An Executive Guide

How to Know If and When

it’s Time to Commission a
Life Cycle Assessment

3. Life Cycle Approaches

for Consumption Clusters

4. Life Cycle
Housing

Mobility

Consumer

1. Life Cycle
Products
Food

Approaches
Approaches
for
Methodology
Development

2. Life Cycle Approaches

for Resources (e.g., natural,
chemicals, energy and water)
Contents

Forward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3
What is a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4

History of LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
Commonly Used LCA Metrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  8

What Can LCA Do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

What Doesn’t LCA Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

How to Decide if an LCA is the Right Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Life Cycle Approaches:

What Works Best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Key Considerations:
Data Availability, Quality and Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Key Considerations:
Professional Expertise/Requirements to Perform LCAs. . . . . . . 18

Key Considerations:
Using and Communicating LCA Resuls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2
Forward
T hrough the development of new, innovative products and more efficient technologies, the chemical
industry is playing an important role in addressing challenges related to energy and greenhouse gas
(GHG) savings at the national, regional, and international levels.

As the worldwide voice of the chemical industry, the on life cycle thinking and how and when to commission
International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA) a full life cycle assessment.
works with organizations that address health, environ-
Simply put, this guide will describe what constitutes an
mental, and trade-related issues around the globe. ICCA
LCA, what are the benefits and limitations of different
coordinates the work of its national and regional mem-
types of LCAs and related tools, and how to interpret
ber associations and their member companies, through
and communicate LCA results.
exchanging information and developing common posi-
tions on policy issues of international significance. So if you are thinking of conducting an LCA but not
quite sure what this entails and want to learn more
The ICCA Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Task Force has
about where to go, what’s available, and the ABC’s of
developed this brief Executive Guide to help educate
LCA, then this Executive Guide is for you.
industry executives—and a much broader audience—

3
What is a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)?
L ife cycle thinking means taking account of the environmental, social and economic impacts of a product
over its entire life cycle

LCA evaluates these impacts throughout a product’s defined point further along the life cycle (e.g., where
entire lifespan, from raw material extraction through a finished product is delivered to an end user).
materials processing, manufacturing, distribution, use,
The system boundary is determined based on the study
repair and maintenance, and eventual disposal or recy-
objective—whether the aim is to understand the envi-
cling (see Figure 1).
ronmental impact of the raw materials, intermediate
This Guide is focused on explaining life cycle thinking components or the final product.
and how it can be used to understand the contributions
There are also designs and concepts derived from the
of the chemical industry to a more sustainable economy
life cycle approach, such as the “cradle-to-cradle” design
through the application of its products. A full life cycle
approach developed by McDonough & Braungart. Such
analysis will help identify both the negative and positive
approaches are complementary to LCA, although the
aspects of a product or service.
term “cradle-to-cradle” is sometimes used by LCA prac-
Figure 1: Life Cycle Assessment Iterative titioners to indicate a cradle-to-grave study where the
Process product is recycled at end of life.
Natural
resources ISO provides a succinct definition of “Life Cycle Assess-
Incineraction and Extraction of raw
ment,” describing it as a technique for assessing the
landfilling materials environmental aspects and potential impacts associated
Recovery
with a product, by:

Recycling of materials
•• Compiling an inventory of relative inputs and
Disposal and components outputs of a product system;
Design and
production •• Evaluating the potential environmental impacts
associated with those inputs and outputs; and
Reuse
•• Interpreting the results of the Inventory Analysis
and Impact Assessment phases (see Figure 2) in
Use and relation to the study’s objectives.
maintenance Packaging and
distribution Figure 2: LCA is carried out in four basic,
interdependent stages

LCA is standardized in the International Standards Goal & Applications

Organisation (ISO) 14040 series. Typical types of sys- Scope •• Product R&D and
tems boundaries include:
Interpretation

improvement
a. Cradle-to-gate: From raw material extraction to •• Strategic
Inventory planning
factory gate.
Analysis •• Product
b. Cradle-to-grave: From raw material extraction Stewardship
through product use and disposal. •• Public Policy
c. Gate-to-Gate: From one defined point along the •• Marketing &
Impact communication
life cycle (e.g., where incoming raw materials cross Assessment
the fence-line of a manufacturing site) to a second
4
What is a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)? continued

1. Goal and Scope includes the following: 3. Impact Assessment includes:

•• Specifying the reason for conducting the study, •• Using impact categories, category indicators,
including identifying a product’s function. characterization models, equivalency factors,
•• Identifying intended audience and use of results. and weighting values to translate the raw data
into potential impact on human health and the
•• Setting system boundaries (cradle-to-gate, cradle-
to-grave, gate-to-gate). environment.

•• Identifying data requirements. 4. Interpretation of results:

•• Acknowledging study limitations. •• This is an important stage that takes place
•• Establishing a time and geographic reference. throughout the first three stages as an iterative
process to assess the results in the context of
2. An Inventory Analysis of resource use and emissions
project goals. Results must be validated through
includes:
a third-party critical review panel of interested
•• Collecting, validating and aggregating input and parties if the intent is to use the results externally
output data to quantify material use, energy use, for comparative assertions (e.g., claims that
environmental discharges, and waste associated Product X has lower or higher environmental
with each life cycle stage. impacts than Product Y). The study results must
indicate significant impacts and recommend
methods for reducing material use and
environmental burdens.

Identifying a Product’s Functions

In defining the scope of an LCA study, a clear statement
of the specific functions, or performance characteris-
tics, of the product must be made. The functional unit
defines and quantifies the identified functions and
should be consistent with the goal and scope of the
study. Typically, functional unit includes an identification
of the product, an amount of the function, a time value and a
quality value.
Example: For the function of packaging for food, an amount (e.g. 1 liter liquid volume),
a quality (e.g. aseptic FDA standards) and a time factor (e.g. protection for two weeks).
The functional unit would be a food container for one liter of liquid in conformity with
aseptic FDA standards and lasting two weeks. This function could be supplied by plastic,
metal or paper products. For each system, it is possible to determine the reference flow,
e.g. the average mass of paper or plastic or metal for one liter of food. For all systems,
it is possible to compile an inventory of inputs and outputs on the basis of the reference
flows. At its simplest level, this would be related to the material consumed.

5
History of LCA
L ife cycle assessment was first developed in the late 1960s/early 1970s, during the oil crisis. People were
waiting in line for gasoline, and energy costs were skyrocketing. Companies were looking for ways to
save on their energy bills as their customers were asking for energy-efficient products. Companies also
began to use LCA internally to improve their products. Thus, the impetus for the first life cycle inventories
came into being.

In the late 1980s, life cycle inventories of product

systems’ energy and mass began to be undertaken.
In 1990, the Society of Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry (SETAC) held LCA workshops and identified
the various stages of the LCA framework. Two years Figure 3: Life Cycle—From Raw Material
later, the framework for LCA was reviewed, and the Acquistion to Disposal
“Goal and Scope” stage, central to LCA, was added.

Thus the four parts of an LCA were identified: Manufacturing

Raw Material
•• Goal and Scope Acquisition
•• Inventory Analysis
•• Impact Assessment
•• Interpretation.
It wasn’t until ISO developed an Environmental
Management series of standards, which included
a technical committee charged with developing an
LCA standard, that a global LCA standard became
available.

The culmination of this effort was a voluntary

international standard that stands today as the
standard for conducting an LCA. Figure 3 shows the
End of Life
iterative process of life cycle—from raw material
Use
extraction through end of life.

Why it is important to conduct LCAs in accordance with ISO 14040?

•• Credibility: Assurance that an LCA is complete, conducted in conformance with ISO standards and reproduceable
helps users have confidence in the results.
•• Global in nature: While LCA is a “snapshot,” the concept of continuous improvement and greening the global
economies with sustainable materials management and consumption has its roots in LCA.
•• Regional adoption of a global standard: Countries around the world have adopted versions of LCA for platforms
and data development for their specific regions. Under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/
Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Life Cycle
Initiative, the concept of life cycle thinking using regional LCA data, life cycle
costing information, and social LCAs are emerging.
•• Economies of scale: Used in developing and sharing publicly LCA information
for all stakeholders to use.

6
Commonly Used LCA Metrics

W hile life cycle methodology has been applied to all three pillars of sustainability—economic1, social2
and environmental—the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Report,3 Life Cycle Assessment:
Principles and Practice, provides a summary table of commonly used LCA metrics, as well as information on
their use. Some of these metrics are explained in more detail below:
•• Cumulative Energy Demand (CED): Total energy energy consumed in delivering the functional
consumed over the whole life cycle in delivering unit (including end-of-life waste management).
the functional unit (including end-of-life waste Renewable energy includes solar, photovoltaic,
management). hydro, wind, wave, geothermal.
• • Cumulative Fossil Energy Demand (CFED): •• Global Warming Potential (GWP), also referred
This is a subset of CED and describes the total to as Carbon Footprint: A category that reflects
life cycle fossil fuel-based energy consumed climate change impact over a fixed time
in delivering the functional unit (including period, normally 100 years, in terms of the
end-of-life waste management). Fossil fuels total emissions of greenhouse gases, such as
include coal, crude oil and its derivatives, carbon dioxide (CO2), and other CO2 equivalents,
natural gas, peat. including methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O),
•• Cumulative Renewable Energy Demand (CRED): to air across the life cycle of a product used to
This is a subset of CED and describes the total deliver a unit of service (the functional unit),
life cycle renewable (non-fossil fuel)-based including end-of-life waste management.

1. For more information see reference: Hunkeler, D., Lichtenvort, K., Rebitzer, G.; “Environmental Life Cycle Costing”; SETAC; May 2008;
ISBN: 978-1-880611-83-8.
2. For more information see reference: United Nations Environment Programme; “Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products”;
Benoît, C., Mazijn, B. (Editors); 2009; ISBN: 978-92-807-3021-0.
3. EPA/600/R-060, May 2006, Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice.

7
Commonly used LCA metrics continued

•• Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): A category

that reflects the relative effect of total emissions
of gases that deplete stratospheric ozone across
the life cycle of a product used to deliver a unit
of service (the functional unit), including end-
of-life waste management. Stratospheric ozone
exists as a layer of naturally occurring gas in the
upper atmosphere that protects living cells from
over-exposure to solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation;
over-exposure to UV radiation can cause, for
example, skin cancer and reduced crop yields.
•• Acidification Potential (AP): A category that
reflects the relative effect of total emissions of •• Consumptive Water Footprint and Water Emissions
acidic gases (e.g., sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen Footprint: This describes the total life cycle
oxides (NOx), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroflouric requirement of water necessary for delivering
acid (HF), ammonia (NH4)) to air across the life the functional unit, including end-of-life waste
cycle of a product used to deliver a unit of service management. It is often subdivided into fresh
(the functional unit), including end-of-life waste water and sea or brackish water; by source (river,
management. Deposition of these emissions can lake, well, sea).
acidify water bodies and soils, and can cause •• Eco and Human Toxicity Assessment: Toxicity
building corrosion. assessment models, such as the USEtox™
•• Eutrophication Potential (EP), also called model, provide consensus-based, chemical-
Nutrification Potential (NP): A category that reflects specific characterization factors that quantify the
the overgrowth of algae caused by emissions environmental fate of chemical emissions and their
of limiting nutrients (compounds containing impact on human health and on ecosystems, by
phosphorus or nitrogen) directly or indirectly to assessing exposure and effect.
water bodies (lakes, slow moving rivers, estuaries, •• Direct land use change (LUC): An important
etc.) and soil across the life cycle of a product used indicator currently under development associated
to deliver a unit of service (the functional unit), with conversion of land from its ‘original’ state
including end-of-life waste management. (forest, grassland, pasture, cropland, degraded
•• Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP): land, etc.) to an altered state for the production
A category that reflects the relative effect of of agricultural or forestry products (e.g., biofuel
total emissions of volatile organic compounds feedstock), with resulting changes in GHG
(VOCs) and oxides of nitrogen across the life emissions and carbon stocks on that land.
cycle of a product used to deliver a unit of service •• Indirect land use change (ILUC): An important
(the functional unit), including end-of-life waste indicator currently under development that
management. Emissions of VOCs (non-methane accounts for secondary land use change that is
hydrocarbons) in the presence of nitrogen oxides the result of primary land use change displacing
and sunlight can lead to chemical reactions that a commercial crop, which is consequently grown
form ozone (O3) close to ground level (so-called in a different location leading to further land being
photochemical smog). altered from one state to another, with resulting
changes in GHG emissions and carbon stocks on
that land.

8
What Can LCA Do?
L
CAs can do a number of things, and are useful for: Figure 4: Environmental Claims and LCA
Claims Must Reflect the
•• Supporting decision-making, highlighting efficiency Stated Study Scope
opportunities along a value chain.
•• Understanding the industrial systems involved in
manufacturing products and delivering services to
end-users.
•• Optimizing industrial systems by identifying
operations within a market chain that have the
greatest opportunity for improvement, often
referred to as “hot spots.” Natural Air
•• Ensuring that changes made to improve one part Resources Emissions
of an industrial system do not “shift the burden,”
by moving a problem, or creating a new issue in
another part of the chain.
•• Informing decision makers about the trade-offs
that a decision will have on the balance of impacts
across the environmental impact categories, such as,
implementing a particular technology to reduce GHG
emissions that may result in increased water usage.
•• Comparing two systems that deliver the same
service/product as defined by the functional unit.
Here it is important to note that:
ƒƒ Differences of less than approximately 10
percent are within the typical error of good Water
Recycling

quality LCAs; meaningful differences must be Effluents

much larger.
ƒƒ LCAs can only meaningfully compare products
or services that deliver the same functional
unit; comparison of dissimilar products is
meaningless.
Solid
Waste
Reuse

•• Indicating whether an improvement investment at

one part of a market chain will have any significant
improvement effect over the whole life cycle.
•• Benchmarking one organization’s processes against
an industry average of similar processes to identify
improvement possibilities.
•• Providing footprinting data, such as carbon
footprints.
•• Environmental claims should be supported by LCA
data, as shown in Figure 4.
9
What Doesn’t LCA Do?
T hink of an LCA study as a “snapshot in time” measure of burdens. The lower the burdens across the life
cycle of a product or system, the smaller the footprint. An LCA measures burdens—what goes in (how
much energy and raw materials it takes to make a product), and what goes out (how much waste, water
pollution and emissions to air) across the product life cycle.

Okay, so what does an LCA not do? •• An LCA generally does not include every single
•• For one thing, it doesn’t measure the performance material, such as catalysts, pigments, or other
of a product or its constituents—it doesn’t tell you if additives that total less than one percent by
the product you are analyzing will perform any better weight of the net process inputs. These minor
or worse than another product. It will tell you the life contributions are typically not included in the
cycle inputs and outputs to make that product. assessment, unless inventory data for their
production are readily available or there is
•• And another thing, an LCA has nothing to do with
compliance with environmental laws. Compliance is reason to believe the materials would make
usually taken as the assumed baseline—there is no significant contributions to energy use or
litter or excess solid waste, no violation of air pollution environmental impacts.
standards or water permits—and LCA assumes the •• An LCA typically does not provide information
product system you are measuring meets applicable about employee direct impacts. Travel to and
local and regional environmental standards. from work, travel for work and lunchroom waste,
for example, are typically not included in the
•• An LCA typically does not include the “bricks and
mortar” of capital equipment in the manufacturing LCA study.
facility where your product is made. The energy •• Another thing an LCA does not do is provide
and wastes associated with manufacture of capital the same level of exposure calculations as a
equipment, including equipment to manufacture risk assessment analysis. For instance, an LCA
buildings, motor vehicles, and industrial on a particular foodservice package will provide
machinery, also are not usually included. some LCA impact data, possibly including
human and environmental toxicity. But a risk
•• LCA typically does not include an analysis
of support personnel requirements, nor the assessment that looks at the exposure of a
energy and wastes associated with research and particular chemical in foodservice packaging,
development, sales, and administrative personnel including a rigorous measure of migration and
or related activities. consumption factor calculations to measure
dietary exposure and acceptable daily intake, is
•• LCAs also do not normally measure building space
beyond the scope of an LCA.
conditioning.The fuel and power use to heat, cool
and light manufacturing facilities are omitted from •• LCA does not define what specific course of
the calculations in most cases. For manufacturing action to take. LCA provides results that will help
plants that carry out thermal processing or otherwise stakeholders make better decisions, based on
consume large amounts of energy, space conditioning evaluated trade offs.
energy is quite low compared to process energy.

10
How to Decide if an LCA is the Right Tool
If you are looking to examine more than one environmental or energy attribute of a product, and you need
to examine trade-offs in making changes that can help identify places to reduce the overall footprint of a
product system, it might make sense to consider the broader approach that an LCA presents.

LCA is a “systems analysis” tool that examines the whole It is helpful to describe the system using a process flow
system required to deliver services (primarily through the diagram that shows unit processes and their interrelation-
use of products) to end-users (consumers or end-user ships.This basic flow diagram shows what specific unit
organizations). Several life cycle stages, unit processes and processes for the system being examined are included in
flows may be taken into consideration, as shown in Figure every step of the life cycle:
5, for example:
An LCA and its results should be relative to a
•• Inputs and outputs in the main manufacturing/ “functional unit.” ISO defines a functional unit as the
processing sequence; quantified performance of a product system for use
•• Distribution/transportation; as a reference unit in an LCA study.
•• Production and use of fuels, electricity and heat; Another way to better understand the term is to think
•• Use and maintenance of products; of the functional unit as the equivalent measurement,
•• Disposal of process wastes and products; or “function,” that will be the heart of the LCA study.
•• Recovery of used products (including reuse, recycling It is what allows you to compare really disparate things
and energy recovery); to see trade-offs. For example:
•• Manufacture of ancillary materials; •• A 1-liter quantity of milk available at a supermarket
•• Manufacture, maintenance and decommissioning of in Madrid.
capital equipment; •• One square meter of recyclable, stain-resistant
•• Additional operations, such as lighting and heating; carpet with a 10-year life expectancy, suitable for
a high-wear office corridor.
•• Other considerations related to impact assessment
(if any).

Figure 5: LCA Systems Approach

Energy, Water Energy, Water Energy, Water Energy, Water Energy, Water

Final Disposition—
Raw Material Materials Product Product Use or Landfill,
Acquisition Manufacture Manufacture Consumption Combustion,
Recycle or Reuse

Wastes Wastes Wastes Wastes

Reuse
Product Recycling

11
how to decide if LCA is the right tool continued

Figure 6: Integrated Decision-Making

Environmental Impacts (LCA) Costs

Technical Feasibility Viability

Risk Assessment Societal Impacts

Integrated
Decision-
Making

LCA takes a holistic view of service provision by mea- industrial system or the risk aspects of product use.
suring inputs to, and outputs from, all unit operations Figure 6 shows how LCA is one of several tools to con-
invoked by delivering a service to an end-user. Inputs sider in the integrated decision-making process. In such
include raw materials, facilitating substances, com- cases, site-specific assessments of risk or environmental
ponents and energy, while outputs include products, parameters and product risk assessments are recom-
co-products and wastes. These material and energy mended over LCAs. LCAs are useful for identifying major
flows are both upstream of the consumer and down- system impacts on society and the environment.
stream (e.g., waste management) and are compiled in
Companies also may wish to develop gate-to-gate
the analysis in terms of the functional unit. An LCA, by
inventories to assist in an industry-wide LCA study. For
definition, does not focus on one environmental param-
example, plastic resin producers may wish to develop
eter but examines all relevant aspects.
the data needed for a cradle-to-gate resin LCA. Repetition
Due to the holistic nature of LCAs, they may not be the of such studies may provide tracking systems for envi-
best tool for assessing single operations within an ronmental programs at the facility level as well as at the
industry level.

Strengths of an LCA Limitations of an LCA

•• Analytical, data-based method. •• Data intensive.
•• Considers the full life cycle of a product •• Snapshot view—doesn’t account for changes
or process. over time.
•• Highlights trade-offs. •• Provides input for decision making but not the
•• Variety of impact assessment methods definitive answer (due to trade-offs).
available makes the tool robust by •• Cannot calculate impacts for topics for which
considering different perspectives. numerical models do not exist.
•• Flexible. •• There is no absolutely scientific basis for reducing
•• Supports decision-making. LCA results to a single overall score or number.
However, aggregation methods are available that
can be used for normalizing and weighting
environmental results.

12
Life Cycle Approaches
What Works Best

L ife cycle approaches can contribute to environmental protection and sustainable development, to help you
overcome global challenges. Figure 7 shows the repetitive nature of the product improvement process
most industry uses in bringing products to market. So what “type” of life cycle approach should you take?

You should begin with the most basic questions: Comprehensive Complete LCAs
•• What are you trying to accomplish with your LCA? If you wish to not only quantify the energy and raw
materials in, and emissions (air, water, waste) through
•• What questions are you answering?
an LCI, but also perform a full impact analysis of
•• What decisions are you trying to support? the effects of those energy and material inputs and
•• Who will read the study? outputs, such as climate change, acidification, pho-
•• Who will use the results? tochemical smog or fossil fuel depletion, you should
This section addresses the different types of LCAs consider conducting a full LCA compliant with ISO
and tools that are derived from LCAs. Depending on 14040 standards. “Full LCA” study is always a cradle-to-
the five questions listed above, a number of stud- grave or cradle-to-cradle study and is always based on
ies involving LCAs may need to be commissioned. a defined unit of service delivered to an end user.
These could range from a “scoping” or screening
Figure 7: Product Improvement—A Repetitive
LCA for those who want to do a “rough first look”
Process
at trade-offs, to a full LCA that may or may
not compare different product systems. Objective
Product
Improvement
Scoping, Screening and Simplified LCAs
Perhaps you are a first timer to LCA and want get Possible
an idea of the key burdens (energy, air, water, Re- Alternatives
solid waste) across the life cycle of your Evaluation Screening
product system that might give you the best
opportunity, both upstream and downstream,
to make improvements and lower your
product’s footprint. Screening or scoping
Verification Relevant
LCAs are rough and ready studies that make
Post-Market Parameters
a lot of assumptions and use approximate/ Selection for
Surveillance
surrogate data to give an overall (directional) Assessment
indication of the results to be expected from
a study that uses a full LCA methodology. A
simplified LCA uses specific and defined simpli-
Decision Evaluation
fications to come to a more complete result, but
Making Comparative
not one as rigorous as a full LCA. Trade-Offs Assessment

13
life cycle approaches: what works best continued

Product Comparisons Tools for Communicating LCA Results:

The ISO 14040 standards were developed anticipating Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs)
that LCAs would be conducted to compare products or An ISO 14025 standard that forms the basis for Envi-
systems and that claims from these LCAs would most ronmental Product Declarations (EPDs) has its roots
likely be made. If you are going to conduct a “compara- in traditional LCA studies. An EPD is a declaration that
tive assessment” LCA, make sure you are familiar with discloses the life cycle environmental performance of
the ISO standards requirements for such a study. These products and services. It is not a claim of environmen-
include: tal superiority (not to be confused with a comparative
•• Identification of all stakeholders early in the assertion LCA), and it is also known as a Type III envi-
process; ronmental declaration, or a Type III eco label.
•• Use of third-party/external critical review (peer Why should you care about EPDs? Several countries,
review) throughout the process, including
like France, are demanding EPDs be done. In the
addressing peer review comments; and
United States, legislation for carbon footprints, which
•• Making the full LCA study (excluding clearly are part of an EPD, is being contemplated. EPDs are
confidential data) publicly available to all parties (not based on LCA and will contain a summary of certain
just selected summary points for specific results). key LCA results (carbon footprint, acidification, deple-
Following these rules can help you undertake a compar- tion of fossil fuel and other resources: so-called abiotic
ative LCA that will provide information that both critics depletion, global warming), along with other envi-
and supporters of your analysis can replicate or refute. ronmental components—recycled content, energy,
chemical-free statements, and possibly a logo (if it is
Attributional LCAs (ALCA) and Consequential LCAs for a company).
(CLCA)
ALCA answers the question, “What are the total emis- Product Category Rules (PCRs)
sions from the processes and material flows used A prerequisite to conducting an EPD is establishment
during the life cycle (production, consumption and of a Product Category Rule (PCR) for the particular prod-
disposal) of a product, at the current level of output?”, uct or system you are contemplating, according
whereas CLCA seeks to answer the question, “What is to ISO 14025.
the change (either positive or negative) in total emis- The process for developing a PCR is to assemble a team
sions which results from a marginal change in the of multi-stakeholder experts that represent the affected
level of output (and consumption and disposal) of a industries and other interested parties. PCRs have
product?” recently been developed for food products, insulation
products and auto parts.

A PCR should be a “how-to” guide for conducting

future LCAs, aimed at supporting the production of an
EPD specific for the sector or products in question. The
purpose is to set some clear and reproducible “ground
rules” for what must be in the scope of the LCA and
how the LCA is done, so that everyone preparing an
EPD for their product is generating an LCA in a con-
trolled and consistent way. The PCR is reviewed by a
team of independent experts, and a “program opera-
tor” is appointed to manage the EPD scheme and its
associated PCR. Any EPD based on the PCR is validated

14
life cycle approaches: what works best continued

under the scheme (usually by a third-party review and Carbon Footprint

verification) and, on receiving approval, can then be
A carbon footprint is the climate change indicator that is
made available as a registered EPD for that manufac-
calculated by a full LCA. It represents the total life cycle
turer’s product.
sum of all GHG emissions (including carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases)
Water Footprint
resulting from the manufacture, use and end of life
The Water Footprint Network (www.waterfootprint.org)
waste management of a product. There are specific car-
aims to promote the transition toward sustainable, fair,
bon footprint standards that are based on the standards
efficient use of fresh water resources worldwide by
for LCA (Reference: http://www.pre-sustainability.com/
advancing the concept of the “water footprint,” increas-
product-carbon-footprint-standards-which-standard-to-
ing water footprint awareness among communities,
choose):
governments and businesses, and encouraging forms
of water governance that reduce the negative ecological •• The British Standards Institution (BSI) developed
PAS 2050 in October 2008. PAS 2050 has already
and social impacts of water use.
been applied by many companies worldwide and
The Water Use Assessment within Life Cycle Assess- was revised in October 2011.
ment from the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative aims to
•• The WRI/WBCSD developed the GHG Protocol
provide a coherent framework within which to mea- product standard, which was road- tested by 60
sure and compare the environmental performance of companies in 2010 and launched in October 2011.
products and operations regarding freshwater use, and
related environmental consequences.
•• ISO DS 14067 is under development, and it is likely
to appear as a technical report in 2013.
ISO 14046—Water Footprint standard (under develop-
All three standards provide requirements and guide-
ment) focuses on:
lines on the decisions to be made when conducting a
•• Terms and definitions. carbon footprint study. Decisions involve LCA issues,
•• Water inventory and elementary water flows like goal and scope definition, data collection strategies,
calculation. study boundaries, and reporting. Moreover, these stan-
•• Water impact assessment and water footprint dards provide requirements on specific issues relevant
profile requirements. for carbon footprints, including land-use change, carbon
•• Reporting and critical review. uptake, biogenic carbon emissions, soil carbon change,
assessment time frame and green electricity.

cLCA and Avoided Emissions:

Carbon Life Cycle Assessment (cLCA) is a methodology used by the Japan Chemical Industry Association to
communicate the carbon footprint of a product in a way that indicates the emissions that are avoided by the use of
chemical products.
•• International organizations such as WBCSD and WRI, •• This methodology is equivalent to the difference
as well as national associations, have recognized the between the carbon life cycle emissions of two
need to establish uniform accepted “criteria” that different alternatives for achieving the same user
enable the development of a common method and benefit.
standard among (chemical) industries for calculating •• Once these avoided emissions criteria are developed
the “avoided emission” that can be realized by a in a consensus process, it is expected the criteria will
(chemical) product or technology. be another measurement tool along with traditional
LCAs.

15
Key Considerations:
Data Availability, Quality and Sources

L CA study data can be collected at source; a company can

use its own data (primary data), or the study could be
more generic using public or purchased data (secondary data).
Figure 8: Life Cycle Assessment: The Holistic
Yardstick of Environmental Performance

In all studies, the following additional data quality require- Clim

ate C
ments should be considered in a level of detail depending hang
e
on the Goal and Scope of the LCA study: Raw Material
Extraction
•• Accuracy: Measure of the variability of the data values
for each data category expressed (e.g., variance). on
Acidificati
•• Completeness: Percentage of locations reporting
primary data from the potential number in existence
for each data category in a unit process.
Eutroph
•• Representativeness: Qualitative assessment of degree ication
to which the data set reflects the true population of Manufacturing,
interest (i.e., geographical coverage, time period and Production
technology coverage).
•• Estimation of time in the data collection process: The
process for collecting primary data is usually the most
Photochemical Smog
time consuming part of an LCA. It’s important to find
the right balance between the amount of time and Distribution
Transportation
resources for the study accuracy in order to get the
tion
most appropriate information to help in your decision- l Deple
e
il Fu
making process. Foss
•• Consistency: Qualitative assessment of how uniformly
the study methodology is applied to the various
components of the analysis.
Operations and
•• Reproducibility: Qualitative assessment of the extent Maintenance
to which information about the methodology and
letion
data values allows an independent practitioner to Ozone Dep
reproduce the results reported in the study.

When a study is used to support a comparative assertion

that is disclosed to the public, it is recommended that all
data quality requirements described in this sub-clause is Recycle
city
an Toxi and Waste
included in the study. Additionally, attention is also being Hum Management
given to addressing aspects of data uncertainty (e.g.,
ranges, statistical distributions). Figure 8 represents the
stages and impacts needed in a comprehensive LCA study.

16
Key Considerations:
Professional Expertise/Requirements to Perform LCAs

W hen we do our income taxes, we often hire a certified public accountant to guide us through the tax laws, and
when we seek medical attention, we see a physician trained to address our particular ailment. So where should
you go if you are an LCA novice? Well, to an LCA professional, of course, who is knowledgeable about all things of LCA.

Since the invention of eco-profiles (now known as life So how do you find a trained life cycle professional?
cycle inventory data) in the late 1960s, the LCA field has Is there a Yellow Pages directory? No, but the LCA
become a commodity database business. What does community knows it is important to provide training
that mean for you, the commissioner of an LCA study?
and certification for current and future LCA profes-
It means you can concentrate on the LCA applica-
sionals. Therefore, in 2007, the LCACP (LCA Certified
tion—what is it you want to learn, compare, or illustrate
Professional Program) was developed as the first cer-
through an LCA study.
tification program for LCA professionals in the world.
LCA software is based on years of processes and data.
To maintain certification, LCA Certified Professional
Databases, impact assessment methods and LCA
must continue to be active in the field and gather con-
software tools are readily available today—a life cycle
tinuing education units.
professional can assist you in making the rights choices
for your needs.

Advice to Those Thinking About Commissioning an LCA

•• Know what you want. •• Do ask your potential life cycle professional
consultant if he/she:
•• Do consult a life cycle professional.
•• Do use resources from regional life cycle centres ƒƒ Is conversant with and follows the ISO 14040
series of LCA standards; and/or other best
around the world, such as the Brazilian Association
practice guidance, e.g., ILCD.
for Life Cycle (ABCV), the American Center for Life
Cycle Assessment (ACLCA), and the European ƒƒ Can provide an explanation on how he/she will
Platform on Life Cycle Thinking. These are good follow the four LCA pillars.
resources and are often multi-stakeholder groups you
can participate in.

17
Key Considerations:
Using and Communicating LCA Results

L CA has the potential to provide a new model for regulations, one based on a holistic view of environ-
mental impacts rather than focusing on chemical risk management. The iterative LCA process, along
with the fact that it measures and weighs multiple parameters—energy, raw materials, emissions, effluents,
impacts—makes this a powerful tool.

The outcome of an LCA depends to a large extent on data collection on the front end means a good
the people involved in the study—you, your peers, the representative result for a final report.
LCA consultant—and how they all work together. •• Communications—An LCA can help substantiate
Globally, many private and public sector organizations claims; claims about a product or systems
(multinationals, small and medium-sized enterprises, environmental performance; claims about
cities, regional governments, among others) have comparisons. But remember, green washing and
committed to improving their social and environmental “cherry picking” certain results of an LCA study,
performance by adopting life cycle approaches. Many while not disclosing everything results in ineffective
individuals are using life cycle information avail- and potentially unethical communications.
able in stores and on the Internet to make purchasing •• Green Marketing—Beware of green washing. Do
decisions. not use results out of context, be transparent,
What should you consider before conducting an LCA and make sure your environmental claims can be
and ultimately using the results? substantiated.
•• Be as accurate as possible—Use the latest data •• An LCA study is a detailed undertaking—Adequate
(primary data you need to collect, or databases in-house resources (engineers, process managers/
relevant to your region and processes). operators, and links to suppliers) will be needed to
assist the LCA practitioner to build robust datasets
•• Goal and scope—Make sure you know the
for your process and systems. Remember that LCA
boundaries of your study.
is not really a ‘fit-and-forget’ commission. Strong
•• “Garbage In = Garbage Out”—Don’t take shortcuts.
commitment to in-depth interactions between LCA
Being comprehensive on data quality and
client and LCA practitioner is the best way to yield
high-quality, relevant and valuable studies.

18
life cycle approaches: what works best continued

The UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative members and An on-line PDF of the study, Greening the Economy
its network of stakeholders believe that the transition Through Life Cycle Thinking: Ten Years of the UNEP/
to a sustainable economy can only be successfully SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, presented at Rio+20 in 2012,
accomplished if the decisions are based upon solid, is available at: http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/
science-backed information. If the Green Economy is to pdf/DTIx1536xPA-GreeningEconomythroughLifeCycle-
bring the necessary changes to guarantee a future for Thinking.pdf
life on Earth, decision-making on sustainable products,
investments, and policies must be made using life cycle
thinking and operationalized through life cycle manage-
ment, approaches, and tools.

Importance of Critical Review (Peer Review)

For internal studies, LCA critical reviews are optional, and Scope (the Critical Review report must also be
although recommended. However, when a study is made available alongside the LCA report under the
developed to make a comparative assertion that is requirements of the ISO standards).
later disclosed to the public, a critical review shall be
The review process can be carried out as:
conducted as presented in ISO 14040:2006, 7.3. •• A one-stage process (the data are reviewed and
The critical review aims to verify whether an LCA validated at the end of the study).

study has met International Standard for Methodol- •• An on-going process (e.g., the data are reviewed
in three different stages of the process—Goal and
ogy, Data and Reporting requirements to ensure Scope, LCI and LCA—and validated at the end to
the validity of the results. Thus, it is important to ensure accuracy and transparency).
understand the aim of the study, to determine what
The critical review panel is typically composed of
should be included in the Goal and Scope phase and
two to three experts, led by a chair who produces a
whether the study has been subject to the formal
peer-reviewed report. The panel also should include
Critical Review process in accordance with ISO
other interested parties affected by the conclusions
14040/44. Key aspects that the review will focus on
drawn from the LCA study, such as government
and report are transparency and completeness for
agencies, NGOs, or competitors.
the study and on its consistency with the stated Goal

19
Conclusion
T his brief Executive Guide is designed to help educate industry executives—and a much broader audi-
ence—on life cycle thinking and how and when to commission a full life cycle assessment.

The guide hopefully strikes a balance between providing We hope this guide will help you along in picking and
the reader enough information about the advantages of choosing a number of LCA and related tools to help you
using Life Cycle Thinking – taking account of the environ- analyse and make good sustainable decisions based
mental, social and economic impacts of a product over on the very latest information and methods out there.
its entire life cycle – and just enough detail of how to Remember, keep researching – new tools and new
know if and when it’s time to commission an LCA. developments are always on the horizon!

Acknowledgements
ICCA would like to thank the ICCA LCA Task
Force, led by Juhan Robberts, ExxonMobil
Chemical Europe, and the ICCA Executive
Guide Project Team, led by Mike Levy, Ameri-
can Chemistry Council, Plastics Division, and
team members Beatriz Visconti Luz, Braskem
S.A.; David Russell, Sustainable Business
Innovation (former Dow Chemical Company
Europe); and Jenny Heumann, American
Chemistry Council Communications, for their
role in the development and overall manage-
ment of this guide. This effort would also
have been impossible without the knowledge,
review and feedback provided by ICCA mem-
bers and elected external stakeholders during
the development of the guide.

20