Design of foundation notes

Shallow Foundations and Deep Foundations

The various types of structural foundations may be grouped into two broad categories—

Shallow foundations and Deep foundations. The classification indicates the depth of the
foundation

relative to its size and the depth of the soil providing most of the support.

According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width and
deep when it exceeds the width

Picture of Shallow foundation

 Classifications of foundations

Spread Footings
• Spread footing foundation is basically a pad used to
‘‘spread out’’ loads from walls or columns over a
sufficiently large area of foundation soil.
• These are constructed as close to the ground
surface as possible consistent with the design
requirements, and with factors such as frost
penetration depth and possibility of soil erosion.
Footings for permanent structures are rarely
located directly on the ground surface. A spread
footing need not necessarily be at small depths;
it may be located deep in the ground if the soil
conditions or design criteria require.
 Spread footings
• Spread footing required to support a wall is
known as a continuous, wall, or strip footing,
while that required to support a column is known
as an individual or an isolated footing
• An isolated footing may be square, circular, or
rectangular in shape in plan, depending upon
factors such as the plan shape of the column and
constraints of space.
• If the footing supports more than one column or
wall, it will be a strap footing, combined
footing or a raft foundation.

Common types of footings with figures

• The common types of spread footings referred to
above are shown in Fig. 15.2.
Two miscellaneous types—the monolithic
footing, used for watertight basement (also for
resisting uplift), and the grillage foundation, used
for heavy loads are also shown.
 Common types spread footings

Strap Footings
• A ‘strap footing’ comprises two or more footings
connected by a beam called ‘strap’. This is also
called a ‘cantilever footing’ or ‘pump-handle
foundation’.
• This may be required when the footing of an
exterior column cannot extend into an adjoining
private property. Common types of
strap beam arrangements are shown in Fig.
15.3.
 Common arrangements of straps

Combined Footings
• A combined footing supports two or more columns
in a row when the areas required for individual
footings are such that they come very near each
other.
They are also preferred in situations of limited space
on one side owing to the existence of the boundary
line of private property.
• The plan shape of the footing may be rectangular or
trapezoidal; the footing will then be called
‘rectangular combined footing’ or ‘trapezoidal
combined footing’, as the case may be.
• These are shown in Fig. 15.4.
 Picture of Combined Footings

Raft Foundations/Mat Foundations

• A raft or mat foundation is a large footing, usually
supporting walls as well as several columns
in two or more rows.
This is adopted when individual column footings
would tend to be too close or tend to overlap;
further, this is considered suitable when
differential settlements arising out of footings on
weak soils are to be minimised. A typical mat or
raft is shown in Fig. 15.5.
 Picture of Raft/Mat foundations

Deep Footings
• According to Terzaghi, if the depth of a footing is
less than or equal to the width, it may be
considered a shallow foundation.
• Theories of bearing capacity have been
considered for these.
• However, if the depth is more, the footings are
considered as deep footings
Meyerhof (1951) developed the theory of bearing
capacity for such footings.
 Picture of deep footing

Pile Foundations
• Pile foundations are intended to transmit
structural loads through zones of poor soil to a
depth where the soil has the desired capacity to
transmit the loads.
• They are somewhat similar to columns in that
loads developed at one level are transmitted to a
lower level; but piles obtain lateral support from
the soil in which they are embedded so that
there is no concern with regard to buckling and,
it is in this respect that they differ from columns.
Piles are slender foundation units which are
usually driven into place.
 Pile foundations

Pile Foundations
• They may also be cast-in-place
• A pile foundation usually consists of a number
of piles, which together support a structure.
• The piles may be driven or placed vertically or
with a batter.
 PIER FOUNDATIONS
• Pier foundations are somewhat similar to pile
foundations but are typically larger in area than piles.
• An opening is drilled to the desired depth and concrete
is poured to make a pier foundation.
• Much distinction is now being lost between the pile
foundation and pier foundation, adjectives such as
• ‘driven’, ‘bored’, or ‘drilled’, and ‘precast’ and ‘cast-in-
situ’, being used to indicate the method of installation
and construction.
• Usually, pier foundations are used for bridges

Picture of Pier Foundations

 CAISSONS(WELL FOUNDATIONS)
• A caisson is a structural box or chamber that is sunk into
place or built in place by systematic excavation below
the bottom.
• Caissons are classified as ‘open’ caissons, ‘pneumatic’
caissons, and ‘box’ or ‘floating’ caissons.
• Open caissons may be box-type of pile-type.
• The top and bottom are open during installation for
open caissons.
• The bottom may be finally sealed with concrete or may
be anchored into rock.Pneumatic caisson is one in which
compressed air is used to keep water from entering
the working chamber, the top of the caisson is closed.

CAISSONS
• Excavation and concreting is facilitated to be carried out
in the dry. The caisson is sunk deeper as the excavation
proceeds and on reaching the final position, the
working chamber is filled with concrete.
• Box or floating caisson is one in which the bottom is
closed. It is cast on land and towed to the site and
launched in water, after the concrete has got cured.
• It is sunk into position by filling the inside with sand,
gravel, concrete or water. False bottoms or temporary
bases of timber are sometimes used for floating the
caisson to the site.
 Picture of various types of Caissons

FLOATING FOUNDATIONS
• The floating foundation is a special type of
foundation construction useful in locations
where deep deposits of compressible cohesive
soils exist and the use of piles is impractical.
• The concept of a floating foundation requires
that the substructure be assembled as a
combination of a raft and caisson to create a
rigid box.This foundation is installed at such a
depth that the total weight of the soil excavated
for the rigid box equals the total weight of the
planned structure
 Floating Foundations

Pile foundations(Classification of piles)

• Piles may be classified in a number of ways based
on different criteria:
• (a) Function or action
• (b) Composition and material
• (c) Installation
 Classification Based on Function or Action
• Piles may be classified as follows based on the
function or action:
• End-bearing piles
• Used to transfer load through the pile tip to a
suitable bearing stratum, passing soft soil or
water.
• Friction piles
• Used to transfer loads to a depth in a frictional
material by means of skin friction along the
• surface area of the pile.

Contd.
• Tension or uplift piles
• Used to anchor structures subjected to uplift due
to hydrostatic pressure or to overturningmoment
due to horizontal forces.
• Compaction piles Used to compact loose granular
soils in order to increase the bearing capacity.
Since they are not required to carry any load, the
material may not be required to be strong; in fact,
sand may be used to form the pile. The pile tube,
driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out
and sand is filled in its place thus forming a ‘sand
pile’.
 Contd.
• Anchor piles
• Used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull
from sheetpiling or water.
• Fender piles -Used to protect water-front
structures against impact from ships or other
floating objects.
• Sheet piles -Commonly used as bulkheads, or cut-
offs to reduce seepage and uplift in hydraulic
structures.
• Batter piles -Used to resist horizontal and inclined
forces, especially in water front structures.

Classification

• Laterally-loaded piles
• Used to support retaining walls, bridges,
dams, and wharves and as fenders for harbour
construction.
 Classification Based on Material and
Composition
• Piles may be classified as follows based on
material and composition:
• Timber piles These are made of timber of sound
quality. Length may be up to about 8 m; splicing is
adopted for greater lengths. Diameter may be
from 30 to 40 cm. Timber piles perform well either
in fully dry condition or submerged condition.
Alternate wet and dry conditions reduce the life of
a timber pile; to overcome this, creosoting
adopted. Maximum design load is about 250 kN.

Contd
• Steel piles
• These are usually H-piles (rolled H-shape), pipe
piles, or sheet piles (rolled sections of regular
• shapes). They may carry loads up to 1000 kN or
more .
• Concrete piles
• These may be ‘precast’ or ‘cast-in-situ’. Precast
piles are reinforced to withstand handling
stresses. They require space for casting and
storage, more time to cure and heavy equipment
for handling and driving.
 Contd
• Cast-in-situ piles are installed by pre-
excavation, thus eliminating vibration due to
driving and handling. The common types are
Raymond pile, Mac Arthur pile and Franki pile.

Composite Piles
• These may be made of either concrete and
timber or concrete and steel. These are
considered suitable when the upper part of the
pile is to project above the water table.
• Lower portion may be of untreated timber and
the upper portion of concrete.
• Otherwise, the lower portion may be of steel and
the upper one of concrete
 Classification based on the method of installation
• Piles may also be classified as follows based on
the method of installation:
• Driven piles
• Timber, steel, or precast concrete piles may be
driven into position either vertically or at an
inclination. If inclined they are termed ‘batter’ or
‘raking’ piles. Pile hammers and pile-driving
equipment are used for driving piles.

Contd
• Cast-in-situ piles
• Only concrete piles can be cast-in-situ. Holes are
drilled and these are filled with concrete.
• These may be straight-bored piles or may be
‘under-reamed’ with one or more bulbs at
intervals.
• Reinforcements may be used according to the
requirements. Driven and cast-in-situ piles
• This is a combination of both types. Casing or
shell may be used. The Franki pile falls in this
category.
 USES OF PILES
• The important ways in which piles are used are as
follows:
• (i) To carry vertical compressive loads,
• (ii) To resist uplift or tensile forces, and
• (iii) To resist horizontal or inclined loads.

Contd
• Bearing piles are used to support vertical loads
from the foundations of buildings and bridges.
• The load is carried either by transferring to the
incompressible soil or rock below through soft
strata, or by spreading the load through soft
strata that are incapable of supporting
concentrated loads from shallow footings. The
former type are called point-bearing piles,while
the latter are known as friction-piles.
 Contd
• Tension piles are used to resist upward forces in
structures subjected to uplift, such as buildings
with basements below the ground water level,
aprons of dams or buried tanks.
• They are also used to resist overturning of walls
and dams and for anchors of towers, guywires
and bulkheads.

Contd
• Laterally loaded piles support horizontal or inclined
forces such as the foundations of retaining walls,
bridges, dams, and wharves and as fenders in
harbour construction.
• In case the lateral loads are of large magnitude they
may be more effectively resisted by batter piles,
driven at an inclination.
• Closely spaced piles or thin sheet piles are used as
cofferdams, seepage cut-offs and retaining walls.
Piles may be used to compact loose granular soils
and also to safeguard foundations against scouring.
 USES OF PILES

Negative Skin Friction

• ‘Negative skin friction’ or ‘down drag’ is a
phenomenon which occurs when a soil layer
surrounding a portion of the pile shaft settles
more than the pile.
This condition can develop where a soft or loose
soil stratum located anywhere above the pile tip
is subjected to new compressive loading.
 Negative Skin Friction
• If a soft or loose layer settles after the pile has
been installed, the skin-friction-adhesion
developing in this zone is in the direction of the
soil movement, pulling the pile downward, as
shown in Fig. 16.11. Extra loading is thus
imposed on the pile. Negative skin friction may
also occur by the lowering of ground water
which increases the effective stress inducing
consolidation and consequent settlement of the
soil surrounding the pile

Contd
• It is necessary to subtract negative skin friction force
from the total load that the pile
can support. In such a case the factor of safety will be
modified as follows:
• Factor of safety =Ultimate pile load capacity/(Working
load + Negative skin friction force)
• Sometimes this may also be written as
• Factor of safety = Ultimate pile load capacity Negative
skin friction force/Working load
• − Values of negative skin force are computed in just the
same way as positive skin friction