Mathematics IGCSE notes

Index

1. Decimals and standard form

2. Accuracy and Error

3. Powers and roots

click on a topic to
4. Ratio & proportion visit the notes
5. Fractions, ratios
6. Percentages
7. Rational and irrational numbers
8. Algebra: simplifying and factorising
9. Equations: linear, quadratic, simultaneous
10. Rearranging formulae
11. Inequalities
12. Parallel lines, bearings, polygons
13. Areas and volumes, similarity
14. Trigonometry
15. Circles
16. Similar triangles, congruent triangles
17. Transformations
18. Loci and ruler and compass constructions
19. Vectors
20. Straight line graphs
21. More graphs
22. Distance, velocity graphs
23. Sequences; trial and improvement
24. Graphical transformations
25. Probability
26. Statistical calculations, diagrams, data collection
27. Functions
28. Calculus
29. Sets

{also use the intranet revision course of question papers and answers by topic }
1. Decimals and standard form top

(a) multiplying and dividing

(i) 2.51.36 Move the decimal points to the right until each is a whole
number, noting the total number of moves, perform the multiplication, then
move the decimal point back by the previous total:
 25136  3400 , so the answer is 3.4
{Note in the previous example, that transferring a factor of 2, or even better,
4, from the 136 to the 25 makes it easier:
25136  25 (4   (25 4)   100  34  3400 }
34) 34

(ii) 0.00175  Move both decimal points together to the right until the
divisor is a whole number, perform the calculation, and that is the answer.
 1.75  42 , but simplify the calculation by cancelling down any factors
first. In this case, both numbers share a 7, so divide this out:  0.25  6 , and
0.041˙6
6 0.25 , so the answer is 0.041˙6

(iii)(iii)
decimal places
To round a number to n d.p., count n digits to the right of the decimal point. If
the digit following the nth is  5 , then the nth digit is raised by 1.
e.g. round 3.012678 to 3 d.p. 3.012678  3.012|678 so 3.013 to 3 d.p.

(iv)(iv)
significant
To round a number to n s.f., count digits from the left starting with the first
non-zero digit, then proceed as for decimal places.
e.g. round 3109.85 to 3 s.f., 3109.85  310|9.85 so 3110 to 3 s.f.
e.g. round 0.0030162 to 3 s.f., 0.0030162  0.00301|62 , so 0.00302 to 3 s.f.

(b) standard form

(iii) Convert the following to standard form: (a) 25 000 (b) 0.0000123
Move the decimal point until you have a number x where 1  x  10 , and the
number of places you moved the point will indicate the numerical value of the
power of 10. So 25000  2.5104 , and 0.0000123  1.23105

(iv)
multiplyin in standard form: (4.4 10 ) 
5
3.510  6 As all the
elements
g are multiplied, rearrange them thus:

 (4.4 3.5)  105 106   15.41011  1.54 1012
3.2 1012
(v) dividing in standard form:
2
2.5103 Agai n, rearrange the calculation to
(3.2  2.5)  (10 10 ) 
12 3
1.2810 9

(vi)
adding/subtractin in standard form: (2.5106 )  (3.75107 The
g )
hardest of the calculations. Convert both numbers into the same denomination,
i.e. in this case 106 or 107, then add.
 (0.25107 )  (3.75107 )  4 107

Questions

(a)

2.541.5

(b) 2.55  0.015

(c) Convert into standard form and multiply: 25000000 0.000000000 24

(d) (2.6 103) (2 102 )

(e) (1.55103 )  2.5104 

Answers

(a)  254 15  3810 , so 2.541.5  3.81

(b) 2.55  0.015  2550 15 . Notice a factor of 5, so let’s cancel it first:
 510  3  170

(c)  (2.5107 )  (2.4 1010 ) 

6 103

(d)  (2.6  2)  (103 102 )  1.3105

3
2. Accuracy and Error top

To see how error can accumulate when using rounded values in a calculation,
take the worst case each way: e.g. this rectangular space is
measured as 5m by 3m, each measurement being to the nearest 3m
metre. What is the area of the rectangle? 5m

To find how small the area could be, consider the lower bounds of the two
measurements: the length could be as low as 4.5m and the width as low as
2.5m. So the smallest possible area is 4.5  2.5  11.25 m2. Now, the length
could be anything up to 5.5m but not including the value 5.5m itself (which
would be rounded up to 6m) So the best way to deal with this is to use the
(unattainable) upper bounds and get a ceiling for the area as
5.5 3.5  19.25 m2, which the area could get infinitely close to, but not equal
to. Then these two facts can be expressed as 11.25m2  area  19.25m2.

Questions

(a) A gold block in the shape of as cuboid measures 2.5cm by 5.0cm by

20.0cm, each to the nearest 0.1cm. What is the volume of the block?

(b) A runner runs 100m, measured to the nearest metre, in 12s, measured to
the nearest second. What is the speed of the runner?

(c) a  3.0, b  2.5 , both measured to 2 s.f. What are the possible value of
ab?

Answers

(a) lower bound volume = 2.45 4.9519.95  241.943625 cm3.

upper bound volume = 2.55 5.05 20.05  258.193875 cm3.
So 241.943625cm3  volume<258.193875cm3
distance
(b) Since speed = , for the lower bound we need to take the smallest
time
value of distance with the biggest value of time, and vice-versa for the upper
bound.
99.5 100.5
So  speed  , i.e. 7.96ms-1 < speed < 8.739…ms-1
12.5 11.5

(c) for the smallest value of a  b , we need to take the smallest value of a
together with the biggest value of b, etc.
So 2.95  2.55  a  b  3.05  2.45 , i.e. 0.4  a  b  0.6
3. Powers and roots top

1) xa  xb  x ab
2) xa  xb  x ab
3) (xa )b  xab
x a  1
4)
xa
5) x0  1

(a) whole number powers

Note that the base numbers (x’s) have to be the same;

25  32 cannot be simplified any further.

1) e.g. x3  x2  x5 23  27  210
,
If in doubt, write the powers out in full: a3  a2 means
(a  a  a)  (a  which is a5
a)

2) x6  x 2  x 4 , 58  52  56
Again, if in doubt, spell it out:
a6  a2 aaaaa
means which cancels down to
a
aa
a  a  a  a  a  a 4
a  a  a

3) (x 3 ) 2  x6 , (32 )4  38
To check this, (x3)2 means (x3)  (x3) which is x6

1
4) x3  , 3 1 1  0.001
10 
10  1000
3
x3

5) 100  1.
 Questions

Simplify the following as far as possible:

x5  x3

a3  a5  a6

(c) 3  3
47

35  3

(d) 2  4
510

86  43

Answers

(a) x5  x3  x53  x8

a337
(b)34 a5  a6347a356
311  a4
(c)    3116 3 5
35  3 351 36

25  410 25  (22 )10 25  220  225

(d)    2 13
86  43 (23)6  (22 )3 218  26212

(b) fractional powers

1 1
1
6) e.g. x 
3
, xn  n x
p

x q  q x p  ( qx ) p
3 x 92  9  3

2
7) 27  ( 3  (3)2  9
3
27)2
Note: if you can find the qth root of x easily then it’s better to use the ( q x ) version.
p
 Q. Simplify the following as far as possible:
1
(a) 162
1
(b) 643
3
(c) 42
3
(d) 81 4
2
(e) (x6 )3

Answers.
1
(a) 162 16  4
1
(b) 643  3 64  4
3
(c) 42  ( 4)3  (2)3  8
3
(d) 81 4( 4 81)3  (3)3  27

2 6 2
(e) easier to use power law (3) above: (x6 )3  x
3 x4

4. Ratio and Proportion top

(a) Using ratios

This is really a special case of proportion. If quantities are linearly related,
either directly or inversely, (like number of workers and time taken to do a job),
calculate by multiplying by a ratio:

e.g. If 8 workers can together do a job in 6 days, how long would the same job take
with 12 workers?
ans: it will take less time, so we multiply by the ratio 812. So it takes
6 128  4 days.

e.g. If a workforce of 20 can produce 12 cars in 15 days, how many workers
should be used if 15 cars are needed in 10 days?
ans: no. of workers = 20  1215  1015 = 37 1 2, ie 38.
(b) Proportion

Where quantities are related not necessarily linearly.

(i) Direct proportion

This is when an increase in one quantity causes an increase in the other.
eg y  x2 , and you are given that y is 7.2 when x is 6.
Rewrite as y  kx2 , and substitute the given values to find k:
7.2  k  62 , so
k  0.2 . The relationship can now be written as
y  0.2x2 , and any problems solved.

(ii) Inverse proportion

This is when an increase in one quantity causes an decrease in the other.
e.g. If y is inversely proportional to the cube of x,
then 1
y
x3
Rewrite as k
y  3 , and proceed as usual.
x

(iii) Multiplier method

For the cunning, it is possible (but harder) to solve a problem without calculating k.
e.g. Radiation varies inversely as the square of the distance away from the source. In
suitable units, the radiation at 10m away from the source is 75. What is the radiation
at 50m away?
ans: as distance increases by a factor of 5, radiation must decrease by a factor of 52 ,
so the radiation is 75  25 = 3.
Questions.

(a) Water needs to be removed from an underground chamber before work can
commence. When the water was at a depth of 3m, five suction pipes were used and
emptied the chamber in 4 hours. If the water is now at a depth of 5m (same cross-
section), and you want to empty the chamber in 10 hours time, how many pipes need
to be used?

(b) y is proportional to x 2 and when x is 5 y is 6. Find

(i) y when x is 25 (ii) x when y is 8.64

(c) The time t seconds taken for an object to travel a certain distance from rest is
inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration a. When a is 4m/s2, t is
2s.
What is the value of a if the time taken is 5 seconds?

Answers
5 4
(a) No. of pipes = 5   = 3 1 , so it would be necessary to use 4 pipes to be sure
3
3 10
of emptying within 10 hours.

y  x2
(b) and we know when x is 5, y is 6, so
y  kx2

6  k  52 , so k  625, and we can write the relationship as

y 6
x2 .
25
(i) When x is 25, y  6  252  150 .
25
(ii) When y is 8.64, 8.64  6 x2 , so
25

2 25 8.64
x  6 no, don’t reach for the calculator yet!

x2  251.44 , so x  51.2  6 .

(c) t 
1
a,
So t  k
. Substituting given values:
a
k
2 , so k  4 , ie
4
4
t .
a
When t = 5, 5  4 4 16
, so a  , and a  or 0.64 m/s2.
a 5 25
 5. Fractions and ratios top

(a) Fractions
1 2 19 5
(i) Adding/subtracting: e.g. 3 1 . Convert to vulgar form first:  ,
6 3 6 3
then find the lowest common denominator, in this case 6. Then
19 5 19  2  5 9 1
  1 .

6 3 6 6 2

1 7 16 7
(ii) Multiplying/dividing: e.g. 5  . Convert to vulgar form:  , and
3 8 3 8
then always cancel any factor in the numerator with a factor in the
denominator2 if possible, before multiplying together:
16 7 1 6 2 7 14
7   

3 8 3 1 .
31 3
8

To divide, turn the  into a  and invert the second fraction.

3
(iii) Convertin to and from decimals: e.g. what is
(iii) as a decimal?
g 40
0.075 3
40 3.000 so is 0.075.
40
75 3
But what is 0.075 as a fraction? 0.075 means , then cancel down to .
1000 40

(b) Ratios

(iv) To divide a quantity into 3 parts in the ratio 3: 4:5, call the divisions 3
parts, 4 parts and 5 parts. There are 12 parts altogether, so find 1 part, and
hence the 3 portions.

(v) To find the ratio of several quantities, express in the same units then cancel
or multiply up until in lowest terms e.g. what is the ratio of 3.0m to 2.25m to
75cm?
Perhaps metres is the best unit to use here, so the ratio is 3 :2.25: 0.75.
Multiplying up by 4 (or 100 if you really insist) will render all numbers
integer. So the ratio is 12 : 9 : 3, and we can now cancel down to 4:3:1
Questions
Questions
32 5
(a)(a)(2(2 )3)211 5
411 4 11
(b) 1 1 33)  211
(1
(b) (1 − )  2
355 3 5 5

(c)(c) WWhhatat isis 0.08750.0875 asas aa

fractionfraction inin lowestlowest termterms?s?

(d)(d) SplitSplit £5000£5000 inin thethe

Answers
ratioratio ofof 1:2:51:2:5
11 16 121 16 111 2 111 6
(a)  ()2     11
411 1611 11 611 1
Answers
(b)  ( 4  3)  11  5 4  311 3  5 1 11  5  1
11 16 121 16 121  1115
 16 113
( ) 
(a)355   15   11
2

4 11 16 11 116  11 
1

875 35 7
(c)   
11 5 4 − 3 3 5 11 5 1
4 31000040080
(b)  ( 3 −5 )  5  15   11  15  11 3
(d) 1:2:5 means 8 parts altogether. Each part is £5000  8  £625 , so the
£5000875 35£625,
splits into 7 £1250, and £3125.
(c)  10000  400  80
6. Percentages top

(i) What is 75g as a percentage of Express as a fraction, then multiply by

6kg? 75
100 to covert to a percentage. As a fraction, it is , which is
6000
75 1
100%  75 1 %.
60 
%
6000 4

(ii) Find 23% of This is

23 23
3.2kg.
 3.2kg   3200g  23 32g  736g (or 0.736kg.)
100 100

(iii) Increase £20 by 12%. The original amount is always regarded as 100%,
and this problem wants to find 112%. The simplest method is to first find 1%,
then 112%, by dividing by 100 then multiplying by 112. This can be
112
accomplished in one go, however, by multiplying by , i.e. 1.12.
100
So the answer is £20 1.12  £22.40 .

(iv) Decrease £20 by This means we are trying to find 88% of the
12%.so the answer is £20  0.88  £17.60 .
original,

(v) Reverse problems: An investment is worth £6000 after increasing by 20%

in a year: how much was it worth last year? If you are going to make a
mistake, this is where. The 20% refers to 20% of the original amount which
we don’t know, not 20% of £6000. A safe way of handling these “reverse”
problems is to call the unknown original amount £x. The information says that
£x 1.2  £6000 so x  6000  5000 .
1.2

(vi) Anything weird, and use the simple unitary method, i.e. find what is 1%.
e.g. A coke can advertises 15% extra free, and contains 368ml. How much
extra coke was there?
15%
This can contains 115% of the original, so 1% is extra free
368 115  3.2 ml.
So the extra amount, 15%, is 15 3.2  48 ml.
Questions

(a) One part of a company produces £350 000 profit, while the whole
company makes £5.6 million. What percentage of the whole company’s profits
does this part produce?

(b) How much VAT at 17½% is added to a basic price of £25?

(c) An investment earns 8% interest every year. My account has £27000 this
year. How much is contained in my account (i) next year (ii) in ten years’ time
(iii) last year?

(d) Inflation runs at 4% per year in Toyland. Big Ears can buy 24 toadstools
for £1 this year. How many will he be able to buy for £1 in 5 years’ time?

Answers

350000
(a) 100%  6 1 %
5600000 4
1
175
(b) 17½% of £25 is 17 2  25   25 = £4.38
100 1000

(c) (i) £27000 1.08  £29160

(ii) £27000 1.0810  £58290.97
(iii) £ x 1.08  27000
x , so it was worth £25000.
£27000 1.08

(d) Inflation at 4% per year means that if you pay £100 for some goods this
year, the same goods will cost you £104 in next years’ money. So 24
toadstools will cost £11.045  £1.2166529... in 5 years’ time, and so £1 will
buy him 24 1
 , i.e. 19.7… or 19 whole toadstools!
1.2166529...
7. Rational and irrational numbers top
a
A rational number is one which can be expressed as
b where a and b are
integers. An irrational number is one which can’t. Fractions, integers, and
2
recurring decimals are rational. Examples of rationals: , 1, 0.25, 3 8 .
3
Examples of irrationals:  , 2, 0.1234.. . .(not recurring).

a
(i) rationals to the form (to confirm they really are rational)
b
A terminating decimal: 0.125  125 1
1000 8
A recurring decimal: 0.˙12˙3 . Call the number x, so x  0.123123123......
Multiply by a suitable power of 10 so the recurring decimal appears exactly
again: 1000 x  123.123123.....  123  0.123123....
so 1000x  123  x , then 999x  123
and 123 41
x  .
999 333

(ii) rationalisin a denominator:

2g
3 has a 3 in the denominator, so multiply top and bottom by 3 (which
3
does not change the value of the expression, only the shape):
2 6
3  3  3  6 .
3 3 3
(iii) a b ab
a a
b b

and the same with cube roots, etc.

To simplif expressions using these:
y
200  100  2  100  2  10 2
18 18
  9  3
2 2

(iv) Finding irrational numbers in a given area:

e.g. find an irrational number between 5 and 6. Note that most square roots

are irrational (except for 4 25

16, , etc) are irrational, so as 5 
and
9
6  36 , pick a root in between, e.g. 28 . (Or say   2 for example).
Questions
ii
(a) Convert into the form a :
(i) 0.375 (ii) 0.36
b
6 50
(b) Simplify (i) (ii) (iii)72 (iv) 3 250
2 2
(c) Find an irrational number between 1 and 1.1

Answers

(a) (i) 0.375  375  3 (ii) x  0.36363636...... so 100x  36.363636.....

10008
 36  0.363636  36  x . Therefore 99x  36 , so x  36 
4
9911

6  2 62
(b) (i)   32
2 2 2
50 
(ii)  2 25  5

(iii)72 36  2 36 2  6 2

(iv)  3 125 2  3 125  3 2  53 2

101 etc
(c) e.g.2  0.3,
10
8. Algebra: top

(a) Simplifying

Multiply out brackets and gather up like terms: e.g.

3x(x  2 y)  2 y(3x   3x 2  6xy  6xy  2 y2  3x2  2 y2
y)

(b) Factorising

(i) extracting the highest common factor: 6x 2   3x(2x  y)

3xy (multiply out the answer to check)

(ii) quadratics:

(a)
x2  2x (no number term):  x(x  2)

(b) x2 16 (no x term): if it is difference of two squares as in this case:

 (x  4)(x  4)

(c) x2  3x  ( a full quadratic): start with (x )(x ) form, then look for
two 4numbers which multiply to give 4 and add to give 3 . These are 4
and +1. So (x  4)(x  1) is the answer. (multiply out the answer to check!)

(d) 2x 2  9 x  (full quadratic with more than one x2): multiply the 2 by the 4
to get 8, and repeat the previous process i.e. look for two numbers which
multiply to 8 and add up to 9. These are +8 and+1. Now split the middle term
accordingly and group into 2 pairs:
2x2  9x  4  2x2  8x  x  4  (2x2  8x)  (x  4) Then factorise each
group,  2x(x  4)  (x  4) , and notice the bracket factor which you now
extract:  (x  4)(2x  1) .

(iii) grouping: unusual, but reminiscent of part of (d) above, expressions like
ab  ac  b2  bc may be able to be factorised even though there are
apparently no common factors.  (ab  ac)  (b2  bc)  a(b  c)  b(b  c) ,
and there just happens to be a big factor:  (b  c)(a  b)
 Questions

Simplify a(b  c)  b(c  a)  c(a  b)

Factorise (i) 4 p2q  6 pq (ii) 2x2  6 x(iii) 4x2  1

(iv) x2  10x  21(v) 3x2  11x  6(vi) 2ab  6ac  b  3c

Answers

(a)  ab  ac  bc  ab  ac  bc  0

(b) (i)  2 pq(2 p  3) (ii)  2x(x  3) (iii)  (2x 1)(2x 

(iv)  (x  7)(x  3)(v) 3 6 gives 18, so 9 and 2 are the required numbers: 3x2  9x  2x  6 (3x2
 (3x  2)(x  3) .
(vi)  2a(b  3c)  (b  3c)  (2a  1)(b  3c)
9. Equations: linear, quadratic, simultaneous top

(a) Linear

Perform the same operation on both sides to isolate x:

2x 1 [ 6 ]
3 x2
4x  6x 
3 [ 10 ]
10x  3
3
x .
10

(b) Quadratic

(i) rearrange the equation if necessary to get 0 on the right.

If it can be factorised, do so (see 8. Algebra). Then:

(2x 1)(x  3)  0 means one of the brackets must be 0, so
2x 1  0 or x  3  0 , which can be solved to give
1
x ,3
2
If not, use x  b b2  4ac
2 and round the answers suitably.
a

(c) Simultaneous

2 linear equations:

(i) elimination

Multiply both equations until either the x’s or the y’s are the same then
add/subtract so that they disappear.
2x  y  7
3x  2 y  multiply equation 1 by 2, then add:
5
4x  2 y  14
3x  2 y  5
7x  19
solve and substitute back in to equation 1 to find y.

(ii) substitution
isolate x or y from one equation and substitute its value into the other:
2x  3y  5
y  5x  2
Use the expression for y in equation 2 and substitute it into equation 1:
2x  3(5x  2)  5 , and proceed.
 one linear, one quadratic:

x2  y2  25
x  y  0.8
Rearrange the linear equation and substitute into the quadratic:
y  0.8  x , so x2  (0.8  x)2  25 . Multiply out, and solve the quadratic in x.
Note that each x answer will then produce a y answer, and this gives two pairs,
as it should because the equations represent the intersection of :

Questions

Solve x  1 x  1
32
Solve x2  2x  15

Solve 2x2  x  6  0

Solve x  1  2
x
Solve the simultaneous equations x2y5
x 22y  3

Answers

(a) x  1 x  1 32 [ 6 ]
2x  3(1 x)  6
 2x  3  3x  6
5x  9 , so x  9 .
5

(b) x2  2x  15  0
(x  5)(x  3)  0
x  5, 3 .

(c) 2 6  12 , so look for two numbers which multiply to –12 and add to 1. These are 4, -3.
So 2x2  4x  3x  6  0
(2x2  4x)  (3x  6)  0
2x(x  2)  3(x  2)  0
(2x  3)(x  2)  0 , which gives x  2, 3 .
2
 (d) x  1  2 [ x ]
x
x2 1  2x
x2  2x  1  0
2 (2)2  41 1
2 8
x  {Note that8 4  2  2 2
2 1 2
and so 2 can be cancelled}:  12 , so x = -0.41, 2.41 to 2 d. p.

x2y5
(e) x2  y2  3 rearrange equation1 : x  5  2 y , and substitute:

(5  2 y)2  y2  3
 25  20 y  4 y2  y2  3
3y2  20 y  28  0
(3 y 14)( y  2)  0
 y  14 , 2 . These lead to x   13 , 1 , so the two answers are

3 3
(x, y)  ( 13 , 14), (1, 2) .
33
10. Rearranging formulae top

(i) with a variable which only appears once, treat like an equation and isolate
ax  b
the variable: e.g. make x the subject of  d : [ c ] gives ax  b  cd ,
c
[ b ] gives ax  cd  b , and finally [ a ] cd  b
gives x a .

(ii) with a variable which appears more than once, gather together and
factorise: e.g. ax  bx  c [ bx ] gives ax  bx  c , factorising
gives (a  b)x  c , then [ (a  b) ] c
x .
gives ab

Questions

The Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales are related linearly by

C  9 (F  32) . Rearrange it to make F the subject.
5

Make x the subject of x  a  b

x

Answers

(a) C  9 (F  32) 5 [ 5 ]
5C  9(F  32)
[ 9 ]
 5C  F  32 9
[ 32 ]
 F  5 C  32

9
(there are different ways to approach this, but all (correct) answers will be equivalent even thou

(b) x  a  b[ x ]
x
 x  a  bx[ bx,  a ]
 x  bx  a[factorise]
 x(1  b)  a[ (1 b) ]
a
x .
1 b
{ Note that x  a
would also be correct, as top and bottom
b1
are multiplied by –1}
11. Inequalities top

(a) linear

treat exactly like an equation, except if you multiply/divide by a negative

number, the inequality sign must be reversed. Avoid it!

(b) quadratic

e.g. x2  4 First treat like an equation and factorise if possible (formula

otherwise): x2  4  0 , then (x  2)(x  2)  0 . This gives “critical values” of
–2 and +2. Draw a number line, and a sketch of the function (in this case a
“happy” parabola) which reveals the region in which x2  4  0 :
y
2  x  2 .

– 3– 2– 1 123 x
Had the question been x  4 , the answer would be x  2 or x  2 .
2

(c) 2 variable linear inequalities

e.g. 3x  2 y  6 . Plot the boundary line 3x  2 y  6 , then take a trial point

(e.g. the origin) to determine which side of the line to accept.
y
2
1
– 2– 1 12 3x
– 2
– 3
– 4

The origin’s coordinates make 3 0  2 0 which is not  6 , so that side is

rejected:
y
2
1
– 2– 1 12 3x
– 2
– 3
– 4
 y
Questions 5
4
Solve 2(1  x)  6 3
2
Solve 12  x  x2 1
– 4– 3– –2– 111 2 3 4 5 x
– 2
(c) Find the 3 inequalities which identify this region: – 3
– 4

Answers

(a) 2(1  x)  6 [ 2 ]
1 x  3 [  x,  3 ]
x  2

(b) 12  x  x2 [rearrange]
x2  x 12  0
(x  4)(x  3)  0 , giving critical values of –4 and +3.
y
10
5
– 5– 4– 3– –2– 511 2 3 4 x
– 10
– 15

so x  4 or x  3

(c) The three line equations are y  2x  1, y  1 x  2,x  y  4 .

2
By considering a point (e.g. origin) in the shaded region, the inequalities are
y  2x  1 , y  1 x  2 , and x  y  4 .
2
12. Parallel lines, bearings, polygons top

(a) Parallel lines

alternate angles equal corresponding angles equal allie or interior add up to 180
d

(b) bearings
A
Bearings are measured clockwise from North:
bearing of B from A is 135º 45
B

(c) polygons

for a polygon with n sides, exterior angle

sum of interior angles = (n  2)180 º interior angle

sum of exteriors =
360º
Questions
a
A
(a) In the diagram opposite, find
E
the value of  in terms of a and b. D


C
(b) The bearing of B from A is 090º,
B
and the bearing of C from B is 120º. b
Given also that AB = BC, find the
bearing of C from A.

(c) A pentagon has exactly one line of symmetry, and angles all of which are
either 100º or 120º. Make a sketch of the pentagon, marking in the angles.

Answers

(a)
DˆAE  a DˆEC  b (corresponding), so
(opposite),
A ED  180  b (angles on a straight line). AˆDE   (opposite). We
ˆ
now have the three angles in triangle ADE, so a  (180  b)    180 .
A rearrangement gives   b  a .
N N

(b) Angle at point B means B 120

A
AˆBC  360  90 120 
150 º Triangle ABC is BˆAC  15 C

isosceles, so º.
The bearing of C from A is therefore 105º.

(c) Sum of internal angles is (n  2)180  540 º

for any pentagon. A line of symmetry means c
the set up is like this:
b b
The only way of allocating 100º and 120º to a, b, c
and make a total of 540º is to have three 100º’s a a
and two 120º’s. So there are two possible pentagons:

100
100
100 100 120 120
120 120
100 100
13. Areas and volumes, similarity top

(a) Areas of plane figures

CIRCLE
TRIANGLE
B
r h a
b C A
2 b
r 1
1 bh
or absinC
2 2

TRAPEZIUM
PARALLELOGRAM
b

h h

b a
1
bh (a + b)h
2

(b) Surface area and volume

Shape surface area volume

PRISM

Prism pl A A

p
r l
Cylinder 2 r
2
h hCYLINDER
1  r 2h
Cone  CONE
l
3 h

r
4  r3 SPHERE r
Sphere 4 r
3
1
Pyramid  base area PYRAMID h
h
Pipe flow: number of m3/s flowing through (or out of) a pipe
= cross-sectional area  speed
v
 (b) Similarity

Enlargement scale factor =

k

Area scale factor =

2
k
Volume scale factor =
3
k

has volume 100cm3, and height 5cm. What is its diameter?

base radius 10cm and height 20cm is sliced parallel to the base half way up into two pieces. What is the volume of the base

25m
te is to be filled with water. The speed of flow of water in the pipe is 2m/s, and 10m
the radius of the pipe is 5cm. How long will
1m
3m

Two blocks are geometrically similar, and the big blocks weighs 20 times the small block. What is
ratio of surface areas of the two blocks?

swers

 r 2 5  100

 r 2  100 , so r  20
 2.52 cm. Whoops! Diameter asked for!
5 
diameter = 5.05cm to 3sf

{Note the pre-corrected value was doubled resulting in 5.05 when itself rounded, not 5.04}
 (b) The upper small cone has base radius 5cm and height 10cm. The volume of
the base is therefore 1 102  20  1  52 10 which factorises to 1 1750 =
3 3 3
1830cm3 to 3sf

(c) Pool is a prism with cross section the side, which is a trapezium.
So volume of pool = 1 (1 3)2510 = 500 m3.
2
Rate of egress of water is c.s.a.  speed =  52  200  5000 cm3, which
is 5000 106 m3/s. (Units!!) So time taken =
105
500  (5000 10
6
)   31831s, i.e. approx 8hrs 51 mins.

(d) assuming same density material, weight is directly proportional to volume.

The volume factor is 20, i.e. k 3  20 .  k  3 20 , and so the ratio of surface areas,1 : k 2 , is 1 : 7.
14. Trigonometry top
sin  O
H H
O cos  A

A H
tan  O
A

a b c
Sine rule:  
sin Asin Bsin C

Cosine rule: a2  b2  c2  2bc cos

y
x
Two opposite pairs: use sine rule

x y Three sides and one angle: use cosine rule

Angle between line and plane is the angle between the line and its
projection on the plane: e.g. for the angle between this diagonal and
the base, draw the projection, and the angle is shown here:

Trigonometric functions for all angles:

y y y
1 1 5

90 180 270 360x 90 180 270 360x 90 180 270 360 x

– 1 – 1 – 5

sinx cosx tanx

 Questions C
6cm
(a) ADB is a straight line of length 20cm. Find  . 40 
A D B
In triangle ABC, AB = 5cm, BC = 8cm, and BˆCA  30 º. Find AˆBC
A yacht sails 5 miles at 045º then 6 miles at 090º. How far and at what bearing is it from its origin

Is an internal diagonal of a cube at 45º elevation from the base?

Find two values of x in the range 0º to 360º for which sin x  0.5
Answers

(a) draw a diagram. No, a decent diagram!

 lies in the triangle on the right, and all the information
we have is in the left triangle. To connect with the triangle BCD
it would be helpful to calculate CD and AD.
º CD
sin 40  , CD  6 sin 40º  3.85....
6
º AD
cos 40  ,  AD  6 cos  4.59..... , so BD = 20  4.59...  15.4...
º
40
6
3.85...
Then tan   0.250..., so   14.1º to 3 s.f.
15.4...

(b) If we target angle A then we have 2 opposite B

side/angle pairs, so use the sine rule: 8 cm
5 cm
sin A sin 30º ˆ º 30
A C
 , so A  53.1.. , and
8 5
ˆ
B  180  53.1...  = 96.9º
30
N 6
(c) Using cosine rule,
OB 2  52  62  2  5 6  N A B
cos135º so OB = 10.2 miles (to 3 5
45
s.f.) Now using the sine rule, O
º
sin sin135
 , which gives AOˆ B  24.7º
AO Bˆ
6 10.16...
The bearing of B from O is therefore 069.7º

(d) Assume the length of side of the cube is 1.

(Enlargement won’t make any difference to the
angles). Pythagoras gives the projection on the
base as 2 , and the opposite side is 1.
So tan  1 . an d   35.3º to 3 s.f.
2
y
1
(e) First find the principal value from
the calculator: -30º. Where are there -30
other angles in our window with the – 90 90 180 270 360 x
same sine? -0.5
–1
y
1

-30 –1
– 90 90 270
-0.5
 180
360 x
Clearly at 30º beyond 180º and 30º back from 360º.
So x = 210º, 330º
15. Circles top

(a) arcs, sectors, segments

Arc length =   2 r  sector r

arc
360

Sector area =    r 2
360 segment

Segment area = Sector – Triangle

(b) circle theorems

(i) Angle subtended at the centre = 2  angle subtended

at the circumference by the same arc

(ii) Angles in the same segment are equal

(iii) Angle in a semicircle = 90º

(iv) Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral

add up to 180º

(v) Exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral

= interior opposite

(vi) Alternate segment theorem: the angle between

tangent and side = interior opposite
Questions

(a)The arc of a sector of a circle of radius 20cm has length 10cm.

Find the area of the sector.

(b) A cylindrical tank, radius 50cm and length 2m with horizontal axis is
partially filled with oil to a maximum depth of 25cm. How much oil is
contained in the cylinder?

(c) Find  in the following diagrams:


(a) 120 (b) (c)
35

 40

Answers

(a) Arc length =  2 20
360 and this is given as 10cm. Rearranging
90 90
gives   . Therefore sector area =    =   20
2

 360 202
which simplifies nicely to 100cm2.
360
90
{Would you have reached for the calculator at   , and missed the

beautiful cancellation later?}

(b) We need to find the area of the segment

comprising the cross-section of the oil.
Above the oil is an isosceles triangle, so 25 cm
split it down the line of symmetry: OIL 25 cm

50 cm 25 cm

This gives an angle of cos1 0.5 = 60º, and a base

of 43.3…cm by Pythagoras. So the angle at the centre
of the sector is 120º. Therefore the area of the segment
120
 50  43.3... 25 = 1535cm2. The oil is in the
2
is
360
shape of a prism with volume 1535 200  307092 cm3
= 0.307m3.
 (c) The angle subtended at the centre is 360º – 120º = 240º, so   120 º by th
angle at the centre theorem.

Cˆ  35 º (angles in the same segment)

C
CAˆ B  90 º (angle in a semicircle)
so   180  35  90  55 º (angle sum of a triangle)
A
B

ABˆT  40 º (alternate segment theorem) Isosceles triangle gives BAˆ T  70 º, and so Cˆ  70 º (an
C

B
16. Similar triangles, congruent triangles top

(a) Similar triangles

same shape, different size; related by enlargement (may be
different orientation)

to prove similar: AAA

(each pair of angles equal)

to solve problems use either (a) scale factor or (b) ratio of sides equal

(b) Congruent triangles

same shape and size, i.e. identical though usually in different positions.

to prove congruent: SSS

SAS
AA
S
AS

but not ASS – there are sometimes two different triangles with the same
ASS
Questions

(a) (i) Prove that triangles BCD and E D 6

C
ACE are similar. (ii) Hence find the lengths 6 BD and
8
DE. (iii)If the B
area of triangle BCD is 12 what is the A 4 area of the trapezium
ABDE?

(b)Use congruent triangles to prove that the diagonals of a

parallelogram bisect each other.

Answers

(a) (i)
EAˆ C  and AEˆ C  (corresponding). The third angle is
ˆ
DB C BD Cˆ
shared, so AAA is established and they are similar.
12 3 3
(ii) scale factor of enlargement is  . So BD = 6  , or

6 8 2 2
2 3
 4. CE is 6   9 , so DE is 9 – 6 = 3
3 2

(iii) Area of triangle ACE 12 

 32 2
( ) {note area scale factor = k2}
= 27. So the trapezium has area 27 – 12 = 15.
A B
(b) The two pairs of marked angles are equal
(alternate), and the top and bottom sides are X
equal (parallelogram). So we have two

congruent triangles ABX and DCX by

ASA. (Note each would have to be rotated D C
180º about X to transform onto the other).
So AX = XC and DX = XB, i.e. the diagonals bisect each other.
17. Transformations top

⎛a
(i)translation by vector
⎞ ⎜ shifts a to the right and b up.
b
⎝⎠

(ii) rotation about P through  . [Note e.g. +90º means 90º

anticlockwise] perform a rotation using compasses,

or if a multiple of 90º, use the L shape:

To find the centre of a rotation already performed, perpendicularly bisect

a line joining any point with its image. Repeat with another pair, then where
the two perpendicular bisectors meet is the centre of rotation.
Alternatively, if it’s a 90º rotation, find the centre by trial and error then
confirm by using L shapes.

(iii)reflection through a line l.

To find the mirror line of a given

reflection, join a point to its image and
mark the mid-point . Repeat this with another
pair of points, and join the two mid-points to
form the mirror line.

(iv)enlargement from P with a scale factor k.

k
1

Note distance from centre of enlargement is multiplied by k.

 To find a centre of enlargement, join a point to its image and extend
the line back. Repeat, and the centre is where the lines intersect.

Questions y
4
(a) What single transformation will carry triangle A onto (i) B(ii) C? D 3
2
1 A
tion followed by a translation. A is transformed onto D by a glide reflection, in which the mirror line is yx x 1. What is the v
– 4– 3– 2–
– 11 1234
B– 2
– 3
C –4
y
4
(c) E is transformed onto F: state the single transformation which accomplishes 3this.
2 E
1

– 4– 3– 2– 1 F1 2 3 4 x
– 2
– 3
– 4

Answers
(a) (i) -90º rotation about (-1,2). (Check with L shapes)
y
(ii) reflection through the line y   x  1 4
3
(b) The diagram shows A reflected to A’. The vector of translation necessary
D 2 A'
⎛ 5⎞ 1 A

to take A’ onto D is ⎜ 1 ⎟ . – 4– 3– 2– 1 1 23 4 x
⎝⎠
– 2
– 3
(c) Draw lines joining points with – 4
their images, and extend them downwards. They all meet at the centre of enlargement.
So it’s an enlargement, centre (-2, -4) with scale factor ½.
18. Loci and ruler and compass constructions top

(a) In 2-D: locus of points equidistant from:

1 fixed point is a circle

2 fixed points A and B is the perpendicular bisector of AB

A
Circumcentre B
3 fixed points A, B and C the circumcentre of ABC
C

(b) locus of points equidistant from:

2 fixed lines is the angle bisector

incentre
3 fixed lines is the incentre of the
triangle

Questions

Construct the triangle ABC where AB = 8cm, BC = 5cm and CA = 6cm. Construct the region of poin

In 3-D, describe the locus of points exactly 1cm away from the nearest point on a line segment AB

Answers

(a) Using compasses, construct ABC accurately. Then note that the boundary lines
angle bisector of BAˆC and the perpendicular bisector of AB, and the intersection

(b) This is a cylinder of radius 1cm and axis AB, and also two hemisp
A and B. (or a hollow sausage, as we say in the trade).
19. Vectors top

Vectors are most easily seen as journeys for a particular distance

in a particular direction. location is not relevant, e.g. the opposite sides
of a parallelogram can both be represented by a .

a  : join the arrows nose to tail: b

{Note in books and exam papers vectors a
a+b
will be bold lower case letters without
bars. You write bars underneath –okay?}

 a : is a reversed

a
ka where k is a scalar is a vector parallel to a , k times as long.
3a

To get from A to B via given vectors, the route chosen

doesn’t matter - the expressions will all simplify down to
the same answer.
 Questions

(a) ABCD is a trapezium with AB paralle

a , b , and c are defined as shown.
X is a point ¼ of the way along CD.

Find two different exp

Are the previous expr

(b) In triangle OAB, OA  a and OB  b .

The line OK strikes AB one third of the w
Find in terms of a and b :

 

(i) AB (ii) OX
What does the final a

Answers

(a) (i) Going via B an

Via D, however, w
(ii) These two expres
which simplifies to a  b  c  0 . This means that each can be expressed in terms of the others, so

triangle illustrating that


(b) (i) AB  a  b(ii)

2 a33 1 b (iii) OK

AK  a  (a  21 b)  1 b
That AK is parallel to OB
 20. Straight line graphs top
y
y
gradient m = y
x x x
y
Equation of a straight line through the origin,
gradient m, is y  mx y = mx

x
y
Equation of a straight line gradient m and
c y = mx + c
y-intercept c is y  mx 
x

Equation of a straight line gradient m and

passing through (x1,y1) is y  y1  m(x  x1
y

Intersecting lines: solve their equations

simultaneously to find the intersection. x

Parallel lines have m1 

1
Perpendicular lines have mm  1, or m  
1 2 2
m1

Questions

(a) What is the gradient, and y- intercept, of 2x  6 y  12  0 ?

y
(b) Find the equation of this line in the form 3
2
ax  by  c where the coefficients are integers. 1
11 1 2 3 x
––
(c) Where do the lines y  3x  5 and
3x  2 y  6 intersect?

(d) A is (2,3), B is (5,6) and C is (4,0). Find the equation of the line through C perpendicular to AB.
 Answers

(a) Rearrange: 2x  6 y  12  0 [-2x, -12]

6 y  2x 12 [ 6 ]
y  13x  2
so the gradient is  31 and the y-intercept is –2.

(b) gradient =  32 and y-intercept = 2.

The equation is y   23x  2 3
[  2x ]
3
2x  y  2 [ 3 ]
2x  3 y  6

(c) Solve simultaneously. In this form, substitution would be easier:

sub (1) into (2): 3x  2(3x  5)  6 which gives x  16 . Sub back into
9
(1) gives y  1 . So the intersection is ( 16 , 1) .
3 93

(d) gradient AB is 6  3  1 . Perpendicular gradient is  1  1 .

1 52
So the required equation is y  x  c but what is c? Get this by substituting the coordinates of a p
 0  4  c , giving c  4 , and the equation is y   x  4
21. More graphs top
2 3 1
graphs of
and x2  y2  r2
x

x, x , x , , k
x

(a) x as above, linear

y
(b) x 2 parabolae y = x2 – x + 1
x
y

(c)(c) x3 cubics(!) y = x3 – x
x

y
1
(d) hyperbolae 2
x y =
x x

4y
3
(e) k x , where k  0 and x is an integer 2
y = 2x
1

–2–1 1 2x

y
(f) x  y  r circle radius r, centre origin
2 2 2
x2 + y2 = 1
x

Solving equations using graphs:

(i) Draw the graph of y  and on the same grid

x2 4y
3
y = 3. What equation do the intersections solve? 2 y= 3
Solving simultaneously, x2  3 , i.e. the x-values 1 2

at the intersections are solutions of y=x

x2  3 , i.e.
– 2– 1 1 2 x
they are  3 .
y y=x+2
4
3
If y  x  2 is drawn, the x-values at the 2
intersections are solutions to x2  x  2 , 1
y = x2
i.e. x2  x  2  0 , which could be factorised – 2– 1 1 2 x
to (x  2)(x  1)  0 , giving x  1, 2 , which
can be seen on the graph.
(ii) What other graph should be drawn on the
same grid as y  to see the solutions of
x2
x2  3x 1  0 ? Unravel this to x 2  3x  1
and so we need to draw the line y  3x  1 .

Questions

(a) Plot y  and y  4  on the same grid and find the x-values
x2 x2
of their intersections. To what equation are these the solutions?

(b) What are the x-coordinates at the intersections y

4
3
of these two graphs? What equation is being solved 2
approximately by these two numbers? 1 y = x2
– 2– 1
1 2 x
(c) A colony of bacteria double in number daily,
after starting with 100 individuals. State the number
of bacteria after (i) 1 day (ii) 2 days (ii) 3 days (iv) 4 days (v) x days
Sketch the graph of the number of bacteria against x, the number of days
after the start, for 0  x  5 . Estimate (a) when the colony has grown to
2500 (b) the rate of growth when x = 3.

Answers
y
5
(a) Intersection x-values are approx. –1.4 and 1.4. 4 y = x2
3
At intersection, y  x2 and y  4  x2 . Solving 2 2
1 y= 4–x
simultaneously, x2  4  x2 ,  2x 2  4 , so the x
equation is x  2 . (which means these two values
2 – 2– 1 1 2
of x are actually  2 )

(b) At the two intersections, x = -0.6 and x = 1.6 (approx).

For the line, m = 1 and c = 1, so its equation is y  x  1 .
Therefore the equation representing x-values at intersection
is x2  x  1 , i.e. x2  x 1  0 .

(c) (i) 200 (ii) 400 (iii) 800 (iv) 1600 (v) 100  2x
number of bacteria
3000
2000
1000

1 2 3 4 5 x

(a) 2500 are attained after about 4.7 days, (b) the gradient of the tangent
at x = 3 shows the rate of growth at that moment, and is about 550
bacteria/day.
22. Distance, velocity graphs top

{We are really dealing with displacement, i.e. how far along a certain route,
usually a straight line, from an origin. e.g. going round a complete circle
would represent 0 displacement, but 2r of distance}

(a) Displacement – time

s
Gradient measured between A and B B
= average velocity A
t
Gradient of a tangent
= velocity at that point.

(b) Velocity – time v

B
Gradient measured between A and B A
= average acceleration t

Gradient of a tangent
= acceleration at that point

Area between the curve and x-axis = displacement

{note: under the x-axis, area counts negative}

(c) Trapezium rule

an approximate method for counting
y
area under a curve:

y1 y2
Area  d  y 01 2 y  2 y
y0
y} .
n1n yn – 1 yn
2
x
This replaces each strip with a trapezium, i.e. d
the top becomes a straight line segment, and will
under- or over- estimate the true area.
Questions

(a) An object moves in a straight line so that its velocity

after time t seconds is given by v  t 2 . Find
(i) its average acceleration over the first second
(ii) its instantaneous acceleration at t  12
(iii) the distance it covers using the trapezium rule with 4 strips.

(b) In the journey represented in the v

2V
diagram, the total distance covered was V
60m, and the acceleration over the first
part was 5 ms-2. Find the values of V and T.
T 3Tt

Answers
v
(a) (i) average acceleration = change in 1
velocity over time taken = 1 m/s per s
= 1ms-2. 0.5
(ii) acceleration at t = ½ is gradient of
tangent there, i.e. 1ms-2.
(iii) Using trapezium rule, 0.5 1 t
distance
0.25

2
0  2  0.252  2  0.52  2  0.752  12  = 0.34375, or
0.34 m to 2 s.f. {Note that 0.34375 is an overestimate due to the
concave curve}

(b) Splitting into two trapezia and a triangle, area under curve
1 1 1
= (V  2V )T  (2V  1 V )T  T which = 3VT . So 3VT  60
V
2
2 2 2 2
V
Acceleration on first part = which = 5. Substituting gives
T
5T 2  20 which leads to T = 2, and V = 10.
23. Sequences; trial and improvement top

(a) Sequences

Numbers in a sequence u receive the names u1 , u2 , u3 ,....un ,.....

A sequence may be defined directly: un  3n  1 (that is 4, 7, 10, ….)
or recursively: un  2un1  3 and u1  4 (that is 4, 5, 7, 11, 19, 35,…)

special sequences:
(i) Triangle numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 35, ……
where un  1 2n(n  1)

(ii) Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …..

where u1  1, u2  1 , and un  un1  un2

(b) trial and improvement

to solve an equation or maximise/minimise a quantity

e.g. Solve x3  x 1  0 correct to 1.d.p.

x x3  x  1
0 -
1 -
2 +
1.5 +
1.3 -
1.4 +
1.35 +

We’ve established there is a zero between 1.3 and 1.4, but which
figure do we quote? Must go halfway, i.e. 1.35 to indicate. Answer is
between 1.3 and 1.35, so when rounded it will definitely be x  1.3
 Questions

(a) un  3n  7 . What is (i) the 10th term (ii) the first term over 1000?

(b) Suggest a formula for –5, 2, 9, 14, 21, 28, ….

(c) Find the number of straight lines joining n dots, and prove your formula.

(d) In a game, a counter can move

either one or two spaces on each turn. How many different ways are there for the
counter to get from the 1st square to the 10th square?

(e) Find, to 1 d.p. the value of x which minimises the function x2  2 x

Answers

(a) (i) u10  310  7  23.

(ii) Need un  1000 , i.e. 3n  7  which solves to n  335 23
1000
so the first term is the 336th and is u 336  1001

(b) un  7n 12 , (or, not so impressive, un  un1  7 and u1  5 )

(c) Each dot radiates n -1 lines to the other

dots, and as there are n dots to radiate lines
from, there are n(n  1) lines: except that
we
have counted every line exactly twice over.
So the number of lines between n dots is 12n(n  1)

(d) We are having to advance the counter 9 places. Let the number of ways
of advancing it n places be called un , (and we need to find u9 .)
The first move is either a 1 or a 2, after which the number of ways
remaining to get to the end is un1 or un 2 respectively. So un  un1  un2
and the sequence is our old friend the Fibonacci. Noting that u1  1
and u2  2 , the sequence must go 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …. and
u9 is 55
 (e) To get an idea where to look see sketch: The minimum is around x = -0.3

y
3
2
1
y = x2 + 2

–1 1x

x x2  2x
-0.5 0.957..
-0.4 0.917..
-0.3 0.902..
-0.2 0.910..

So far, we are assuming there is a simple minimum, but all we know

s that it’s somewhere in the vicinity of –0.3 – it may well not be closest to that value at 1 d.p., so we need to go to a finer di

x x2  2x
-0.29 0.902..
-0.28 0.901..
-0.27 0.902..

We now know it’s between –0.27 and –0.29, so rounded to 1 d.p. the value of x is indeed –0.3
{Provided the function is a straightforward one with no funny business}
24. Graphical transformations top

For any graph y  f (x) ,

y  f (x  a)
 a a translation of a steps in the + x direction

y  a  f (x)  a a translation of a steps in the + y direction

{i.e. y  f (x)  a }

x
yf(  a stretch by factor a in the + x direction
) a

y
 f (x) ‡ a stretch by factor a in the + y direction
a
a
{i.e. y  af (x) }

e.g. 1
y
y y
1 1

–1 0 x
180 36 18 360x 180 360x
1 0 – 1
y = sinx x
y = sin
2 y = sin 2x

stretch by 2 in x stretch by 1/2 in x

multiple

this is truly tricky. It’s different from techniques in rearranging formulae:

you must do a sequence of steps in the formula, each time replacing x (or y)
with something new, eventually to get the required equation
e.g. what transformation must be performed on the curve y  to obtain the
x2
following: (a) x 1 2
y  (x 1)2  (b) y  2( )
3 3

(a) starting with

y  x2 , replace x by x 1 {  y  (x 1)2 }, then replace
y by y  {  y  3  (x  1)2 }. So the original parabola must be moved 1 step
3
to the right then 3 steps up.
(b) Instinct says replace x by x-1 first, but it don’t work! Starting with y  x2
x x2 x 1 2
Replace x by {  y  } then replace x by x 1 {  y  ( ) } and
()
3 3 3
y y x 1 2
finally replace y by {   ( ) }. Thus the transformations are: a
2 2 3
stretch in the x direction by factor 3, then a translation by +1 in the x direction,
and finally a stretch by factor 2 in the y direction, illustrated here:

2y 2y 2y 2y
1 1 1 1

– –2 1 1 2 3 – –3–2 1 1 2 3 – –2 1 1 2 3
x x – –2 1 1 2 3 x
x
y = x2 y=
⎛x⎞ 2 ⎛x– 1⎞ 2 ⎛x–1⎞2
⎜ ⎟ y= ⎜ ⎟
y = 2⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
 Questions

(a) The graph of y  cos x is shown. On the empty grids, sketc

(i) y  cos 2x (ii) y  2 cos x(iii) y  cos x  1
2

2y 2y 2y
1 1 1
–1 180360x –1 180360x –1 36
–2 –2 –2 180
y = cos 2x
y=

(b) On the left grid is the graph of

y
y  x  1 . (i) Perform a stretch on this by a factor of 2 in the y direction, drawing the result on the
5
(ii) Show algebraically what effect 4
this stretch has on the equation of the line 3
2
1
– –2– 11 1 2 3 4 x

(c) Describe the transformations of the curve y  x2 which re

1 ⎛ x ⎞2
curve with equation y  ⎜  1⎟
2⎝3 ⎠
 Answers

(a) 2y 2y 2y 2y
1 1 1 1
–1 180360x –1 180360x –1 180360x –1 1
–2 –2 –2 –2
y = cos 2x y = 2cosx y=

(b) How do you stretch? Pick a point, measure its distance from the invariant x-axis, then double

y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
– –2– 11 1 2 3 4 x – –2– 11 1 2 3 4 x

The ensuing line will have equation y  x  1 , i.e. y  2x  2 , and this

2
is confirmed by the diagram.

(c) a fiendish trap. Suppress the urge to divide x by 3 first (as you would do in a calculati
replace x by x +1:  y  (x 1)2 . Next, replace x by x :  y  ( x  1)2 ,

3 3
finally replace y by 2y:  2 y  ( x  1)2 which is it. So the transformations are:
3
translate by –1 in x direction, then stretch by factor 3 in the x direction, then stretch by factor ½ in
25. Probability top

One definition of the probability of an event is the limit to which

the relative frequency (no. of successes  no. of trials) tends as the
no. of trials  .
So 7 tails from 10 flips of a fair coin gives 0.7 relative frequency, as does
700 tails out of 1000 flips. However, one would expect by n  1000 to have
converged more closely to 0.5. That would cast doubt on the fairness of the
coin.

(i) For mutually exclusive events A and B, P( Aor B)  p( A)  P(B)

(ii) For independent events A and B, P( Aand B)  P( A)  P(B)

(iii) Probability trees can illustrate combined events well:

e.g. a bag contains 5 blue balls and 10 red balls. Pick one ball at random, keep
it out, then pick another ball. What is the probability of one of each colour?

first second
pick pick
9
14
2
red 3 5
14
blue 10
1 14
3
4
14

The two nodes corresponding to one of each colour are marked.

2 5 10
The probability is  1 10 which is .
3 14  3 14 21
Alternatively to a tree, just spell out the sequence of events:
P(one of each colour) = P(R1 and B2 or B1 and R2) and use the
addition and multiplication laws to get the same result.
 Questions

(a) Draw a table of results for the rolling of two dice.

What is the probability that (i) the difference is 2(ii) the total
(iii) the difference is 2 or the total is 6 ?

(b) A teacher picks 2 pupils at random to be class representatives out of a class with 10 bo
(i) they are both boys (ii) there is at least 1 girl ?

(c) A game consists of three turns of an arrow which lands randomly between 1 and 5, wit

A prize is given for a final score of 14 or more

What is the probability that (i) a player scores the same number on each turn (ii) a play

Answers
A

(a) The difference being 2 is shown with dots while the total being 6 is shown
B
with r1
1
2
3
8 2. 4
(i) P(difference = 2) =  5
36 9
6
5
(ii) P(total = 6) =
36
(iii) P(difference = 2 or total = 6)? Cannot use the addition law directly here because they are not
gives  11 .
36

(b) (i) P(B1 and B2) = 10  9  15

(ii) P(at least 1 girl) =
222177
62 .
1 – P(both boys) =
77

(c) (i) P(111 or 222 ……..) = (1) 3  (1) 3  1

5 5 25
(ii) P(prize) = P(554 or 545 or 455 or 555) = (1) 3  (1) 3  .....
5 5
26. Statistical calculations, diagrams, data collection top

(a) calculations

(i) averages:
mean =  xi
n

media = value of the middle item when listed in order

mod = most commonly occurring value

(ii) measures of spread:

rang = max – min

Interquartile = Upper quartile – lower quartile

range
Quartiles in small data sets: fiddly and pointless, but here we go. Median is
found. If the number of data was even, split the data into two sets; if the
number of data was odd, ignore the median and consider the remaining
values as two sets. Then the quartiles are the medians of the two remaining
sets.

(b) diagrams
others
nuclear
(i) pie chart for categoric data (non-numerical) e.g. modes of
transport used to school
gas oil
(ii) frequency diagram frequency

8
6
4
2
5 152535455565758595 no of runs

(iii) moving average in a time sequence, the mean of the last 10

(say) values is calculated then plotted. This
smooths out short term fluctuations so that a
long term trend may be seen.

(iv) scatter graphs to see correlation between two variables

90
85
Latin %

80
75
70
65
60

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
56 Maths %
(v) stem and leaf diagrams the data is transcribed straight from a
table onto the stems: this is a back-to-
back stem and leaf.

Maths Latin
520 9 0
8652220 8 0258
854 7 0022558
1 6 088
6 5

key: 36
means 36%

(vi) cumulative frequency curve: grouped data with frequencies is turned

into cumulative frequencies thus:

x freq. x cum.freq
0<x  10 5 0<x  10 5
10<x  20 8 → 0<x  20 13
20<x  30 12 0<x  30 25
……. …… …… ……

and the cum freq’s plotted at the right end of the interval.

cum freq

up 50
4
1
up
4
60 age(years)

median
lower upper
quartile quartile

(vii) box plot

l.q. u.q.
min medianmax

0 60 age(years)

57
 (vii)histogram: no gaps allowed. If the data is integer valued, the class
boundaries will be between integers.
Height of block is not frequency, but
frequency density = freq  width

(c) data collection

(i) sampling: random – the population is in a numbered list,

then adapt random numbers to select members
repeatedly without inherent bias. e.g. a random sample
of size 50 to be selected from the school population of
830: take a Ran# from calculator, 1000 , discard if
over 830, otherwise choose that member of the list.
Repeat 50 times.

stratified – when the population is divided into

sampling
strata and you wish each stratum to be represented in
the sample proportionately to its size. Calculate the
sizes and then sample randomly within each stratum.
e.g. in a prison in the age groups 18 - 25, 26 - 40, 41 –
60, and 61- 100 there are 100, 300, 250 and 150
inmates. You wish to take a stratified sample of size 50.
From the 18 – 25 group you must take a random sample
100
of size  50 , i.e. 6 (nearest integer), and so on.
800

(ii) questionnaires : no vague or leading questions. No

questions which could have a variety of possible
responses, better yes/no or tick boxes, or score on a
scale of 1 to 5, say.
27. Functions top

Functions are rules which require an input, x, and give a single output, f (x) , (also
called y). So for example, pressing a calculator button performs a function.

Domain
This is the set of input values. This may be given in a question, or you
may have to find the natural domain, that is the set of all possible
input values.
Tha natural domain of f (x)  x  is x  3 , since any values of x
3
below 3 do not give a real output. y
3

1
x
-1 123456789 10
Range This is the set of output values. -1
For f (x)  x  3 , the range is all the numbers between 0 and infinity,
i.e. f (x)  0 (or y  0 ).
{Note that the function only gives the positive square root}

Composing functions
If the output from one function f is used as the input fro another
function g, giving the composite function g( f (x)) (said as “ g of f
of x”).
For example, if f (x)  2x  1 g(x)  3x  2 ,
and
then g( f (1)) is g(3) which = 7.
For this pair of functions, more generally, g( f (x))  3(2x 1)  2 ,
which can be simplified to g( f (x))  6x 1.

Inverse
The inverse of a function, called f 1(x) , reverses the action of the
function. e.g. with f (x)  2x 1, f (3)  5 , f 1(5) should = 3.
so
To find a formula for the inverse of f (x) , call this y, and rearrange the
formula so that x is the subject.

y  2x 1
 y 1  2x
y 1
 2 x
y 1 1
So f 1( y)  , but this is normally rewritten as f 1(x)  x ,
2
 2
since the input number to any function is usually called x. Check with
the above example,
 5 1
f 1(5)   3 , which is correct!
2

Questions

(a) Find the natural domains of : (i) f (x)  3x  2(ii) f (x)  1

(iii) f (x) 5  x
x
1
(iv) f (x)  (v) f (x) x(4  x)
2x  2

(b) Find the ranges of all the functions in q.1

(c) If f (x)  5x  3 and g(x)  x  3 , find a simplified expression for

x2
g( f (x)) .

(d) Find the inverse of (i) f (x)  2x  3 (ii) h(x)  x  3

5 x 1
 Answers

(a) (i) the entire real line

all real numbers except 0
x5
x1
the inside bit needs to be  0 . This means x(4  x)  0 , which is a
quadratic inequality: it requires 0  x  4 . y

-1 123 4x

(b) (i) the entire real line

all real numbers except 0
y0
y0
(v) 0  y  2

(c) g( f (x))  (5x  3)  3= 5x  6

(5x  3)  2 5x 1

(d) (i) y  2x  3
5
5 y  2x  3
5 y  3  2x
5 y  3  x , so f 1(x)  5x  3 .
2 2
(ii) y  x  3
x1
(x 1) y  x  3 xy  y  x  3 xy  x  3  y
x( y 1)  3  y

x  3  y . Why all these minuses? Let’s multiply top and bottom by -1, and
y 1
h1(x)  3  x .
1 x

top
28. Calculus

Differentiation If y  f (x) , then (or f '(x) ) is the name of the gradient

dy
dx
function of y.
dy n1
How to differentiate: If y  xn then  nx
d
x
 Constants multiplying a power of x remain:
If y  10x2 then
 10   20x
dy
2x
dx

Rate of change
d is the rate of change of y with respect to x. So, for
y
d
x
example:
(i) on the graph of y against x, represents the gradient.
dy
dx
(ii) if h metres is the vertical height of a ball after t seconds,
dh
then is the vertical velocity of the ball in m/s.
dt
(iii) if P is the price of a share, is the rate of change of the
dP
dt
share price.

dy
Max/Min Put  0 and solve.
dx
At a max or min the gradient will be 0.
dy
Is the stationary point (  0 ) you have located is a max or a
dx
min? To determine this, factorise the gradient function if
possible, and calculate the gradients at the stationary point, and
also nudging a little to the left and a little to the right:

e.g. On
y  x3  show that there is a staionary point at x  1
3x
and determine its nature.
dy 2
 3x  3
dx
when dy 2
x1  31  3  0 , so there is a stationary point.
, dx
dy
What type is it? can be factorised to  3(x 1)(x 1) .
dy dx
dx
x 1- 1 1+
dy - 0 +
dx
 The diagram shows that we have a minimum.

{For 1-, imagine substituting a number just less than 1 for x in

the expression dy  3(x 1)(x 1) , and it’s clearly going to be
negative, etc} dx

Questions

(a)Differentiate the following functions:

(i) x3 (ii) 17.5 (iii) 5x 2 (iv) 3x( x  1)
(v) 2 (vi) x  1
x x

(b) Show that the curve y  x3  x has no stationary points.

(c) Find the coordinates of the stationary points on

y  x3  3x2  9x  5 , and determine whether the right hand one is a max or a min.

(d) The displacement of a toy car during the first 10 seconds after
t3
release is given by s 2 t . Find (i) the car’s speed after 2
15
seconds (ii) the maximum speed of the car.
 Answers

(a) (i) 3x2 (ii) 0 (iii) 10x (iv) f (x)  3x2  x so

f '(x)  6x  1 (v) f (x)  2x1 so f '(x)  2  1x2 , i.e. 2 .
x2
(vi) x  1 needs to be simplified to 1  1 , that is 1  x1 . So
x x
f '(x)  1x2 , i.e. 1 .
x2

(b) dy  3x2 1 . Now 3x2 is always at least 0, so dy is always at least 1.

dx dx
So there are no stationary points.

(c) dy  3x2  6x  9 . For stationary points, 3x2  6x  9  0 . Therefore

dx
x2  2x  3  0
(x  3)(x 1)  0
 x  3 or 1.
Plugging back into the original equation gives coordinates as (-3, 32) and (1,0).
Is (1,0) a max or min?
Using dy  3(x  3)(x 1) ,
dx

x dy 1- 1 1+
dx - 0 +

so we have a minimum.

ds t2
(d) v , so v  2t .
dt 5
22
After 2 seconds, v  2  2 = 3.2 m/s.
5
To find the maximum value of v, we need to differentiate the expression for v.
dv  2  2t .

dt 5
Putting this = 0 solves to t  5 . Back into the formula for v gives the
maximum value of v as 2  5 =525 m/s.
5

29. Sets top

 Sets are groups of elements.
A small set may be shown on a Venn diagram, e.g. given the universal set is positive
integers less than 12, and A is the set of primes:

ξ A 1 8
2 11
4 9
3 75
10
6

AB: the intersection of A and B

AB: the union of A and B

A': the complement of A

AB: A B A is a subset of B

6A: 6 is a member of the set A

: the empty set

Intersections are overlaps, unions are all elements in one or the other or both.
 Questions

(a) Shade the set A  B ' : AB

(b) A is the set of animals, B is the set of black objects, and C is the set of cats.
Translate into normal English: B  C  
Describe the set B  A '
Is a white mouse a member of the set A  (B  C) ' ?

class of 25, 12 play football, 15 play water polo, but 10 do neither sport. How many play both football and water polo?

ngland. A is the set of those with a bank account. B is the set of those with a building society account. C is the set of people

ank account but no building society account, and describe this in set notation.

the members of this set.

 Answers

(a) A

(b) (i) there do exist black cats

black inanimate objects
the white mouse is certainly not a member of black objects or cats, and it is an animal, so yes!

(c) let’s call the number in the intersection x. Then the numbers in the other compartments can be calculated:

F W
12-xx 15-x
10

t they represent 25 people altogether:

10  25 , so x  12 ,
e who play both football and water polo.

re none in the left hand compartment, i.e. n(F W ')  0 , which means that in this case F  W . That is, all who play footbal

(d)(i) this is A  C  B ' A B

A B
(ii)

The members of C  ( A  B) ' are those in the catering industry without a bank or
building society account.