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CHAPTER 3
Planck’s Constant
3-1 Atoms and Radiation in Equilibrium
3-2 Thermal Radiation Spectrum
3-3 Quantization of Electromagnetic
Radiation
3-4 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Model

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck

(1858-1947)
We have no right to assume that any physical laws exist, or if they have
existed up until now, or that they will continue to exist in a similar
manner in the future.
An important scientific innovation rarely makes its way by gradually
winning over and converting its opponents. What does happen is that
the opponents gradually die out.
- Max Planck

Blackbody Radiation
Why is Black Body Radiation important?
When matter is heated, it emits
radiation.

A blackbody is a cavity with a

material that only emits thermal
radiation. Incoming radiation is
absorbed in the cavity.

Blackbody radiation is theoretically interesting because the

radiation properties of the blackbody are independent of the
particular material. Physicists can study the properties of intensity
versus wavelength at fixed temperatures.

Rayleigh-Jeans Formula

Lord Rayleigh used the classical

theories of electromagnetism and
thermodynamics to show that the
blackbody spectral distribution u (λ ) = 8π kT λ − 4

should be:
u (λ ) = 8π kT λ −4
Integrating u (λ ) from 0 → ∞, we find
∞

∫ u(λ ) d λ → 0 when λ → 0
0

It approaches the data at longer wavelengths, but it deviates badly at

short wavelengths. This problem for small wavelengths became
known as the ultraviolet catastrophe and was one of the
outstanding exceptions that classical physics could not explain.

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Planck’s Radiation Law

Planck assumed that the radiation in the cavity was emitted (and
absorbed) by some sort of “oscillators.” He used Boltzman’s
statistical methods to arrive at the following formula that fit the
blackbody radiation data.

8π hcλ −5
u (λ ) = Planck’s radiation law
e hc λ kT − 1
Planck made two modifications to the classical theory:
The oscillators (of electromagnetic origin) can only have certain
discrete energies, En = nhf, where n is an integer, ν is the frequency,
and h is called Planck’s constant: h = 6.6261 × 10−34 J·s.

The oscillators can absorb or emit energy in discrete multiples of the

fundamental quantum of energy given by:

∆E = hf

Planck’s Radiation Law

Exercise 3-1: Derive Planck’s radiation law.

Application: The Big Bang theory

predicts black body radiation. This
radiation was discovered in 1965
by A. Penzias & R. Wilson. Cosmic
Background Explorer (COBE) and
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe (WMAP) detected this
radiation field at 2.725± 0.001 °K

This data supports the Big

Bang Theory

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The total power radiated increases with the temperature:

R = εσ T 4

This is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law, with the constant σ

experimentally measured to be 5.6705 × 10−8 W / (m2 · K4).

The emissivity є (є = 1 for an idealized blackbody) is simply the

ratio of the emissive power of an object to that of an ideal
blackbody and is always less than 1.

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Wien’s Displacement Law

The spectral intensity R(λ,Τ ) is the total power radiated per unit area
per unit wavelength at a given temperature.
Wien’s displacement law: The maximum of the spectrum shifts to
smaller wavelengths as the temperature is increased.

λmT = constant=2.898 ×10-3m.K

Planck’s Radiation Law

Exercise 3-2 : Show that Stefan’s Boltzmann law, Wein’s
displacement law and Rayleigh-Jean’s law can be derived from
Planck’s law

Exercise 3-3: What is the average energy of an oscillator that has a

frequency given by hf=kT according to Planck’s calculations?

Exercise 3-4: How Hot is a Star? Measurement of the wavelength

at which spectral distribution R(λ) from the Sun is maximum is
found to be at 500nm, how hot is the surface of the Sun?

Exercise 3-5: How Big is a Star? Measurement of the wavelength at

which spectral distribution R(λ) from a certain star is maximum
indicates that the star’s surface temperature is 3000K. If the star is
also found to radiate 100 times the power Psun radiated by the Sun,
how big is the star? Take the Sun’s surface temperature as 5800 K.

What is a Photon?
Planck introduced the idea of a photon or quanta. A cavity emits
radiation by way of quanta. How does the radiation travel in space?
We think that radiation is a wave phenomenon however the energy
content is delivered to atoms in concentrated groups of waves
(quanta).

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Properties of a Photon
If a photon is to be considered as a particle we must be able to
describe its mass, momentum, energy, statistics etc.

Energy of a photon -34 -15
E = hf ; h=6.626 × 10 J .s = 4.136 × 10 eV .s
E = Energy, f = frequency

limiting value 1/2hf otherwise integral multiple of hf

Interaction of photons with matter

Complete absorption or partial absorption with the photon

adjusting its frequency to remain as particle

Intensity of photon

Intensity ∝ number of photons

intensity has nothing to do with the energy of photons

Properties of Photons

Constant h of photon
h defines the smallest quantum angular momentum of a particle

hf hf hf
∴ E = hf = mc 2 ⇒ m = and p = 2 c =
c2 c c
Exercise 6 Show that h has units of angular momentum

Mass and momentum of photon
photons move with velocity v=c
m0 hf
E = hf = mc 2 =
1 − v2 c2
c 2 ⇒ m0 = ( )
1 − v2 c2 •
c2
=0

Photons have no rest mass m0

Photon is not a material particle since rest mass is zero, it is a wave

structure that behaves like a particle

Properties of Photons

Charge of a photon
photons do not carry charge, however they can eject charge particles
from matter when they impinge on atoms

Photon Statistics
Consider the radiation as a gas of photon. Photons move randomly like
molecules in a gas and have wide range of energies but same velocity

Statistics of photons is described by Bose-Einstein. We can talk about

intensity and temperature in the same way as density and temperature.

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Photoelectric Effect

Methods of electron emission:

Thermionic emission: Applying

heat allows electrons to gain
enough energy to escape.

Secondary emission: The electron gains enough energy by transfer

from another high-speed particle that strikes the material from outside.

Field emission: A strong external electric field pulls the electron out of
the material.

Photoelectric effect: Incident light (electromagnetic radiation) shining

on the material transfers energy to the electrons, allowing them to
escape. We call the ejected electrons photoelectrons.

Photo-electric Effect
Experimental Setup

Photo-electric effect The kinetic energy of

the photoelectrons is
observations independent of the
light intensity.

The kinetic energy of

the photoelectrons, for
a given emitting
Electron
kinetic material, depends only
energy on the frequency of
the light.

Classically, the kinetic

energy of the
photoelectrons should
increase with the light
intensity and not
depend on the
frequency.

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Photo-
electric effect
observations Electron
kinetic
energy

There was a threshold

frequency of the light,
below which no
photoelectrons were
ejected (related to the
work function φ of the
emitter material).

The existence of a threshold frequency is completely inexplicable in

classical theory.

Photo-
electric effect
observations
(number of
electrons)

When photoelectrons
are produced, their
number is proportional
to the intensity of light.

Also, the photoelectrons Classical theory predicted that, for

are emitted almost extremely low light intensities, a long
instantly following time would elapse before any one
illumination of the electron could obtain sufficient
photocathode, energy to escape. We observe,
independent of the however, that the photoelectrons are
intensity of the light. ejected almost immediately.

Einstein’s Theory: Photons

Einstein suggested that the electro-magnetic radiation field is

quantized into particles called photons. Each photon has the energy
quantum:

E = hf

where f is the frequency of the light and h is Planck’s constant.

Alternatively,

E = hω where:
h = h 2π

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Einstein’s Theory
Conservation of energy yields:

1
hf = φ + mv 2
2

where φ is the work function of the metal (potential energy to be

overcome before an electron could escape).

In reality, the data were a bit more

1 
complex. Because the electron’s energy eV0 =  mv 2  = hf − φ
can be reduced by the emitter material, 2 max
consider fmax (not f):

Example – Photoelectric Effect

Exercise 3-6: An experiment shows that when electromagnetic
radiation of wavelength 270 nm falls on an aluminum surface,
photoelectrons are emitted. The most energetic of these are
stopped by a potential difference of 0.46 volts. Use this information
to calculate the work function of aluminum in electron volts.

Exercise 3-7: The threshold wavelength of potassium is 558 nm.

What is the work function for potassium? What is the stopping
potential when light of 400 nm is incident on potassium?

Exercise 3-8 Light of wavelength 400 nm and intensity 10-2 W/m2 is

incident on potassium. Estimate the time lag expected classically.

Atomic Spectra

Newton discovers the

dispersion of light
Invention of Spectroscopy

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Spectra
Three Kinds of spectra
Solid, liquid or a dense gas
excited to emit a continuous
spectrum
Light passing through low density
gas excites atoms to produce
emission spectra
Light passing through cool low
density gas results in absorption
spectra

Line Spectra
Chemical elements were observed to produce unique
wavelengths of light when burned or excited in an electrical
discharge.

Balmer Series

In 1885, Johann Balmer found an

empirical formula for the
wavelength of the visible
hydrogen line spectra in nm: n2
λn = 364.6 nm
n2 − 4

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Rydberg-Ritz Formula

As more scientists
discovered emission lines
at infrared and ultraviolet
wavelengths, the Balmer
series equation was
extended to the Rydberg
equation:

1  1 1 
= R  2 − 2  for n>m, R=Rydberg constant
λ mn m n 
For Hydrogen R=R H = 1.096776 × 10 7 m −1
For Heavy atom R=R ∞ = 1.097373 × 10 7 m −1

The Classical Atomic Model

Consider an atom as a planetary
system.
The Newton’s 2nd Law force of
attraction on the electron by the
nucleus is:

kZe 2 mv 2
F= =
r2 r
where v is the tangential velocity of the
electron:

kZe 2 1
v2 = ⇒ mv 2 = kze2 2r
mr 2
The total energy is then:
This is negative, so
kZe2 kZe2 kZe2 the system is bound,
E = K +V = − =− which is good.
2r r 2r

The Classical Atomic Model

Exercise 7: Show that in the classical model the frequency of
radiation for an accelerating electron is
1
f ≈
r 3/ 2

1
and the Energy is E≈−
r

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The Planetary Model is Doomed

From classical E&M theory, an accelerated electric charge radiates
energy (electromagnetic radiation), which means the total energy
must decrease. So the radius r must decrease!!

Electron
crashes Electron
into the does not
nucleus!? crash in
the Bohr
model

Physics had reached a turning point in 1900 with Planck’s

hypothesis of the quantum behavior of radiation, so a radical
solution would be considered possible.

The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

Bohr’s general assumptions: n=1

n=2
1. Stationary states, in which orbiting
electrons do not radiate energy, exist in
atoms and have well-defined energies, E.
Transitions can occur between them,
yielding light of energy: Bohr frequency
condition
E = Ei − Ef = hf

2. Classical laws of physics do not apply n=3

to transitions between stationary states,
but they do apply elsewhere.
Angular
3. The angular momentum of the nth state is: nh
momentum is
where n is called the Principal Quantum quantized!
Number.

Consequences of the Bohr Model

The angular momentum is:

L = mvr = nh

So the velocity is: v = nh / mr

12 a0
kZe 2 mv 2  kZe 2 
From; F = = ⇒ v= 
r2 r  mr 

n2 h2 kZe 2
So: =
m2 r 2 mr
n2 h n2 a0
Solving for r: rn = 2
= a0 is called the Bohr radius.
mkZe Z

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Bohr Radius

The Bohr radius,

h2
a0 ≡ = 0.0529nm
mke 2
is the radius of the unexcited hydrogen atom.

The “ground” state Hydrogen atom diameter is:

Energy of an electron
Exercise 3-9: Show that the energy of an electron in any atom at orbit n
is quantized and that it gives the ground state energy of Hydrogen
atom to be -13.6eV.

Z2
En = − E0 n = 1, 2,3,...
n2
mk 2e 4
where E0 = −
2h 2

Rydberg-Ritz formula
Exercise 3-10: Derive the Ryderberg-Ritz formula

1  1 1  E mke 4
= R 2 − 2  , R = 0 = =Rydberg constant
λ n ni  hc 4π ch 3
 f
For Hydrogen R=R H = 1.096776 ×10 7 m −1
For Heavy atom R=R ∞ = 1.097373 × 10 7 m −1

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Transitions in the Hydrogen Atom

The atom will remain in the excited state for a short time before
emitting a photon and returning to a lower stationary state. In
equilibrium, all hydrogen atoms exist in n = 1.

Successes and Failures of the

Bohr Model
Success:
Why should the nucleus of the atom be
kept fixed?
The electron and hydrogen nucleus
actually revolve about their mutual
center of mass.

Conservation of momentum require that

the momenta of nucleus and electron
equal in magnitude. The total kinetic
energy is then
p2 p2 M + m 2 p2
Ek = + = p =
2 M 2 m 2 mM 2µ
The electron mass is replaced
mM m by its reduced mass:
where µ = =
M + m 1+ m M

Limitations of the
Bohr Model
The Bohr model was a great
step in the new quantum
theory, but it had its limitations.

Failures:
Works only for single-electron (“hydrogenic”) atoms.

Could not account for the intensities or the fine structure of

the spectral lines (for example, in magnetic fields).

Could not explain the binding of atoms into molecules.

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Rydberg-Ritz Formula -Example

Exercise 3-11 Use the Rydberg-Ritz formula to calculate the first

line of Balmer, Lyman and Paschen series for the Hydrogen atom.

The Correspondence
Principle
When energy levels are
very close quantization
should have little effect

Bohr’s correspondence
principle is rather obvious:

In the limits where classical and

quantum theories should agree,
the quantum theory must reduce
the classical result.

The Correspondence Principle

Exercise 3-12: Show that in the limit of large quantum number the Bohr
frequency is the same as the classical frequency.

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Fine Structure Constant

In Bohr’s theory we know that transitions can

occur for ∆n≥1, for small n values. If we allow this
for large n and calculate the classical and Bohr
frequencies as in previous exercise, we will find
that they do not agree.

To avoid this disagreement, A. Sommerfeld
introduced special relativity and elliptical orbits.

From Bohr orbit in hydrogen for n=1, we have
mvr = nh
h h ke 2 We will skip the
v= = =
(
mr1 m h 2 mke 2 h ) mathematical
treatment of A.
v ke 2 1.44eV .nm 1 Sommerfeld work
∴ = = ≈ =α
c hc 197.3eV .nm 137
α is called the fine structure constant

Fine Structure Constant

The fine structure constant can be understood in the following way.

For each circular orbit rn and energy En a set of n elliptical orbits

exist whose major axis are the same but they have different
eccentricities and thus different velocities and Energies.

Electron transitions depend on the eccentricities of the initial and

final orbits and on the major axes, thus resulting in splitting of
energy levels of n called fine-structure splitting.

Fine structure constant leads to the notion of electron spin

Example
Exercise 3-13: Show that the energy levels of oscillators in simple
harmonic motion are quantized.

Do it yourself exercise: solve the differential equation

dx 2
2
+ ω2x = 0
dt

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Example
Exercise 3-14: Derive the Bohr quantum condition from Wilson-
Sommerfeld quantization rule

X-Ray Production: Theory

An energetic electron
passing through matter will
radiate photons and lose kinetic Ei
energy, called bremsstrahlung.
Since momentum is conserved, Ef
the nucleus absorbs very little
energy, and it can be ignored.
The final energy of the electron is hν
determined from the conservation
of energy to be:

E f = Ei − hf

X-Ray Production: Theory

If photons can transfer energy to electrons, can
part or all of the kinetic energy of electron be
converted into photons?

“The Inverse photoelectric effect” Ei

Ef
This was discovered before the work of Planck
and Einstein
hν

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Observation of X Rays
1895: Wilhelm Röntgen studied the
effects of cathode rays passing
through various materials. He
noticed that a phosphorescent
screen near the tube glowed during
some of these experiments. These
new rays were unaffected by
magnetic fields and penetrated
materials more than cathode rays.

He called them x rays and deduced

that they were produced by the
cathode rays bombarding the glass
walls of his vacuum tube. Wilhelm Röntgen

X-Ray
Production:
Experiment

Current passing through a filament produces copious numbers of

electrons by thermionic emission. If one focuses these electrons by
a cathode structure into a beam and accelerates them by potential
differences of thousands of volts until they impinge on a metal
anode surface, they produce x rays by bremsstrahlung as they stop
in the anode material.

Electromagnetic theory Predicts X-Ray

Accelerated charges produce electromagnetic waves, when fast
moving electrons are brought to rest, they are certainly accelerated

1906: Barkla found that X-Ray show Polarization, this establishing

that X-Rays are waves.
X-Rays have wavelength range 0.1 nm – 100 nm

Even though classical theory predicts x-ray’s, the experimental data

is not explainable.

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Two distinctive features

1.Some targets have enhanced

peaks. For example
Molybdenum shows two peaks
at specific wavelengths.
a) This is due to
rearrangement of electrons
of the target material after
bombardment.
b) X-ray ‘s have a continuous
spectrum
2.No matter what the target , the
threshold wavelength depends
on the accelerating potential

Inverse Photoelectric Effect

Since the work function of the target

is of the order of few eV, whereas the
accelerating potential is thousand of
eV

1 
eV0 =  mv 2  = hf − φ From photoelectric effect
2  max

hc
eVo = hf max =
λmin

Duane-Hunt rule

X-Ray Spectra
Bohr-Rutherford picture of the atom
can also be applied to heavy
elements

Shells have letter names:

K shell for n = 1
L shell for n = 2

The atom is most stable in its

ground state.
An electron from higher
shells will fill the inner-shell vacancy at lower energy.

When it occurs in a heavy atom, the radiation emitted is an x-ray.

It has the energy E (x ray) = Eu − Eℓ.

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Atomic Number and Moseley

The x-rays have names:

L shell to K shell: Kα x-ray
M shell to K shell: Kβ x-ray
etc.

G.J. Moseley studied x-ray

emission in 1913.
Atomic number Z = number
of protons in the nucleus.
Moseley found a
relationship between the
frequencies of the Moseley found this relation
characteristic x-ray and Z. holds for the Kα x-ray with b=1 and

f 1 2 = An ( Z − b) different An values (from quantum

mechanics):

Moseley’s Empirical Results

The Kα x-ray is produced from the
n = 2 to n = 1 transition.

In general, the K series of x-ray frequencies are:

Form the Bohr model with Z=Z-1
mk 2 e4 1 1   1 
f = ( Z − 1) 2  2 − 2  = cR∞ ( Z − 1)2 1 − 2 
4π h 3 1 n   n 
 1 
where An2 = cR∞ 1 − 2 
 n 
We use Z-1 instead of Z because one electron is already
present in the K-shell and so shields the other's from the
nucleus’ charge.

Moseley’s research clarified the importance of Z and the electron

shells for all the elements, not just for hydrogen.

Moseley’s Empirical Results

For the L series of x-ray wavelength the
frequencies are

 1 1 
f = cR∞  2 − 2  ( Z − 7.4) 2
2 n 

a) Neodymium Z=60 and

Samarium Z=62
b) Promethium Z=61
c) All three elements
together

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Example X-Ray Spectra

Exercise 3-15: Calculate the wavelength of Kα line of molybdenum, Z=42,
and compare with the value λ=0.0721nm measured by Moseley.

Aguer (oh-zhay) Effect

In 1923 Pierre Auger discovered an alternative to X-ray emission.

The atom may eject a third electron from a higher-energy outer shell via
radiationless process called Auger effect

E3 < ∆E = E2 − E1
KE = ∆E − E3
EdN(e)/dE plot:
a) Auger spectrum of Cu

b) Al and Al2O3 together

note the energy shift in
the larges peak due to
adjustment in Al
electron shell energies

X-Ray Scattering
Max von Laue suggested that if x-rays were a form of electromagnetic
radiation, interference effects should be observed.

Crystals act as three-dimensional gratings, scattering the waves and

producing observable interference effects.

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Bragg’s Law
William Lawrence Bragg 1) The angle of incidence must equal the
interpreted the x-ray angle of reflection of the outgoing wave.
scattering as the reflection of 2) The difference in path lengths must be
the incident x-ray beam from an integral number of wavelengths.
a unique set of planes of
atoms within the crystal. Bragg’s Law: nλ = 2d sin θ (n = integer)
There are two conditions for
constructive interference of
the scattered x rays:

The Bragg Spectrometer

A Bragg spectrometer scatters x
rays from crystals. The intensity of
the diffracted beam is determined
as a function of scattering angle
by rotating the crystal and the
detector.

When a beam of x rays passes

through a powdered crystal, the
dots become a series of rings.

Examples

Exercise 3-16: What is the shortest wavelength present in a radiation if

the electrons are accelerated to 50,000 volts?

Exercise 3-16:The spacing of one set of crystals planes in common salt is

d=0.282nm. A monochromatic beam of X-rays produces a Bragg
maximum when its glancing angle is 7 degrees. Assuming that this is the
first order maximum (n=1), find the wavelength of the X-rays, what is the
minimum possible accelerating voltage Vo that produced the X-rays?

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