Negative pressure
E -0.8
elsewhere
Positive pressure C, D, E 0.0
Pitched roof greater Negative pressure
C -1.2
than 60 degrees in corner zone

Page B1
 Negative pressure
D -1.2
in edge zone
Negative pressure
E -0.8
elsewhere
Positive pressure C, D, E +0.8

Notes:
(a) 𝑄𝑄ℎ should be used for the external pressure calculation.
(b) The size factor, 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 , depends on the tributary area (structural span of
the panel) and may be larger than 1.0.
(c) Cladding pressures can be reduced by 20%, below a height of
0.5(𝐻𝐻 − 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ).
(d) Where there are significant steps in building form, i.e. podiums,
reference height for tower and podium in Figure 4.6(a) and
Figure 4.6(b) should be followed.
(e) Linear interpolation is allowed for pitch angles between 30 and 60
degrees.
(f) Pressure coefficients for roofs of low-rise construction can also be
obtained from reliable published sources.
(g) The net pressure coefficients of Table 4-1 can be obtained from the
above by considering internal pressure coefficients of +0.2 and -0.3.

B1.3 Internal Pressure Coefficients for Building

Envelope with Dominant Openings
Internal pressure coefficients for buildings with dominant openings
are given in Table B1-2.
Table B1-2 Internal pressure coefficients for building envelope
with dominant openings, Cpi
Case 𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1. Dominant opening cases (See B1.1
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 2
for definition of 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 and 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 ) �1 + � � �
𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜
2. Cases with opening/openings not
qualified as dominant opening See the Explanatory Notes.
cases
Notes:
(a) Internal pressure coefficients should be adopted in combination with
the external coefficients to generate the worst net pressure
coefficients.
(b) The reference height for calculating internal pressure should be
taken as that for calculating external pressure at the same location.

Page B2
 Figures B1-1 to B1-4 describe combinations of external and internal
pressures to be considered.

Figure B1-1 Wind pressure on external walls due to dominant opening

Page B3
Figure B1-2 Wind pressure on internal walls due to dominant opening
not located in corner

Figure B1-3 Wind pressure on internal walls due to dominant opening

located in upwind corner

Page B4
Figure B1-4 Wind pressure on internal walls due to dominant opening
located in downwind corner

Page B5
B2 Pressure Coefficients for Building
Attachments

B2.1 Sunshades, Architectural Fins and Signboards

Net pressure coefficients, Cp, for calculating the net wind loads on
sunshades, architectural fins and signboards attached to the walls of
buildings are given in Table B2-1.
Effect on overall structural forces should refer to Section 4.
Table B2-1 Net pressure coefficients for sunshades,
architectural fins and signboards
At Edge Zones Other Zones
Case
of Building of Building
1. Directly attached to facade ±1.8 ±0.9

2. Spaced away from facade* ±3.0 ±1.5

* When the gap between the element and the façade is less than 2/3 of the
element width, the load can be taken as Case 1, assuming that the gap is
closed. Resulting load should be applied at the centre of the area. See
Figure B2-1(d) and Figure B2-1(e).

Notes:
(a) 𝑄𝑄ℎ should be used for the net pressure calculation.
(b) Figure B2-1(c) provides edge zone definitions.
(c) It should take 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 = 1.0.
(d) Pressures can be reduced by 20%, below a height of 0.5(𝐻𝐻 − 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ).
(e) For Case 2, 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝−𝑐𝑐𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝1 × 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝−𝑐𝑐𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝2 × 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 , whichever is of
smaller magnitude should be used. See Figure B2-1(d) and
Figure B2-1(e).

Page B6
Case 1: Horizontal / vertical arrangement Case 2: Horizontal / vertical arrangement
(directly attached to facade) (spaced away from facade)

Figure B2-1(a) Figure B2-1(b)

Figure B2-1(c) Zone definition (b is the smaller value of B and 2H)

Figure B2-1(d) Figure B2-1(e)

Figure B2-1 Sunshades, architectural fins and signboards

Page B7
B2.2 Balconies
A net pressure coefficient, Cp, for balcony walls, slabs and balustrades
is given in Table B2-2. This coefficient is referenced to the pressure
at the roof height of the building to which the balconies are attached.
Table B2-2 Net pressure coefficients for balcony slabs, balcony
walls and balustrades, Cp
Location Cp
balcony walls and balustrades ±1.8

balcony slabs +0.9 and -1.8

Notes:
(a) 𝑄𝑄ℎ should be used as reference pressure and 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 = 1.0
should be taken.
(b) Pressures can be reduced by 20%, below a height of
0.5(𝐻𝐻-𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 ).

B2.3 Canopies Attached to Buildings

For canopies attached below half-way up the building (ℎ/𝐻𝐻 < 0.5)
and below a height of twice the canopy projection the net pressure
coefficients can be taken as + 0.9 and -1.3. 𝑄𝑄ℎ should be used as
reference pressure. Positive pressures act downwards.

Page B8
B3 Pressure Coefficient for Free-standing
Walls
For free-standing walls and parapets, the net pressure coefficient Cp
for Zones A, B, C and D (indicated on Figure B3-1) are given in
Table B3-1.
Values are given in Table B3-1 for two different solidity ratios. The
reference area in both cases is the gross area. Linear interpolation
may be used for solidity ratios between 0.8 and 1.
Table B3-1 Net pressure coefficient for free-standing walls

Solidity Zone A B C D

𝑙𝑙/ℎ ≤ 3 2.3 1.4 1.2

Without return
𝑙𝑙/ℎ = 5 2.9 1.8 1.4 1.2
corners
𝜑𝜑 = 1
𝑙𝑙/ℎ ≥ 10 3.4 2.1 1.7 1.2

With return corners of length

(a) 2.1 1.8 1.4 1.2
≥ℎ

(b)
𝜑𝜑 = 0.8 All cases 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

Notes:
(a) Linear interpolation may be used for return corner lengths between
0 and ℎ.
(b) Use Table 4-2 for open frameworks, if solidity ratio < 0.8.

The reference height for calculation of pressures on free-standing

walls and building parapets is the top height of the wall above ground
level. For a wall cantilevering from a continuous base, the size factor
should be calculated using 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 = 2ℎ. In other cases, the relevant
tributary area should be used.

Page B9
Figure B3-1 Pressure zone definition for free-standing walls

Page B10
Appendix C
Supplementary Information
for Section 5: Size Factor
and Size and Dynamic
Factor
C1 Equations for Calculation of Size Factor
The size factor, 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 , depends on the loaded area and is defined by the
half-perimeter of the area, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 as shown in Figure 5-2. Alternatively,
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 , may be calculated using the formulas below:
Other zones and for Overall Wind Loads
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏=𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 = 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝�0.17 − 0.07 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 0.32 � - Equation C1-1a

Edge zones if 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 < 15m

𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏=𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 = 1.3 − log 𝑛𝑛 �𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 � /9.0 > 1.0 - Equation C1-1b

Corner zones if 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝< 15m

𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏=𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 = 1.5 − log 𝑛𝑛 (𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 ) /5.4 > 1.0 - Equation C1-1c

Where

𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 size factor depending on the half-perimeter length, 𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 ,

of the loaded area (this may be greater than 1.0 for small
elements)

𝐿𝐿0.5𝑝𝑝 half-perimeter length around a tributary area

Page C1
C2 Damping of Buildings and Other Structures
Values of damping used in assessment of dynamic responses should
be established from reliable measurements from similar structures.
The tables below give damping ratios of the fundamental mode for
typical buildings. For composite steel/concrete constructions,
intermediate values should be used.
For particularly slender buildings, lower values may be appropriate
and specialist advice should be sought.
The aspect ratio should be calculated from the overall structural depth
of the building in the direction of vibration. The aspect ratio for the
purpose of assessing the damping, is the total tower height, above
foundation level divided by the dimension of the tower lateral load
resisting structure in the direction of the vibration. If there are plan
set-backs, the aspect ratio shall also be checked with height above the
set-back divided by the overall structural depth above the set-back and
the largest value shall be used. Towers constructed on shared podium
slabs shall be similarly checked above podium level.
Table C2-1 Damping ratio for typical RC buildings, ξ x , ξ y

Recommended Tentative damping

Aspect ratio damping ratio for ratio for structural
in the direction accelerations loads
of vibration Maximum damping Maximum damping
ratio ratio
≥8 0.010 0.015
7 0.011 0.017
6 0.013 0.020
5 0.016 0.024
<4 0.020 0.030

Table C2-2 Damping ratio for typical steel buildings, ξ x , ξ y

Recommended Tentative damping

Aspect ratio damping ratio for ratio for structural
in the direction accelerations loads
of vibration Maximum damping Maximum damping
ratio ratio
≥8 0.005 0.008
7 0.006 0.009
6 0.007 0.010
5 0.008 0.012
<4 0.010 0.015

Page C2