CHAPTER 6:

VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
EMT283/3 – Analog Electronic II
 Objective
 Describe the concept of voltage regulation
 Describe and analyze the operation of linear series
regulators
 Describe and analyze the operation of linear shunt
regulators
 Discuss the principles of switching regulators
 Discuss integrated circuit voltage regulators
 Describe applications of IC voltage regulators
Outline
 Introduction
 Voltage Regulation
 Line Regulation
 Load Regulation
 Series Regulator
 Shunt Regulator
 Switching Regulator
 IC Voltage Regulator
 Introduction
 Batteries are often shown on a schematic diagram as the source of DC
voltage but usually the actual DC voltage source is a power supply.
 There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high
voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for
electronics circuits and other devices.
 A more reliable method of obtaining DC power is to transform, rectify,
filter and regulate an AC line voltage.
 A power supply can be broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.
 Introduction

❑The ac voltage, typically 120 V rms, is connected to a

transformer, which steps that ac voltage down to the level for the
desired dc output.

❑A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage,

which is initially filtered by a basic capacitor filter to produce a dc
voltage.
 Introduction

 This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage

variation.
 A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage
that not only has much less ripple voltage, but also remains at the
same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat or the
load connected to the output dc voltage changes.
 This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of a number
of popular voltage regulator IC units.
 Voltage Regulators
 Used to regulate input voltage from a power source
 Maintains power level to within set tolerance

 Prevents damage to components by acting as a buffer

A voltage regulator is a circuit or device that provides a constant voltage to a

load. The output voltage is controlled by the internal circuitry and is relatively
independent of the load current supplied by the regulator.
 Voltage Regulation
 Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:
❑ line regulation
❑ load regulation
 The purpose of line regulation is to maintain a nearly constant
output voltage when the input voltage varies.
 The purpose of load regulation is to maintain a nearly constant
output voltage when the load varies
 Line Regulation

Line regulation: A change in input (line) voltage does not significantly affect
the output voltage of a regulator (within certain limits)
Line Regulation
 Line regulation can be defined as the percentage change in
the output voltage for a given change in the input voltage.
 VOUT 
Line regulation=   100%
 VIN 
Δ means “a change in”
 Line regulation can be calculated using the following formula:

Line regulation =
(VOUT / VOUT )100%
VIN
 Load Regulation

Load regulation: A change in load current (due to a varying RL) has practically
no effect on the output voltage of a regulator (within certain limits)
Load Regulation
 Load regulation can be defined as the percentage change in
the output voltage from no-load (NL) to full-load (FL).

 VNL − VFL 
Load regulation=   100%
 VFL 
 Where:
VNL = the no-load output voltage
VFL = the full-load output voltage
 Load Regulation
 Sometimes power supply manufacturers specify the equivalent output resistance (Rout)
instead of its load regulation.

 RFL equal the smallest-rated load resistance, then VFL:

 RFL 
VFL = VNL  
 ROUT + RFL 
Load Regulation
 Rearrange the equation:
 ROUT + RFL

VNL = VFL  
 RFL 
 ROUT + RFL 
VFL   − VFL
Load regulation =  RFL   100%
VFL
 ROUT + RFL 
Load regulation =  − 1  100%
 RFL 
 ROUT 
Load regulation =    100%
 RFL 
Output Resistance
 The output resistance is defined as the rate of change of
output voltage with output current, or
Vo
Rof = −
Io
 The change in VO and IO is caused by a change in the load
resistance RL . Everything else in the circuit remains constant.
 The negative sign in Equation results from the voltage polarity
and current direction.
 An increase in IO produces a decrease in VO; therefore, the
output resistance Rof is positive.
 Example
1. The input of a certain regulator increases by 3.5 V. As a result, the
output voltage increases by 0.042 V. The nominal output is 20 V.
Determine the line regulation in both % and in %/V.
(Solution: 1.2% ; 0.06%/V)

2. If a 5 V power supply has an output resistance of 80 mΩ and a

specific maximum output current of 1 A. Calculate the load
regulation in % and %/mA.
(Solution: 1.6% ; 0.0016%/mA)
 Solution (1)
line regulation in % :

0.042
Line Regulation = 100 = 1.2%
3.5

and in %/V.
 0.042 / 20 
Line Regulation =   100 = 0.06% / V
 3.5 
Solution (2)
load regulation in % :

Rout 80m
Load Regulation = 100 = 100 = 1.6%
RFL 5

and in %/mA.
 1.6 
Load Regulation =   = 0.0016% / mA
 1000 
 Example
 Determine the output resistance and load regulation of a voltage regulator.
Assume the output voltage of a regulator is 5.0 V for a load current of 5
mA, and is 4.96 V for a load current of 1.5 A.
Solution:
Types of Regulator
 Fundamental classes of voltage regulators are linear
regulators and switching regulators.
 Two basic types of linear regulator are the series regulator
and the shunt regulator .
 The series regulator is connected in series with the load and
the shunt regulator is connected in parallel with the load.
 Series Regulator Circuit

 Control element in series with load

between input and output.
 Output sample circuit senses a change in
output voltage.
 Error detector compares sample voltage
with reference voltage → causes control
element to compensate in order to
maintain a constant output voltage.
 Series Regulators
Series Regulator block diagram:
Control
VIN VOUT
element

Reference
voltage
Error
detector
Sample
circuit Basic series regulator circuit:
Control element
VIN VOUT

R1 Q1

+
VREF
The control element maintains a
– R2
constant output voltage by D1
Error detector
Sample
varying the collector-emitter R3
circuit

voltage across the transistor.

 Op-Amp Series Regulator
Control element
VIN VOUT

 The resistor R2 and R3 sense a change in R1 Q1

the output voltage and provide a VREF

+

feedback voltage. –
Error detector
R2

 The error detector compares the feedback D1 Sample

circuit
voltage with a Zener diode reference R3

voltage.
 The resulting difference voltage causes the
R2
transistor Q1 controls the conduction to  Acl = 1 +
compensate the variation of the output R3
voltage.
 The output voltage will be maintained at a  R2 
constant value of: Vo  1 + VREF
 R3 
 Example
 Determine the output voltage for the regulator below.
(Solution: 10.2 V)

Solution:
 Transistor Series Regulator

 The transistor Q1 is the series control element.

 Zener diode provides the reference voltage.
Transistor Series Regulator
 Transistor Series Regulator
 the response of the pass-transistor to a
change in load resistance as follows:
 If load resistance increases, load
voltage also increases.
 Since the Zener voltage is constant, the
increase in Vo causes VBE to decrease.
 The decrease in VBE reduces conduction
through the pass- transistor, so load
current decreases.
 This offsets the increase in load
resistance, and a relatively constant
load voltage is maintained
 Example
A series voltage regulator is required to supply a current of 1 A at a constant
voltage of 6V. If the supply voltage is 10 V and the zener operates in the
breakdown region, design the circuit. Assume β = 50, VBE = 0.5 V and
minimum zener current = 10 mA.
Solution
 The design steps require the determination of zener
breakdown voltage and current limiting resistance
RS .
 Zener breakdown voltage :
The collector-emitter terminals are in series with the load. Therefore, the
load current must pass through the transistor
Solution
 Value of RS
 Example

For the series voltage regulator shown in Figure above, calculate:

(i) output voltage
(ii) zener current. Answer:
Vout =11.3 V
IZ = 36 mA
 Shunt Regulator Circuit
Shunt Regulators
Shunt Regulator block diagram:
R1
VIN VOUT

Control
Reference
voltage
Error
detector
element
(shunt)
Basic shunt regulator circuit:
VOUT
Sample VIN
circuit R1
R2
Error detector
Control
VREF – element
Q1
The control element maintains a + R3 RL

constant output voltage by D1 Sample

circuit
varying the collector current in R4
the transistor.
 Op-Amp Shunt Regulator
 When the output voltage tries to decrease due to
VOUT
a change in input voltage or load current caused VIN
R1
by a change in load resistance, the decrease is R2
Error detector
Control
sensed by R3 and R4. VREF – element
Q1

 A feedback voltage obtained from voltage + R3 RL

D1 Sample
divider R3 and R4 is applied to the op-amp’s circuit
R4
non-inverting input and compared to the Zener
voltage to control the drive current to the
transistor.
The resulting difference voltage reduces the op-amp’s output driving less, thus reducing its
collector current (shunt current) and increasing the collector voltage. Thus, the original
decrease in voltage is compensated for by this increase, keeping the output nearly constant.
 Transistor Shunt Regulator

 The control element is a transistor, in parallel with the load. While, the resistor, RS, is in series
with the load.
 The operation of the transistor shunt regulator is similar to that of the transistor series
regulator, except that regulation is achieved by controlling the current through the parallel
transistor
 Transistor Shunt Regulator
 Resistor RS drops the unregulated voltage depends on current supplied to load RL.
 Voltage across the load is set by zener diode and transistor base-emitter voltage.
 If RL decrease, a reduced drive current to base of Q1 → shunting less collector current.
 Load current, IL is larger, maintaining the regulated voltage across load.
 Transistor Shunt Regulator
 The output voltage to the load is:
Vo = VL = VZ + VBE
 voltage across the load is set by the Zener diode
voltage and the transistor base-emitter voltage.
 If the load resistance decreases, the load current will be
larger at a value of: V
IL = L
RL
 The increase in load current causes the collector current
shunted by the transistor is to be less:
I = I −I
C S L
 The current through RS:
Vi − VL
IS =
RS
Example
 Determine the regulated voltage, VL and circuit currents.
(Solution: VL=8.9 V; IL=89 mA; IS=109 mA; IC=20 mA)
Solution
 Switching Regulator
 The switching regulator is more efficient than the linear series or shunt type.
 This type regulator is ideal for high current applications since less power is dissipated.
 Voltage regulation in a switching regulator is achieved by the on and off action limiting the
amount of current flow based on the varying line and load conditions.
 With switching regulators 90% efficiencies can be achieved.
 Three basic configuration of switching regulators are step down, step up and inverting.
 Example:
 The display typically will use an inverting type

 The microprocessor would use a step down type

 Disk drive may use a step up type

Advantages vs Disadvantages in Comparison
with Linear Regulator
 Switching Regulator
 All switching regulators control the output voltage by rapidly switching the input voltage
on and off with a duty cycle that depends on the load. Because they use high frequency
switching, they tend to be electrically noisy.
 The capacitor charges during the on-time (ton) and discharge during the off-time (toff).
An increaseininthe
A decrease theduty
dutycycle
cycledecreases
increases the output voltage.
voltage.

on/off tonton ton tofftoff toff tonton ton tofftoff toff tonton ton tofftoff toff tonton ton
control
VC
VC
VC
VOUT

 Vout=(ton/ T)Vin → ton/ T = duty cycle

where T= ton+ toff
 Switching Regulator
Step-Down Configuration (buck converter)
 With the step-down (output is less than the input) configuration, the control element Q1 is pulsed

on and off at variable rate based on the load current.

 The pulsations are filtered out by the LC filter.
 Switching Regulator
Step-Down Configuration (buck converter)
A step-down switching regulator controls the output voltage by controlling the duty cycle to
a series transistor. The duty cycle changes depending on the load requirement.
Q1 L VOUT
Because the transistor is either ON VIN

RL
D1 C
or OFF on all switching regulators, Variable R2
the power dissipated in the R1
pulse-width
oscillator
–
transistor is very small and the +
regulator is very efficient. The R3

pulses are smoothed by an LC D2

VREF

filter.
 Switching Regulator
C Lcharges
reversesLL polarity
The capacitor charges during the on-time
QQ11
VVOUT
 OUT
VVININ off
on -+ +-
(ton) and discharges during the off-time DD11 CC RRLL

(toff). When the on-time is increased Variable

Variable
pulse-width
pulse-width
RR22
RR11
relative to the off-time, the capacitor oscillator
oscillator
––

charges more, thus increasing the output ++

RR33
voltage. VVREF
REF
DD22
 When the on-time is decreased relative to
the off-time, the capacitor discharges
more, thus decreasing the output voltage.
 The inductor further smoothes the
fluctuations of the output voltage caused
by the charging and discharging action.
 Switching Regulator
Step-up configuration
 The difference is in the placement of the inductor and the fact that Q1 is shunt configured.

 During the time when Q1 is off the VL adds to VC stepping the voltage up by some amount.
 Switching Regulator
Step-up configuration (boost converter)
In a step-up switching regulator, the control element operates as a rapidly
pulsing switch to ground. The switch on and off times are controlled by the output
voltage.
+ + VOUT
Step-up action is due to the VIN
L D1
C
fact the inductor changes RL
Variable
polarity during switching and R1 pulse-width
oscillator
Q1 R2

adds to VIN. Thus, the output

voltage is larger than the input – +

voltage. D2 R3
 Switching Regulator
Step-up configuration (boost
converter)
 When Q1 turns on, Vin = VL. During ton
of Q1, the inductor voltage, VL
decrease from its initial max and
diode D1 is reverse biased. The
Longer Q1 is on, the smaller VL
becomes. During ton, the capacitor
discharge an extremely small amount
through the load.
 Switching Regulator

Step-up configuration
 When Q1 turns off, VL suddenly
reverse polarity and adds to Vin.
Diode D1 is forward biased and
allow capacitor to charge. Vout is
equal to Vc and can be larger
than Vin because the capacitor is
charged to Vin plus the voltage
induced across inductor during toff.
 Switching Regulator
Step-up configuration
 Voltage regulation is achieved by the

variation of ton of Q1 as related to

changes in Vout due to changing load
or Vin.
 If Vout tries to increase, the ton of Q1
will decrease, resulting in a decrease
in the amount that C will charge.
 If Vout tries to decrease, the ton of Q1
will increase, resulting in an increase in
the amount that C will charge.
 The regulating action maintains Vout at

constant level.
 Switching Regulator
Voltage-inverter configuration
 output voltage is the opposite

polarity of the input.

 This is achieved by VL forward-

biasing the diode during the off

times producing current and
charging the capacitor for
voltage production during the off
times.
 With switching regulators 90%

efficiencies can be achieved.

 Switching Regulator
Voltage-inverter configuration
In a voltage-inverter switching regulator, +VIN
Q1 D1 –VOUT

the output is the opposite polarity of the

L C
input. It can be used in conjunction with a R2 RL
Variable
positive regulator from the same input R1 pulse-width
source. oscillator
+

Inversion occurs because the –

R3
inductor reverses polarity when D2

the diode conducts, charging the

capacitor with the opposite
polarity of the input.
 Switching Regulator

Voltage-inverter
configuration
 When Q1 turns on, VL  Vin
– VCE(sat) and magnetic field
rapidly increase.
 While Q1 is on, diode is
reverse biased and VL
decrease from initial max.
 Switching Regulator

Voltage-inverter
configuration
 When Q1 turns off, magnetic
field collapses and inductor’s
polarity reverses.
 Forward bias the diode, charges
C and produce a negative
output voltage.
 Repetitive on-off action Q1
produces a repetitive charging
and discharging that smoothed
by LC filter.
Switching Regulator
Switching Regulator
Checkup Question
 What are the three type of switching regulators?
 What is the primary advantages of switching
regulators over linear regulators?
 How are changes in output voltage compensated in
the switching regulators?
Example
A basic switching regulators is shown below. If the switching
frequency of the transistor is 10kHz with an off-time of 60μs.
Calculate the output voltage and the duty cycle of the transistor.
(Answer : 4.8 V)
 Solutions
the output voltage : the duty cycle of the transistor:
f = 10kHz, toff = 100 s
T = 100 s
ton = T − toff = 100 s − 100 s = 40 s
ton 40 s
duty cycle = = = 0.4
T 100 s
IC Voltage Regulators
 Regulation circuits in integrated circuit form are widely used.
 Their operation is no different but they are treated as a single
device with associated components.
 These are generally three terminal devices that provide a
positive or negative output.
 Some types have variable voltage outputs.
 A typical 7800 series voltage regulator is used for positive
voltages.
 The 7900 series are negative voltage regulators.
 These voltage regulators when used with heatsinks can safely
produce current values of 1A and greater.
 The capacitors act as line filtration.
IC Voltage Regulators
 Several types of both linear (series and shunt) and switching
regulators are available in integrated circuit (IC) form.
 Single IC regulators contain the circuitry for:
(1) reference source

(2) comparator amplifier

(3) control device

(4) overload protection

 Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal devices that

provides either positive or negative output voltages that can
be either fixed or adjustable.
 Fixed Voltage Regulator
 The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage Vi applied to one input
terminal, a regulated output dc voltage Vo from a second terminal, and the third terminal
connected to ground.
Fixed-Positive Voltage Regulator
 The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that provide a fixed positive
output voltage.
 Fixed Voltage Regulator

 An unregulated input voltage Vi is

filtered by a capacitor C1 and
connected to the IC’s IN terminal.
 The IC’s OUT terminal provides a
regulated +12 V, which is filtered by
capacitor C2.
 The third IC terminal is connected to
ground (GND)
Fixed Voltage Regulator
Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 78XX Series
IC Part Output Voltage (V) Minimum Vi (V)
7805 +5 +7.3
7806 +6 +8.3
7808 +8 +10.5
7810 +10 +12.5
7812 +12 +14.5
7815 +15 +17.7
7818 +18 +21.0
7824 +24 +27.1
Fixed Voltage Regulator
Fixed-Negative Voltage Regulator
 The series 79XX regulators are the three-terminal IC regulators
that provide a fixed negative output voltage.
 This series has the same features and characteristics as the
series 78XX regulators except the pin numbers are different.

(2) (3)

(1)
Fixed Voltage Regulator
Negative-Voltage Regulators in the 79XX Series
IC Part Output Voltage (V) Minimum Vi (V)
7905 -5 -7.3
7906 -6 -8.4
7908 -8 -10.5
7909 -9 -11.5
7912 -12 -14.6
7915 -15 -17.7
7918 -18 -20.8
7924 -24 -27.1
 Fixed Voltage Regulator
Adjustable-Voltage Regulator
 Voltage regulators are also available in circuit configurations that allow to set the output
voltage to a desired regulated value.
 The LM317 is an example of an adjustable-voltage regulator, can be operated over the
range of voltage from 1.2 to 37 V.
 Summary
 Voltage regulators keep a constant dc output despite input voltage or
load changes.
 Line regulation is the percentage change in the output voltage for a

given change in the input voltage of a regulator.

 Load regulation is the percentage change in output voltage for a given
change in load current.
 A basic voltage regulator consists of a reference voltage source, an
error detector, a sampling element, and a control device. Protection
circuitry is also found in most regulators
 The two basic categories of voltage regulators are linear and
switching.
 Summary
 The two types of linear voltage regulators are series and shunt.
 In a linear series regulator, the control element is a transistor in
series with the load.
 In a linear shunt regulator, the control element is a transistor in
parallel with the load.
 The three types of switching are step-up, step-down, and inverting.

 Switching regulators are more efficient than linear making them

ideal for low voltage high current applications.
 Summary
 Three-terminal linear IC regulators are available for either fixed output or
variable output voltages of positive or negative polarities.
 The 78XX series are three-terminal IC regulators with fixed positive output
voltage.
 The 79XX series are three-terminal IC regulators with fixed negative output
voltage.
 The LM317 is a three-terminal IC regulator with a positive variable output voltage.
 The LM337 is a three-terminal IC regulator with a negative variable output
voltage
 Both linear and switching type regulators are available in IC form.
 Current capacity of a voltage regulator can be increased with an external pass
transistor.
Key Formulas
Key Formulas
Exercises
Voltage regulators keep a constant ________ output voltage
when the input or load varies within limits.
A.dc
B.ac
C.Ripple

________ regulation can be defined as the percentage

change in the output voltage for a given change in load
current.
A.Line
B.Load
Exercises
A certain regulator has a no-load voltage of 6 V and
a full-load output of 5.82 V. What is the load
regulation ?
(i) 3.09 %
(ii) 2.87 %
(iii) 5.72 %
(iv) none of the above
Exercises
A power supply has a voltage regulation of 1 %. If
the no-load voltage is 20 V, what is the full-load
voltage ?
(i) 19.8 V
(ii) 15.7 V
(iii) 18.6 V
(iv) 17.2 V
Exercises
A voltage regulator with a no-load output dc
voltage of 12 V is connected to a load with a
resistance of 10 . If the load resistance decreases to
7.5 , the load voltage will decrease to 10.9 V. The
load current will be ________, and the percent
load regulation is ________.
A.1.45 A, 90.8%
B.1.45 A, 10.09%
C.1.2 A, 90.8%
D.1.2 A, 10.09%
Exercises
Refer to the given figure. This circuit is known as

A.a series-pass voltage regulator.

B.a shunt voltage regulator.
C.a step-up switching regulator.
D.a step-down switching regulator.
Exercises
Calculate the voltage regulation of a power supply
having VNL = 50 V and VFL = 48 V.
A.4.17%
B.5.2%
C.6.2%
D.7.1%
Exercises
Refer to the given figure. The purpose for the zener diode D1 is

A.to supply a reference voltage.

B.to amplify the error signal.
C.to sense the error signal.
D.to limit the input voltage to the circuit.
 Exersices
1. The change in output voltage of a voltage regulator is measured at 100μV when the input
voltage changes by 5V. Determine the value of line regulation for this regulator.
(Answer : 20 μV/V)
2. A Voltage regulator has a line regulator of 1.4 μV/V. Determine the change in its output
voltge of the input voltage changes by 10 V.
(Answer : 14 μV)
3. A certain regulator has a no load output voltage of 10V and a full-load output voltage of
9.9V. The full-load current is 250mA. Calculate the percent load regulation and express
the load regulation in %/mA.

(Answer : 1.01%, 0.00404%/mA )

Exercises
 Label the functional block for the voltage regulator
in figure below.

B : Control
Element
Control
VIN B
element
VOUT

A : Reference Reference Error Sample D : Sampling

A C D
Voltage voltage detector circuit Circuit
C : Error
Detector
Exercises
 Determine the output voltage for the regulator
shown below.

Control element
VIN VOUT

R1 Q1

+
VREF

– R2 33kΩ
Error detector
D1 Sample
2.4 V circuit
R3
10kΩ
 Exercises
 State TWO (2) categories for voltage regulator and
the purposes for each of them.
 Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:
❑line regulation and the purpose of line regulation is to
maintain a nearly constant output voltage when the input
voltage varies.
❑load regulation and the purpose of load regulation is to
maintain a nearly constant output voltage when the load
varies
Exercises
 The nominal output voltage of a regulator is 8 V.
The output changes 2 mV when the input voltage is
increased from 12 V to 18 V. Determine the line
regulation in both % and in %/V.
Answer: 0.033 %, 0.00417 %/V
Exercises
VIN VOUT

10kΩ R1 Q1

+
VREF

– R2 5.6kΩ
D1
2.4 V

R3
2.2kΩ

i. Determine the output voltage.

ii. Evaluate the output voltage if R3 is increased to 4.7 kΩ.
Discuss your answer.
iii. Calculate the output voltage if the zener voltage is 2.7V
instead of 2.4 V. Discuss your answer.