Chapter 18

The Theorems of Green, Stokes,

and Gauss

Imagine a fluid or gas moving through space or on a plane. Its density may
vary from point to point. Also its velocity vector may vary from point to point.
Figure 18.0.1 shows four typical situations. The diagrams shows flows in the
plane because it’s easier to sketch and show the vectors there than in space.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 18.0.1: Four typical vector fields in the plane.

The plots in Figure 18.0.1 resemble the slope fields of Section 3.6 but now,
instead of short segments, we have vectors, which may be short or long. Two
questions that come to mind when looking at these vector fields:

• For a fixed region of the plane (or in space), is the amount of fluid in the
region increasing or decreasing or not changing?

• At a given point, does the field create a tendency for the fluid to rotate?
In other words, if we put a little propeller in the fluid would it turn? If
so, in which direction, and how fast?

This chapter provides techniques for answering these questions which arise
in several areas, such as fluid flow, electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and

1281
1282 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

gravity. These techniques will apply more generally, to a general vector field.
Applications come from magnetics as well as fluid flow.
Throughout we assume that all partial derivatives of the first and second
orders exist and are continuous.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS 1283

18.1 Conservative Vector Fields

In Section 15.3 we defined integrals of the form
Z
(P dx + Q dy + R dz). (18.1.1)
C

where P , Q, and R are scalar functions of x, y, and z and C is a curve in

space. Similarly, in the xy-plane, for scalar functions of x and y, P and Q, we
have Z
(P dx + Q dy).
C
Instead of three scalar fields, P , Q, and R, we could think of a single vector
function F(x, y, z) = P (x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k. Such a function is
called a vector field, in contrast to a scalar field. It’s hard to draw a vector
field defined in space. However, it’s easy to sketch one defined only on a
plane. Figure 18.1.1 shows three wind maps, showing the direction and speed
of the winds for (a) the entire United States, (b) near Pierre, SD and (c) near
Tallahassee, FL on April 24, 2009.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 18.1.1: Wind maps showing (a) a source and (b) a saddle. Ob-
tained from www.intellicast.com/National/Wind/Windcast.aspx on April
23, 2009. [Another idea for these sample plots is to use maps from Hurricane
Katrina.]

Introducing the formal vector dr = dxi+dyj+dzk, we may rewrite (18.1.1)

as Z
F · dr.
C
The vector notation is compact, is the same in the plane and in space, and
emphasizes the idea of a vector field. However, the clumsy notations
Z Z
(P dx+Q dy+R dz) and (P (x, y, z) dx+Q(x, y, z) dy+R(x, y, z) dz)
C C

do have two uses: to prove theorems and to carry out calculations.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1284 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Conservative Vector Fields

Recall the definition of a conservative vector field from Section 15.3.

DEFINITION (Conservative Field) A vector field F defined in

some planar or spatial region is called conservative if
Z Z
F · dr = F · dr
C1 C2

whenever C1 and C2 are any two simple curves in the region with
the same initial and terminal points.

An equivalent definition of a conservative

H vector field F is that for any
simple closed curve C in the region C F · dr = 0, as Theorem 18.1.1 implies.
A closed curve is a curve that begins and ends at the same point, forming a
loop. It is simple if it passes through no point — other than its start and
finish points — more than once. A curve that starts at one point and ends
at a different point is simple if it passes through no point more than once.
Figure 18.1.2 shows some curves that are simple and some that are not.

Figure 18.1.2:

H
Theorem 18.1.1. A vector field F is conservative if and only if C
F · dr = 0
for every simple closed curve in the region where F is defined.

Proof
Assume that F is a conservative and let C be simple closed curve that starts
and ends at the point A. Pick a point B on the curve and break C into two
curves: C1 from A to B and C2∗ from B to A, as indicated in Figure 18.1.3(a).
Let C2 be the curve C2∗ traversed in the opposite direction, from A to B.
Note the sign change. Then, since F is conservative,
I Z Z Z Z
F · dr = F · dr + F dr = F · dr − F · dr = 0.
C C1 C2∗ C1 C2

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS 1285

H
On the other hand, assume that F has the property that C F · dr = 0 for
any simple closed curve C in the region. Let C1 and C2 be two simple curves
in the region, starting at A and ending at B. Let −C2 be C2 taken in the
reverse direction. (See Figures 18.1.3(b) and (c).) Then C1 followed by −C2
is a closed curve C from A back to A. Thus

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 18.1.3:

I Z Z Z Z
0= F · dr = F · dr + F · dr = F · dr − F · dr.
C C1 −C2 C1 C2

Consequently, Z Z
F · dr = F · dr.
C1 C2

This concludes both directions of the argument. •

In this proof we tacitly assumed that C1 and C2 overlap only at their
endpoints, A and B. Exercise 26 treats the case when the curves intersect
elsewhere also.

Every Gradient Field is Conservative

Whether a particular vector field is conservative is important in the study of
gravity, electro-magnetism, and thermodynamics. In the rest of this section
we describe ways to determine whether a vector field F is conservative.
H
The first method that may come to mind is to evaluate F · dr for every
simple closed curve and see if it is always 0. If you find a case where it is
not 0, then F is not conservative. Otherwise you face the task of evaluating
a never-ending list of integrals checking to see if you always get 0. That is a
most impractical test. Later in this section partial derivatives will be used to
obtain a much simpler test. The first test involves gradients.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1286 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Gradient Fields Are Conservative

Rb 0
The fundamental theorem of calculus
R asserts that a
f (x) dx = f (b) − f (a).
The next theorem asserts that C ∇f ·dr = f (B)−f (A), where f is a function of
two or three variables and C is a curve from A to B. Because of its resemblance
to the fundamental theorem of calculus, Theorem 18.1.2 is sometimes called
the fundamental theorem of vector fields.
Any vector field that is the gradient of a scalar field turns out to be conser-
vative. That is the substance of Theorem 18.1.2, which says, “The circulation
of a gradient field of a scalar function f along a curve is the difference in values
of f at the end points.”

Theorem 18.1.2. Let f be a scalar field defined in some region in the plane
or in space. Then the gradient field F = ∇f is conservative. In fact, for any
points A and B in the region,
Z
∇f · dr = f (B) − f (A).
C

Proof
For simplicity take the planar case. Let C be given by the parameterization
r = G(t) for t in [a, b]. Let G(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j. Then,

Z Z   Zb  
∂f ∂f ∂f dx ∂f dy
∇f · dr = dx + dy = + dt.
∂x ∂y ∂x dt ∂y dt
C C a

The integrand (∂f /∂x)(dx/dt) + (∂f /∂y)(dy/dt) is reminiscent of the chain

rule in Section 16.3. If we introduce the function H defined by

H(t) = f (x(t), y(t)),

then the chain rule asserts that

dH ∂f dx ∂f dy
= + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
Thus
Zb   Zb
∂f dx ∂f dy dH
+ dt = dt = H(b) − H(a)
∂x dt ∂y dt dt
a a

by the fundamental theorem of calculus. But

H(b) = f (x(b), y(b)) = f (B)

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS 1287

and
H(a) = f (x(a), y(a)) = f (A).
Consequently, Z
∇f · dr = f (B) − f (A), (18.1.2)
C

and the theorem is proved. •

In differential form Theorem 18.1.2 reads

If f is defined as the xy-plane, and C starts at A and ends at B,

Z  
∂f ∂f
dx + dy = f (B) − f (A) (18.1.3)
∂x ∂y
C

If f is defined in space, then,

Z  
∂f ∂f ∂f
dx + dy + dz = f (B) − f (A). (18.1.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z
C

Note that one vector equation (18.1.2) covers both cases (18.1.3) and
(18.1.4). This illustrates an advantage of vector notation.
It is a much more pleasant task to evaluate f (B) − f (A) than to compute
a line integral.

EXAMPLE 1 Let f (x, y, z) = √ 1

,
which is defined everywhere ex-
x2 +y 2 +z 2
R
cept at the origin. (a) Find the gradient field F = ∇f , (b) Compute C F · dr
where C is any curve from (1, 2, 2) to (3, 4, 0).
SOLUTION (a) Straightforward computations show that

∂f −x ∂f −y ∂f −z
= 2 2 2 3/2
, = 2 2 2 3/2
, = 2 .
∂x (x + y + z ) ∂y (x + y + z ) ∂z (x + y 2 + z 2 )3/2

So
−zi − yj − zk
∇f = . (18.1.5)
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
If we let r(x, y, z) = xi + yj + zk, r = krk, and b
r = r/r, then (18.1.5) can
be written more simply as

−r −b
r
F = ∇f = = .
r3 r2
Calculus October 22, 2010
1288 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

(b) For any curve C from (1, 2, 2) to (3, 4, 0),

Z
1 1
∇f · dr = f (3, 4, 0) − f (1, 2, 2) = √ −√
2
3 +4 +0 2 2 1 + 22 + 2 2
2
C
1 1 2
= − =− .
5 3 15

For a constant k, positive or negative, any vector field, F = kb r/r2 , is called
an inverse square central field. They play an important role in the study
of gravity and electromagnetism.
In Example 1 k∇f k = k−rk r3
= rr3 = r12 and f (x, y, z) = 1r . In the study of
gravity, ∇f measures gravitational attraction, and f measures “potential.”
H
EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate C (y dx + x dy) around a closed curve C taken
counterclockwise.

SOLUTION H In Section 15.3 itH was shown that if the area enclosed by a curve
C is A, then C x dy = A and C y dx = −A. Thus,
I
(y dx + x dy) = −A + A = 0.
C

A second solution uses Theorem 18.1.2. Note that

∂(xy) ∂(xy)
∇(xy) = i+ j = yi + xj,
∂x ∂y
that is, the gradient of xy is yi + xj.
Hence, byTheorem 18.1.2, if the endpoints of C are A and B
I I
(y dx + x dy) = ∇(xy) · dr = xy|BA.
C C

Because C is a closed curve, A = B and so the integral is 0. 

A differential form P (x, y, z) dx+Q(x, y, z) dy+R(x, y, z) dz is called exact
if there is a scalar function f such that P (x, y, z) = ∂f /∂x, Q(x, y, z) = ∂f /∂y,
and R(x, y, z) = ∂f /∂z. In that case, the expression takes the form
∂f ∂f ∂f
dx + dy + dz.
∂x ∂y ∂z
That is the same thing as saying that the vector field F = P (x, y, z)i +
Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k is a gradient field: F = ∇f .

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS 1289

If F is Conservative Must It Be a Gradient Field?

The proof of the next theorem is similar to the proof of the second part of
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. We suggest you review that proof FTC II states that every
(page 469) before reading the following proof. continuous function has an
The question may come to mind, “If F is conservative, is it necessarily the antiderivative.
gradient of some scalar function?” The answer is “yes.” That is the substance
of the next theorem, but first we need to introduce some terminology about
regions.
A region R in the plane is open if for each point P in R there is a disk
with center at P that lies entirely in R. For instance, a square without its
edges is open. However, a square with its edges is not open.
An open region in space is defined similarly, with “disk” replaced by “ball.”
An open region R is arcwise-connected if any two points in it can be
joined by a curve that lies completely in R. In other words, it consists of just
one piece.
Theorem 18.1.3. Let F be a conservative vector field defined in some arcwise-
connected region R in the plane (or in space). Then there is a scalar function
f defined in that region such that F = ∇f .

Proof
Consider the case when F is planar, F = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j. (The case where
F is defined in space is similar.) Define a scalar function f as follows. Let
(a, b) be a fixed point in R and (x, y) be any point in R. Select a curve C in
R that starts at (a, b) andR ends at (x, y).
Define f (x, y) to be C F · dr. Since F is conservative, the number f (x, y)
depends only on the point (x, y) and not on the choice of C. (See Figure 18.1.4.)
All that remains is to show that ∇f = F; that is, ∂f /∂x = P and ∂f /∂y =
Q. We will go through the details for the first case, ∂f /∂x = P . The reasoning
for the other partial derivative is similar.
Let (x0 , y0 ) be an arbitrary point in R and consider the difference quotient
whose limit is ∂f /∂x(x0 , y0 ), namely,
Figure 18.1.4:
f (x0 + h, y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
,
h
for h small enough so that (x0 + h, y0 ) is also in the region.
Let C1 be any curve from (a, b) to (x0 , y0 ) and let C2 be the straight path
from (x0 , y0 ) to (x0 + h, y0 ). (See Figure 18.1.5.) Let C be the curve from
(0, 0) to the point(x0 + h, y0 ) formed by taking C1 first and continuing on C2 .
Then Z
f (x0 , y0 ) = F · dr,
C1
Figure 18.1.5:
Calculus October 22, 2010
1290 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

and Z Z Z
f (x0 + h, y0 ) = F · dr = F · dr + F · dr.
C C1 C2

Thus
R R
f (x0 + h, y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 ) C2
F · dr C2
(P (x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy)
= = .
h h h
R
On C2 , y is constant, y = y0 ; hence dy = 0. Thus C2
Q(x, y) dy = 0. Also,

Z x+h
Z
P (x, y) dx = P (x, y) dx.
C2 x

See Section 6.3 for the By the Mean-Value Theorem for definite integrals, there is a number x∗ be-
MVT for Definite Integrals tween x and x + h such that
x+h
Z
P (x, y) dx = P (x∗ , y0 )h.
x

Hence
∂f f (x0 + h, y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0 ) = lim
∂x h→0 h
xZ0 +h
1
= lim P (x, y0 ) dx = lim P (x∗ , y0 ) = P (x0 , y0 ).
h→0 h h→0
x0

Consequently,
∂f
(x0 , y0 ) = P (x0 , y0 ),
∂x
as was to be shown.
In a similar manner, we can show that

∂f
(x0 , y0 ) = Q(x0 , y0 ).
∂y
•
For a vector field F defined throughout some region in the plane (or space)
the following three properties are therefore equivalent: Figure 18.1.6 tells us
that any one of the three properties, (1), (2), or (3), describes a conservative
field. We used property (3) as the definition.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS 1291

Figure 18.1.6: Double-headed arrows (⇔) mean “if and only if” or “is equiv-
alent to.” (Single-headed arrows (⇒) mean “implies.”)

Almost A Test For Being Conservative

Figure 18.1.6 describes three ways of deciding whether a vector field F =
P i + Qj + Rk is conservative. Now we give a simple way to tell that it is
not
R conservative. The method is simpler than finding a particular line integral
C
F · dr that is not 0.
Remember that we have assumed that all of the functions we encounter in
this chapter have continuous first and second partial derivatives.
The test depends on the fact that the two orders in which are may compute
a second-order mixed partial derivative give the same result. (We used this
fact in Section 16.8 in a thermodynamics context.)
Consider an expression of the form P dx + Q dy + R dz (or equivalently a
vector field F = P i + Qj + Rk). If the form is exact, then F is a gradient and
there is a scalar function f such that

∂f ∂f ∂f
= P, = Q, = R.
∂x ∂y ∂z

Since    
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
= ,
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
we have
∂P ∂Q
= .
∂y ∂x
Similarly we find
∂Q ∂R ∂P ∂R
= and = .
∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x
To summarize,

Calculus October 22, 2010

1292 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

If the vector field F = P i + Qj + Rk is conservative, then

∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂R ∂P
− = 0, − = 0, − = 0. (18.1.6)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z

If at least one of these three equations (18.1.6) doesn’t hold, then P dx +

Q dy + R dz is not exact (and F = P i + Qj + Rk is not conservative).

EXAMPLE 3 Show that cos(y) dx +sin(xy) dy +ln(1 + x) dz is not exact.

SOLUTION Checking whether the first equation in (18.1.6) holds we com-
pute
∂(sin(xy)) ∂(cos(y))
− ,
∂x ∂y
which equals
y cos(xy) + sin(y),
which is not 0. There’s no need to check the remaining two equations in
(18.1.6). The expression sin(xy) dx + cos(y) dy + ln(1 + x) dz is not exact.
(Equivalently, the vector field sin(xy)i + cos(y)j + ln(1 + x)k is not a gradient
field, hence not conservative.) 
Notice that we completed Example 3 without doing any integration.
We can restate the three equations (18.1.6) as a single vector equation, by
introducing a 3 by 3 formal determinant
 
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
 ∂x ∂y ∂z
 (18.1.7)
P Q R

Expanding this as though the nine entries were numbers, we get

     
∂R ∂Q ∂R ∂P ∂Q ∂P
i − −j − +k − . (18.1.8)
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y

If the three scalar equations in (18.1.6) hold, then (18.1.8) is the 0-vector. In
view of the importance of the vector (18.1.8), it is given a name.

DEFINITION (Curl of a Vector Field) The curl of the vector

field F = P i + Qj + Rk is the vector field given by the formula
(18.1.7) or (18.1.8). It is denoted curl F.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS 1293

The formal determinant (18.1.7) is like the one for the cross product of two
vectors. For this reason, it is also denoted ∇×F (read as “del cross F”). That’s
a lot easier to write than (18.1.8), which refers to the components. Once again
we see the advantage of vector notation.
The definition also applies to a vector field F = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j in the
plane. Writing F as P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j + 0k and observing that ∂Q/∂z = 0
and ∂P/∂z = 0, we find that
 
∂Q ∂P
∇×F= − k.
∂x ∂y

EXAMPLE 4 Compute the curl of F = xyzi + x2 j − xyk.

SOLUTION The curl of F is given by
 
i j k
 ∂x ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∂y ∂z
2
xyz x −xy,

which is short for

     
∂ ∂ 2 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2 ∂
(−xy) − (x ) i − (−xy) − (xyz) j + (x ) − (xyz) k
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
= (−x − 0)i − (−y − xy)j + (2x − xz)k
= −xi + (y + xy)j + (2x − xz)k.


If any case, in view of (18.1.6), for vector fields in space or in the xy-plane
we have this theorem.

Theorem 18.1.4. If F is a conservative vector field, then ∇ × F = 0.

You may wonder why the vector field curl F obtained from the vector field
F is called the “curl of F.” Here we came upon the concept purely mathe-
matically, but, as you will see in Section 18.6 it has a physical significance: If
F describes a fluid flow, the curl of F describes the tendency of the fluid to
rotate and form whirlpools — in short, to “curl.”

The Converse of Theorem 18.1.4 Isn’t True

Warning: The converse of
It would be delightful if the converse of Theorem 18.1.4 were true. Unfor- Theorem 18.1.4 is false.
tunately, it is not. There are vector fields F whose curls are 0 that are not
conservative. Example 5 provides one such F in the xy-plane. Its curl is 0 but

Calculus October 22, 2010

1294 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

H is not conservative, that is, ∇ × F = 0 and there is a closed curve C with

it
C
F · dr not zero.

EXAMPLE 5 Let F = x2−yi +y 2

+ x2xj+y 2
. Show that (a) ∇ × F = 0, but (b) F
is not conservative.
SOLUTION (a) We must compute

i j k
 
∂ ∂ ∂ 
det  ∂x ∂y ∂z
−y x
x2 +y 2 x2 +y 2
0

which equals
     
∂(0) ∂ x ∂(0) ∂ −y
− i− − j
∂y ∂z x2 + y 2 ∂x ∂z x2 + y 2
    
∂ x ∂ −y
+ − k.
∂x x2 + y 2 ∂y x2 + y 2
The i and j components are clearly 0, and a direct computation shows that
the k component is
y 2 − x2 y 2 − x2
− = 0.
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
Thus the curl of F is 0.
(b) To show
H that F is not conservative, it suffices to exhibit a closed curve
C such that C F · dr is not 0. One such choice for C is the unit circle
parameterized counterclockwise by

x = cos(θ), y = sin(θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

2 2
On this curve
R x + y = 1. Figure 18.1.7 shows a few values of F at points on
C. Clearly C F · dr, which measures circulation, isR positive, not 0. However,
Recall that, on C, if you have any doubt, here is the computation of C F · dr:
x2 + y 2 = 1. I  
−y dx
I
x dy
F · dr = +
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
C C
Z2π
= (− sin θ d(cos θ) + cos θ d(sin θ))
0
Z2π Z2π
2 2
= (sin θ + cos θ) dθ = dθ = 2π.
0 0

This establishes (b), F is not conservative. 

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS 1295

Figure 18.1.7:

The curl of F being 0 is not enough to assure us that a vector field F

is conservative. An extra condition must be satisfied by F. This condition
concerns the domain of F. This extra assumption will be developed for planar
fields in Section 18.2 and for spatial fields F in Section 18.6. Then we will
have a simple test for determining whether a vector field is conservative.

Summary
We showed that a vector field being conservative is equivalent to its being the
gradient of a scalar field. Then we defined the curl of a vector field. If a field
is denoted F, the curl of F is a new vector field denoted curl F or ∇ × F. If
F is conservative, then ∇ × F is 0. However, if the curl of F is 0, it does not
follow that F is conservative. An extra assumption (on the domain of F) must
be added. That assumption will be described in the next section.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

EXERCISES for Section 18.1 Key: R–routine, (a) Show that curl F is 0 and F is defined in an
M–moderate, C–challenging arcwise-connected region of the plane.
(b) Construct a “potential function” f whose gradi-
In Exercises 1 to 4 answer “True” or “False” and ex- ent is F.
plain.

1.[R] “If F is conserva- field, then ∇ × F = 0.”

tive, then ∇ × F = 0.” Let f (x, y, z) = e3x ln(z + y 2 ). Compute
4.[R] “If ∇×F = 0, then 10.[R]
2.[R] “If ∇×F = 0, then
R
F is a gradient field.” C ∇f · dr, where C is the straight path from (1, 1, 1)
F is conservative.” to (4, 3, 1).
3.[R] “If F is a gradient
11.[R] We obtained the first of the three equations in
5.[R] Using information in this section, describe vari-
(18.1.6). Derive the other two.
ous ways of showing a vector field F is not conservative.
2
12.[R] Find the curl of F(x, y, z) = ex yzi +
x3 cos2 3yj + (1 + x6 )k.
6.[R] Using information in this section, describe var-
ious ways of showing a vector field F is conservative.
13.[R] Find the curl of F(x, y) = tan2 (3x)i+e3x ln(1+
x2 )j.
7.[R] Decide if each of the following sets is open,
closed, neither open nor closed, or both open and
closed. 14.[R] Using theorems of this section, explain why
the curl of a gradient is 0, that is, curl(∇f ) = 0
(a) unit disk with its boundary (∇×∇f = 0) for a scalar function f (x, y, z). Hint: No
(b) unit disk without any of its boundary points computations are needed.

(c) the x-axis 15.[R] By a computation using components, show

(d) the entire xy-plane that for the scalar function f (x, y, z), curl ∇f = 0.

(e) the xy-plane with the x-axis removed R

16.[R] Let f (x, y) = cos(x + y). Evaluate C ∇f · dr,
(f) a square with all four of its edges (and corners) where C is the curve that lies on the parabola y = x2
and goes from (0, 0) to (2, 4).
(g) a square with all four of its edges but with its
corners removed H
17.[R] In Example 5 we computed C F · dr, where
(h) a square with none of its edges (and corners) F = −yi+xj
x2 +y 2
and C is the unit circle with center at the
origin. Compute the integral when C is the circle of
radius 5 with center at the origin.
8.[R] In Example 1 we computed a certain line H
integral by using the fact that the vector field 18.[M] In Example 5 we computed C F · dr where
−yi+xj
(−xi − yj − zk)/(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2 is a gradient field. F = x2 +y2 and C is the unit circle with center at the
Compute that integral directly, without using the in- origin.
formation that the field is a gradient. (a) HWithout doing any new computations, evaluate
C F · dr where C is the square path with ver-
9.[R] Let F = y cos(x)i + (sin(x) + 2y)j. tices (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0).

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.1 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS

(b) Evaluate the integral in (a) by a direct compu- where g is a scalar function. If we denote xi + yj as r,
tation, breaking the integral into four integrals, then F(x, y)H = g(r)br, where r = krk and b r = krk/r.
one over each edge. Show that C F · dr = 0, for any path ABCDA of
the form shown in Figure 18.1.8. (The path consists of
two circular arcs and parts of two rays from the origin.)

19.[M] If F and G are conservative, is F + G?

20.[M] By a direct computation, show that

curl(f F) = ∇f × F + f curl F.

21.[M] By a direct computation, show that curl(F ×

G) = (G · ∇)F − (F · ∇)G + F(∇ · G) − G(∇ · F).
Each of the first two terms has a form not seen before
now in this text. Here is how to interpret them when Figure 18.1.8:
F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k and G = G1 i + G2 j + G3 k:

∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3 26.[M] In Theorem 18.1.1 we proved that ∂f /∂x = P .

(G · ∇)F = G1 + G2 + G3 . Prove that ∂f /∂y = Q.
∂x ∂y ∂z

27.[C] In view p of the previous exercise, we may ex-

pect F(x, y) = g( x2 + y 2 ) √xi+yj
2 2
to be conservative.
x +y
Show that it p is by showing that F is the gradient of
22.[M] If F and G are conservative, is F × G?
G(x, y) = H( x2 + y 2 ), where H is an antiderivative
of g, that is, H 0 = g.
23.[M] Explain why the curl of a gradient field is the
zero vector, that is, ∇ × ∇f = 0. 28.[C] The domain of a vector field F is all of the
xy-plane. RAssume that there are two points A and B
such that C F dr is the same for all curves C from A
24.[M] Assume that F(x, y) is conservative. Let C1 to B. Deduce that F is conservative.
be the straight path from (0, 0, 0) to (1, R0, 0), C2 the
straight path from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1). If C1 F dr = 3 29.[C] A gas at temperature T and pressure P is
R R 0 0
and C2 F dr = 4, what can be said about C F dr, brought to the temperature T1 > T0 and pressure
where C is the straight path from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1)? P1 > P0 . The work done in this process is given by
the line integral in the T P - plane
Z  
25.[M] Let F(x, y) be a field that can be written in RT dP
− R dT ,
the form P
C

p xi + yj where R is a constant and C is the curve that records

F(x, y) = g( x2 + y 2 ) p
x2 + y 2 the various combinations of T and P during the pro-

Calculus October 22, 2010

1298 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

cess. Evaluate this integral over the following paths, (P0 , T0 ) to (P1 , T1 ) is straigh
shown in Figure 18.1.9.
Because the integrals are path de
ential expression RT dP/P − R dT
dynamic quantity that depends o
just on the state. Vectorially speak
(RT /P )i − Rj is not conservative.

30.[C] Assume that H F(x, y) is defi

xy-plane and that C F(x, y) · dr =
curve that can fit inside a disk of d
that F is conservative.

31.[C] This exercise completes

Figure 18.1.9: rem 18.1.1 in the case when C1 and
(a) The pressure is kept constant at P0 while the of their endpoints A and B. In tha
temperature is raised from T0 to T1 ; then the third simple curve from A to B that
temperature is kept constant at T1 while the only at A and B. Then an argumen
pressure is raised from P0 to P1 . the proof of Theorem 18.1.1 can dis
(b) The temperature is kept constant at T0 while Rx
0
the pressure is raised from P0 to P1 ; then the 32.[C] We proved that lim x0
temperature is raised from T0 to T1 while the P (x0 , y0 ), by using the Mean Valu
pressure is kept constant at P1 . nite integrals. Find a different proo
(c) Both pressure and temperature are raised si- uses a part of the Fundamental The
multaneously in such a way that the path from

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.2 GREEN’S THEOREM AND CIRCULATION 1299

18.2 Green’s Theorem and Circulation

In this section we discuss a theorem that relates an integral of a vector field
over a closed curve C in a plane to an integral of a related scalar function over
the region R whose boundary is C. We will also see what this means in terms
of the circulation of a vector field.

Statement of Green’s Theorem

There are two analogs of
We begin by stating Green’s Theorem and explaining each term in it. Then Green’s Theorem in space;
we will see several applications of the theorem. Its proof is at the end of the they are discussed in
next section. Sections 18.5 and 18.6.

Green’s Theorem
Let C be a simple, closed counterclockwise curve in the xy-plane, bounding
a region R. Let P and Q be scalar functions defined at least on an open set
containing R. Assume P and Q have continuous first partial derivatives. Then
I Z  
∂Q ∂P
(P dx + Q dy) = − dA.
∂x ∂y
C R

Recall, from Section 18.1, that a curve is closed when it starts and ends at
the same point. It’s simple when it does not intersect itself (except at its start
and end). These restrictions on C ensure that it is the boundary of a region
R in the xy-plane.
Since P and Q are independent of each other, Green’s Theorem really
consists of two theorems:
Z Z I Z
∂P ∂Q
P dx = − dA and Q dy = dA. (18.2.1)
∂y ∂x
C R C R

EXAMPLE 1 In Section H15.3 we showed that if the counterclockwise curve

C bounds a region R, then C y dx is the negative of the area of R. Obtain
this result with the aid of Green’s Theorem.
SOLUTION Let P (x, y) = y, and Q(x, y) = 0. Then Green’s Theorem says
that I Z
∂y
y dx = − dA.
∂y
C R
H R
Since ∂y/∂y = 1, it follows that y dx is − R 1 dA, the negative of the area
of R. 

Calculus October 22, 2010

1300 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Green’s Theorem and Circulation

What H does Green’s Theorem say about a vector
H field F = P i + Qj? First of
all, C (P dx + Q dy) now becomes simply C F · dr.
The right hand side of Green’s Theorem looks a bit like the curl of a vector
field in the plane. To be specific, we compute the curl of F:
 
i j k  
∂Q ∂P
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  = 0i − 0j + − k
∂x ∂y
P (x, y) Q(x, y) 0

Thus the curl of F equals the vector function

 
∂Q ∂P
− k. (18.2.2)
∂x ∂y

To obtain the (scalar) integrand on the right-hand side of (18.2.2), we “dot

(18.2.2) with k,”
  
∂Q ∂P ∂Q ∂P
− k ·k= − .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Green’s Theorem Expressed in Terms of Circulation

We can now express Green’s Theorem using vectors. In particular, circulation
around a closed curve can be expressed in terms of a double integral of the
curl over a region.

If the counterclockwise closed curve C bounds the region R, then

I Z
F · dr = (∇ × F) · k dA.
C R

H
Recall that if F describes the flow of a fluid in the xy-plane, then C F · dr
represents its circulation, or tendency to form whirlpools. This theorem tells
us that the magnitude of the curl of F represents the tendency of the fluid to
rotate. If the curl of F is 0 everywhere, then F is called irrotational — there
is no rotational tendency.
This form of Green’s theorem provides an easy way to show that a vector
field F is conservative. It uses the idea of a simply-connected region. Informally
“a simply-connected region in the xy-plane comes in one piece and has no

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.2 GREEN’S THEOREM AND CIRCULATION 1301

holes.” More precisely, an arcwise-connected region R in the plane or in space

is simply-connected if each closed curve in R can be shrunk gradually to a
point while remaining in R.
Figure 18.2.1 shows two regions in the plane. The one on the left is simply-
connected, while the one on the right is not simply connected. For instance, the

(a) (b)

Figure 18.2.1: Regions in the plane that are (a) simply connected and (b)
not simply connected.

xy-plane is simply connected. So is the xy-plane without its positive x-axis.

However, the xy-plane, without the origin is not simply connected, because
a circular path around the origin cannot be shrunk to a point while staying
within the region.
If the origin is removed from xyz-space, what is left is simply connected.
However, if we remove the z-axis, what is left is not simply connected.
Figure 18.2.2(b) shows a curve that cannot be shrunk to a point while
avoiding the z-axis.
Now we can state an easy way to tell whether a vector field is conservative.

Theorem. If a vector field F is defined in a simply-connected region in the

xy-plane and ∇ × F = 0 throughout that region, then F is conservative.

Proof
Let C be any simple closed curve in the region and R the region it bounds.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1302 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

(a) (b)

Figure 18.2.2: (a) xyz-space with the origin removed is simply connected. (b)
xyz-space with the z-axis removed is not simply connected.

We wish to prove that the circulation of F around C is 0. We have

I Z
F · dr = (curl F) · k dA.
C R
H
Since curl F is 0 throughout R, it follows that C
F · dr = 0. •
In Example 5 in Section 18.1, there is a vector field whose curl is 0 but is
not conservative. In view of the theorem just proved, its domain must not be
simply connected. Indeed, the domain of the vector field in that example is
the xy-plane with the origin deleted.

EXAMPLE 2 Let F(x, y, z) = ex yi + (ex + 2y)j.

1. Show that F is conservative.

2. Exhibit a scalar function f whose gradient is F.

SOLUTION

1. A straightforward calculation shows that ∇ × F = 0. Since F is defined

throughout the xy-plane, a simply-connected region, Theorem 18.2 tells
us that F is conservative.

2. By Section 18.1, we know that there is a scalar function f such that

∇f = F. There are several ways to find f . We show one of these
methods here. Additional approaches are pursued in Exercises 7 and 8.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.2 GREEN’S THEOREM AND CIRCULATION 1303

The approach chosen here follows the construction inR the proof of Theo-
rem 18.1.3. For a point (a, b), define f (a, b) to equal C F · dr, where C is
any curve from (0, 0) to (a, b). Any curve with the prescribed endpoints
will do. For simplicity, choose C to be the curve that goes from (0, 0) to
(a, b) in a straight line. (See Figure 18.2.3.) When a is not zero, we can
use x as a parameter and write this segment as: x = t, y = (b/a)t for
0 ≤ t ≤ a. (If a = 0, we would use y as a parameter.) Then
Z Za    
x x tb t b b
f (a, b) = (e y dx + (e + 2y) dy) = e t dt + e + 2 t dt
a a a
C 0
Za    a
b t t b b t t b 2 
= te + e + 2 t dt = (t − 1)e + e + t 
a a a a 0
0
 a
b b 
= tet + t2  = bea + b2 .
a a 0
Figure 18.2.3:
Since f (a, b) = bea + b2 , we see that f (x, y) = yex + y 2 is the desired
function. One could check this by showing that the gradient of f is indeed yex + y 2 + k for any
ex yi + (ex + 2y)j. Other suitable potential functions f are ex y + y + k for constant k, also would be a
any constant k. potential.


The next example uses the cancellation principle, which is based on the
fact that the sum of two line integrals in opposite direction on a curve is zero.
This idea is used here to develop the two-curve version of Green’s Theorem
and then several more times before the end of this chapter. Green’s Theorem — The
Two-Curve Case
EXAMPLE 3 Figure 18.2.4(a) shows two closed counterclockwise curves
C1 , and C2 that enclose a ring-shaped region R in which ∇ × F is 0. Show
that the circulation of F over C1 equals the circulation of F over C2 .
SOLUTION Cut R into two regions, each bounded by a simple curve, to
which we can apply Theorem 18.2. Let C3 bound one of the regions and C4
bound the other, with the usual counterclockwise orientation. On the cuts, C3
and C4 go in opposite directions. On the outer curve C3 and C4 have the same
orientation as C1 . On the inner curve they are the opposite orientation of C2 .
(See Figure 18.1.2(b).) Thus
Z Z Z Z
F · dr + F · dr = F · dr − F · dr. (18.2.3)
C3 C4 C1 C2

By Theorem 18.2 each integral on the left side of (18.2.3) is 0. Thus

Z Z
F · dr = F · dr (18.2.4)
C1 C2

Calculus October 22, 2010

1304 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

(a) (b)

Figure 18.2.4:


Example 3 justifies the “two-curve” variation of Green’s Theorem:

Two-Curve Version of Green’s Theorem

Assume two nonoverlapping curves C1 and C2 lie in a region where curl F
is 0 and form the border of a ring. Then, if C1 and C2 both have the same
orientation, I I
F · dr = F · dr.
C1 C2

This theorem tells us “as you move a closed curve within a region of zero-
curl, you don’t change the circulation.” The next Example illustrates this
point.

EXAMPLE 4 Let F = −yi+xj x2 +y 2

and C be the closed counterclockwise curve
bounding the square whose vertices are (−2, −2), (2, −2), (2, 2), and (−2, 2).
Evaluate the circulation of F around C as easily as possible.
SOLUTION This vector field appeared in Example 5 of Section 18.1. Since
its curl is 0, at all points except the origin, whereHF is not defined, we may use
the two-curve version of Green’s Theorem. Thus C F·dr equals the circulation
of F over the unit circle in Example 5, hence equals 2π.
This is a lot easier than integrating F directly over each of the four edges
of the square. 

How to Draw ∇ × F
For the planar vector field F, its curl, ∇ × F, is of the form z(x, y)k. If z(x, y)
is positive, the curl points directly up from the page. Indicate this by the

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.2 GREEN’S THEOREM AND CIRCULATION 1305

symbol , which suggests the point of an arrow or the nose of a rocket. If

z(x, y) is negative, the curl points down from the page. To show this, use
the symbol ⊕, which suggests the feathers of an arrow or the fins of a rocket.
Figure 18.2.5 illustrates their use. This is standard notation in
physics.

Figure 18.2.5:

Summary
We first expressed Green’s theorem in terms of scalar functions
I Z  
∂Q ∂P
(P dx + Q dy) = − dA.
∂x ∂y
C R

We then translated it into a statement about the circulation of a vector field;

I Z
F · dr = (∇ × F) · k dA.
C R

In this theorem the closed curve C is oriented counterclockwise.

With the aid of this theorem we were able to show the following important
result:

If the curl of F is 0 and if the domain of F is simply connected, then F is

conservative.
H
Also, in a region in which ∇×F = 0, the value of C F· dr does not change
as you gradually change C to other curves in the region.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

EXERCISES for Section 18.2 Key: R–routine,

M–moderate, C–challenging
7.[R] In Example 2 we constructed a function f by
In Exercises 1 through 4 verify Green’s Theorem for using a straight path from (0, 0) to (a, b). Instead,
the given functions P and Q and curve C. construct f by using a path that consists of two line
segments, the first from (0, 0) to (a, 0), and the second,
1.[R] P = xy, Q = y 2 and C is the triangle with from (a, 0) to (a, b).
and C is the border of vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), and 8.[R] In Example 2 we constructed a function f by
the square whose vertices (0, 1). using a straight path from (0, 0) to (a, b). Instead,
are (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and construct f by using a path that consists of two line
(0, 1). 4.[R] P = sin(y), Q = 0
and C is the boundary segments, the first from (0, 0) to (0, b), and the second
2.[R] P = x2 , Q = 0 from (0, b) to (a, b).
of the portion of the unit
and C is the boundary of 9.[R] Another way to construct a potential function
disk with center (0, 0) in
the unit circle with center f for a vector field F = P i + Qj is to work directly
the first quadrant.
(0, 0). with the requirement that ∇f = F. That is, with the
3.[R] P = ey , Q = ex equattions
5.[R] Figure 18.2.6 shows a vector field for a fluid ∂f ∂f
= P (x, y) and = Q(x, y).
flow F. At the indicated points A, B, C, and D tell ∂x ∂y
when the curl of F is pointed up, down or is 0. (Use
the  and ⊕ notation.) Hint: When the fingers of (a) Integrate ∂f x
∂x = e y with respect to x to conclude
your right hand copy the direction of the flow, your x
that f (x, y) = e y + C(y). Note that the “con-
thumb points in the direction of the curl, up or down. stant of integration” can be any function of y,
which we call C(y). (Why?)
(b) Next, differentiate the result found in (a) with
respect to y. This gives two formulas for ∂f ∂y :
ex + C 0 (y) and ex + 2y. Use this fact to explain
why C 0 (y) = 2y.
(c) Solve the equation for C found in (b).
(d) Combine the results of (a) and (c) to obtain the
general form for a potential function for this vec-
Figure 18.2.6: tor field.

6.[R] Assume that F describes a fluid flow. Let P be In Exercises 10 through 13

a point in the domain of F and C a small circular path (a) check that F is conservative in the given domain,
around P . that is ∇×F = 0, and the domain of F is simply
connected
(a) If the curl of F points upward, in what direction
is the fluid tending to turn near P , clockwise or (b) construct f such that ∇f = F, using integrals
counterclockwise? on curves
H
(b) If C is oriented clockwise, would C F · dr to be (c) construct f such that ∇f = F, using antideriva-
positive or negative? tives, as in Exercise 9.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.2 GREEN’S THEOREM AND CIRCULATION

(d) (6xy − y 3 )i + (4y + 3x2 − 3xy 2 )j

yi−xj
10.[R] F = 3x2 y vi+x3 j, 1/x)i + xexy j, domain all (e) 1+x2 y 2
domain the xy-plane xy with x > 0
xi+yj
11.[R] F = y cos(xy) vi+ 13.[R] F = 2y ln(x) i + (f) x2 +y 2
x
(x cos(xy) + 2y)j, domain (ln(x))2 j, domain all xy
the xy-plane with x > 0
12.[R] F = (yexy +
20.[R] Figure 18.2.7 shows a fluid flow F. All the vec-
14.[R] Verify Green’s Theorem when F(xy) = xi + yj tors are parallel, but their magnitudes increase from
and R is the disk of radius a and center at the origin. bottom to top. A small simple curve C is placed in the
flow.
15.[R] InH Example 1 we used Green’s Theorem to
show that C y dx is the negative of the area Hthat C
encloses. Use Green’s Theorem to show that C x dy
equals that area. (We obtained this result in Sec-
tion 15.3 without Green’s Theorem.)

16.[R] Let A be a plane region with boundary C a

simple closed curve swept out counterclockwise. Use
Green’s theorem to show that the area of A equals
Figure 18.2.7:
I
1
(−y dx + x dy).
2 (a) Is the circulation around C positive, negative, or
0? Justify your opinion.

(b) Assume that a wheel with small blades is free

17.[R] Use Exercise 16 to find the area of the region to rotate around its axis, which is perpendicular
bounded by the line y = x and the curve to the page. When it is inserted into this flow,
which way would it turn, or would it not turn at
x = t6 + t4

for t in [0, 1]. all? (Don’t just say, ”It would get wet.”)
y = t3 + t

18.[R] Assume that curl F at (0, 0) is −3. Let C 21.[R] Let F(x, y) = y 2 i.
sweep out the boundary of a circle of radius a, center
at
R (0, 0). When a is small, estimate the circulation (a) Sketch the field.
C F · dr.
(b) Without computing it, predict when (∇ × F) · k
is positive, negative or zero.
19.[R] Which of these fields are conservative:

(a) xi − yj (c) Compute (∇ × F) · k.

(b) xi−yj (d) What would happen if you dipped a wheel with
x2 +y 2
small blades free to rotate around its axis, which
(c) 3i + 4j is perpendicular to the page, into this flow.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

R
24.[R] What, if any- C4 F · dr?
thing, can be said about
R 27.[R] What, if any-
C2 F · dr?
22.[R] Check that the curl of the vector field in Ex- 25.[R] thing, can be said about
What, if any- R
ample 2 is 0, as asserted. F · dr, where C is the
thing, can be said about C
R curve formed by C1 fol-
C3 F · dr? lowed by C3 ?
23.[R] Explain in words, without explicit calcula- 26.[R] What, if any-
r around the thing, can be said about
tions, why the circulation of the field f (r)b
curve P QRSP in Figure 18.2.8 is zero. As usual, f is
a scalar function, r = ||r||, and rb = r/r. In Exercises 28 to 31 show that the vector field is con-
servative and then construct a scalar function of which
it is the gradient. Use the method in Example 2.

28.[R] 2xyi + x2 j 31.[R] 3y sin2 (xy) cos(xy)i+

2
29.[R] sin(y)i + (1+3x sin (xy) cos(xy))j
(x cos(y) + 3)j
30.[R] (y +1)i+(x+1)j

32.[R] Show that

(a) 3x2 y dx + x3 dy is exact.

(b) 3xy dx + x2 dy is not exact.

Figure 18.2.8: ARTIST: Please color the four sides
of the closed curve.
In Exercises 24 to 27 let F be a vector field defined 33.[R] Show that (x dx + y dy)/(x2 + y 2 ) is exact
everywhere in the plane except a the point P shown and exhibit a function f such that df equals the given
R Figure 18.2.9. Assume that ∇ × F = 0 and that
in expression. (That is, find f such that ∇f · dr agrees
C1 F · dr = 5. with the given differential form.)

34.[R] Let F = b r/krk in the xy plane and let C be

the circle of radius a and center (0, 0).
H
(a) Evaluate C F · n ds without using Green’s the-
orem.

(b) Let C now be theH circle of radius 3 and center

(4, 0). Evaluate C F · n ds, doing as little work
as possible.

Figure 18.2.9:
35.[R] Figure 18.2.10(a) shows the direction of a vec-

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.2 GREEN’S THEOREM AND CIRCULATION 1309

tor field at three points. Draw a vector field compatible 1/2, 3/4, and 1.
with these values. (No zero-vectors, please.)
40.[C] Assume that you know that Green’s Theorem
is true when R is a triangle and C its boundary.

(a) Deduce that it therefore holds for quadrilaterals.

(a) (b) (c)
(b) Deduce that it holds for polygons.

Figure 18.2.10:

41.[C] Assume that ∇ × F = 0 in the region R

36.[R] Consider the vector field in Figure 18.2.10(b). bounded by an exterior curve C1 and two interior
Will a paddle wheel turn at A? At B? At C? If so, in curves
R C2 and
R C3 , as in RFigure 18.2.11. Show that
C1 F · dr = C2 F · dr + C3 F · dr.
which direction?

37.[R] Use Exercise 16 to obtain the formula for area

in polar coordinates:

Zβ
1
Area = r2 dθ.
2
α

Hint: Assume C is given parametrically as x =

r(θ) cos(θ), y = r(θ) sin(θ), for α ≤ θ ≤ β.

38.[M] A curve is given parametrically by x = t(1 −

t2 ), y = t2 (1 − t3 ), for t in [0, 1].

(a) Sketch the points corresponding to t = 0, 0.2,

FigureR 18.2.11: R
42.[C] We proved that R ∂Q ∂y dA = C Q dy in a spe-
0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0, and use them to sketch the
cial case. Prove it in this more general case, in which
curve.
we assume less about the region R. Assume that R
(b) Let R be the region enclosed by the curve. What has the description a ≤ x ≤ b, y1 (x) ≤ y ≤ y2 (x).
difficulty arises when you try to compute the Figure 18.2.10(c) shows such a region, which need not
area of R by a definite integral involving vertical be convex. The curved path C breaks up into four
or horizontal cross sections? paths, two of which are straight (or may be empty), as
in Figure 18.2.10(c).
(c) Use Exercise 16 to find the area of R.
43.[C] We proved the second part of (18.2.1), namely
H R
that C Q dy = R ∂Q/∂x dA. Prove the first part,
H R
39.[M] Repeat Exercise 38 for x = sin(πt) and C P dx = − R ∂p/∂y dA.
y = t − t2 , for t in [0, 1]. In (a), let t = 0, 1/4,

Calculus October 22, 2010

1310 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

18.3 Green’s Theorem, Flux, and Divergence

In the previous section we introduced Green’s Theorem and applied it to dis-
cover a theorem about circulation and curl. That concerned the line integral
of F · T, the tangential component of F, since F · dr is short for (F · T) ds.
Now we will translate Green’s TheoremH into a theorem about the line integral
of F · n, the normal component of F, F · n ds. Thus Green’s Theorem will
provide information about the flow of the vector field F across a closed curve
C (see Section 15.4).

Green’s Theorem Expressed in Terms of Flux

Let F = M i + N j and C be a counterclockwise closed curve. (We use M and
N now, to avoid confusion with P and Q needed later.) At a point on a closed
curve the unit exterior normal vector (or unit outward normal vector)
n is perpendicular to the curve and points outward from the region enclosed
by the curve. To compute F · n in terms of M and N , we first express n in
terms of i and j.
The vector
dx dy
T= i+ j
ds ds
is tangent to the curve, has length 1, and points in the direction in which
the curve is swept out. A typical T and n are shown in Figure 18.3.1. As
Figure 18.3.1 shows, the exterior unit normal n has its x component equal
to the y component of T and its y component equal to the negative of the x
component of T. Thus
dy dx
n = i − j.
Figure 18.3.1: ds ds
Consequently, if F = M i + N j, then
I I   I  
dy dx dy dx
F·n = (M i + N j) · i − j ds = M −N ds
ds ds ds ds
C C C
I I
= (M dy − N dx) = (−N dx + M dy). (18.3.1)
C C

In (18.3.1), −N plays the role of P and M plays the role of Q in Green’s

Theorem. Since Green’s Theorem states that
I Z  
∂Q ∂P
(P dx + Q dy) = − dA
∂x ∂y
C R

we have I Z  
∂M ∂(−N )
(−N dx + M dy) = − dA
∂x ∂y
C R

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.3 GREEN’S THEOREM, FLUX, AND DIVERGENCE 1311

or simply, if F = M i + N j, then
I Z  
∂M ∂N
F · n ds = + dA.
∂x ∂y
C R

In our customary “P and Q” notations, we have

Green’s Theorem Expressed in Terms of Flux

If F = P i + Qj, then
I Z  
∂P ∂Q
F · n ds = + dA
∂x ∂y
C R

where C is the boundary of R.

The expression
∂P ∂Q
+ ,
∂x ∂y
the sum of two partial derivatives, is call the divergence of F = P i + Qj. It
is written div F or ∇ · F. The latter notation is suggested by the “symbolic”
dot product  
∂ ∂ ∂P ∂Q
i+ j · (P i + Qj) = + .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
It is pronounced “del dot eff”. Theorem 18.3 is called “the divergence theorem
in the plane.” It can be written as

Divergence Theorem in the Plane

I Z
F · n ds = div F dA
C R

where C is the boundary of R.

EXAMPLE 1 Compute the divergence of (a) F = exy i + arctan(3x)j and

(b) F = −x2 i + 2xyj.
SOLUTION
∂ xy ∂
(a) ∂x
e + ∂y
arctan(3x) = yexy + 0 = yexy
∂ ∂
(b) ∂x
(−x2 ) + ∂y
(2xy) = −2x + 2x = 0.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1312 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS


The double integral of the divergence of F over a region describes the
amount of flow across the border of that region. It tells how rapidly the fluid
is leaving (diverging) or entering the region (converging). Hence the name
“divergence”.
In the next section we will be using the divergence of a vector field defined
in space, F = P i + Qj + Rk, where P , Q and R are functions of x, y, and z.
It is defined as the sum of three partial derivatives
∂P ∂Q ∂R
∇·F= + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z
It will play a role in measuring flux across a surface.
H R
EXAMPLE 2 Verify that C F · n ds equals R ∇ · F dA, when F(x, y) =
xi+yj, R is the disk of radius a and center at the origin and C is the boundary
curve of R.
H
SOLUTION First we compute C F · n ds, where C is the circle bounding
R. (See Figure 18.3.2.)
Since C is a circle centered at (0, 0), the unit exterior normal n is b
r:
xi + yj xi + yj
n=b
r= = .
kxi + yjk a
H
Thus, remembering that C ds is just the arclength of C,
Figure 18.3.2: I I 
xi + yj
 I 2
x + y2
F · n ds = (xi + yj) · ds = ds
a a
C C C
I 2 I
a
= ds = a ds = a(2πa) = 2πa2 . (18.3.2)
a
C C

R  ∂P 
Next we compute R ∂x + ∂Q∂y
dA. Since P = x and Q = y, ∂P/∂x +
∂Q/∂y = 1 + 1 = 2. Then
Z   Z
∂P ∂Q
+ dA = 2 dA,
∂x ∂y
R R

which is twice the area of the disk R, hence 2πa2 . This agrees with (18.3.2).

As theHnext example shows, a double integral can provide a way to compute
the flux: F · n ds.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.3 GREEN’S THEOREM, FLUX, AND DIVERGENCE 1313

H
EXAMPLE 3 Let F = x2 i + xyj. Evaluate F · n ds over the curve that
bounds the quadrilateral with vertices (1, 1), (3, 1), (3, 4), and (1, 2) shown in
Figure 18.3.3.

SOLUTION The line integral could be evaluated directly, but would require
parameterizing each of the four edges of C. With Green’s Theorem we can
instead evaluate an integral over a single plane region.
Let R be the region that C bounds. By Green’s theorem Figure 18.3.3:
∂(x2 ) ∂(xy)
I Z Z  
F · n ds = ∇ · F dA = + dA
∂x ∂y
C R R
Z Z
= (2x + x) dA = 3x dA.
R R

See Exercise 15.

Then
Z Z3 Zy(x)
3x dA = 3x dy dx,
R 1 1

where y(x) is determined by the equation of the line that provides the top edge
of R. We easily find that the line through (1, 2) and (3, 4) has the equation
y = x + 1. Therefore,

Z Z3 Zx+1
3x dA = 3x dy dx.
R 1 1

The inner integration gives

Zx+1
3x dy = 3xy|y=x+1
y=1 = 3x(x + 1) − 3x = 3x2 .
1

The second integration gives

Z3
3
3x2 dx = x3 1 = 27 − 1 = 26
1

Calculus October 22, 2010

1314 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

A Local View of div F

We have presented a “global” view of div F, integrating it over a region R
to get the total divergence across the boundary of R. But there is another
way of viewing div F, “locally.” This approach makes uses an extension of the
Permanence Principle of Section 2.5 to the plane and to space.
Let P = (a, b) be a point in the plane and F a vector field describing fluid
flow. Choose a very small region R around P , and let C be its boundary. (See
Figure 18.3.4.) Then the net flow out of R is
I
F · n ds.
C

By Green’s theorem, the net flow is also

Z
div F dA.
R

Now, since div F is continuous and R is small, div F is almost constant

throughout R, staying close to the divergence of F at (a, b). Thus
Z
div F dA ≈ div F(a, b) Area(R).
R

or, equivalently,
Net flow out of R
≈ div F(a, b). (18.3.3)
Area of R
Figure 18.3.4:
This means that
div F at P
is a measure of the rate at which fluid tends to leave a small region around
P . Hence another reason for the name “divergence.” If div F is positive, fluid
near P tends to get less dense (diverge). If div F is negative, fluid near P
tends to accumulate (converge).
Moreover, (18.3.3) suggests a different definition of the divergence div F at
Diameter is defined in (a, b), namely
Section 17.1.

Local Definition of div F(a, b)

H
C
F · n ds
div F(a, b) = lim
Diameter of R→0 Area of R

where R is a region enclosing (a, b) whose boundary C is a simple closed curve.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.3 GREEN’S THEOREM, FLUX, AND DIVERGENCE 1315

This definition appeals to our physical intuition. We began by defining

div F mathematically, as ∂P/∂x + ∂Q/∂y. We now see its physical meaning,
which is independent of any coordinate system. This coordinate-free definition
is the basis for Section 18.9.

EXAMPLE 4 Estimate the flux of F across a small circle C of radius a if

div F at the center of the circle is 3. H R
SOLUTION The flux of F across C is C F · n ds, which equals R div F dA,
where R is the disk that C bounds. Since div F is continuous, it changes
R little
in a small enough disk, and we treat it as almost constant. Then R div F dA
is approximately (3)(Area of R) = 3(πa2 ) = 3πa2 . 

Proof of Green’s Theorem

As Steve Whitaker of the chemical engineering department at the University
of California at Davis has observed, “The concepts that one must understand
to prove a theorem are frequently the concepts one must understand to apply
the theorem.” So read the proof slowly at least twice. It is not here just
to show that Green’s theorem is true. After all, it has been around for over
150 years, and no one has said it is false. Studying a proof strengthens one’s
understanding of the fundamentals.
In this proof we use the concepts of a double integral, an iterated integral,
a line integral, and the fundamental theorem of calculus. So the proof provides
a quick review of fourH basic ideas.
We prove that R Q dy = R ∂Q dA. The proof that C P dx = − ∂P
R H R
∂x ∂y
dA
is similar.
To avoid getting involved in distracting details we assume that R is strictly
convex: It has no dents and its border has no straight line segments. The
basic ideas of the proof show up clearly in this special case. Thus R has the
description a R≤ x ≤ b, y1 (x)R ≤ y ≤ y2 (x), as shown in Figure 18.3.5. We will
express both R ∂Q ∂y
dA and C Q dy as definite integrals over the interval [a, b].
First, we have
Z Zb yZ2 (x)
∂Q ∂Q
dA = dy dx.
∂y ∂y
R a y1 (x)

By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,

yZ2 (x)
∂Q
dy = Q(x, y2 (x)) − Q(x, y1 (x)).
∂y
y1 (x)

Calculus October 22, 2010

1316 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Figure 18.3.5: ARTIST: Please change A with R.

Hence
Z Zb
∂Q
dA = (Q(x, y2 (x)) − Q(x, y1 (x))) dx. (18.3.4)
∂y
R a
R
Next, to express C −Q dx as an integral over [a.b], break the closed path
C into two successive paths, one along the bottom part of R, described by
y = y1 (x), the other along the top part of R, described by y = y2 (x). Denote
the bottom path C1 and the top path C2 . (See Figure 18.3.6.)
Then I Z Z
(−Q) dx = (−Q) dx + (−Q) dx. (18.3.5)
C C1 C2

But
Z Z Zb
(−Q) dx = (−Q(x, y1 (x))) dx = (−Q(x, y1 (x))) dx,
Figure 18.3.6: C1 C1 a

and
Z Z Za Zb
(−Q) dx = (−Q(x, y2 (x))) dx = (−Q(x, y2 (x))) dx = Q(x, y2 (x)) dx.
C2 C2 b a

Thus by (18.3.5),
I Zb Zb
(−Q) dx = −Q(x, y1 (x)) dx + Q(x, y2 (x)) dx
C a a
Zb
= (Q(x, y2 (x)) − Q(x, y1 (x))) dx.
a

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.3 GREEN’S THEOREM, FLUX, AND DIVERGENCE 1317

This is also the right side of (18.3.4) and concludes the proof.

Summary
We introduced the “divergence” of a vector field F = P i + Qj, namely the
scalar field ∂P
∂x
+ ∂Q
∂y
denoted div F or ∇ · F.
We translated Green’s Theorem into a theorem about the flux of a vector
field in the xy-plane. In symbols, the divergence theorem in the plane says
that I Z
F · n ds = div F dA.
C R

“The integral of the normal component of F around a simple closed curve

equals the integral of the divergence of F over the region which the curve
bounds.”
From this it follows that
H
C
F · n ds Flux across C
div F(P ) = lim = lim
diameter of R→0 Area of R diameter of R→0 Area of R
where C is the boundary of the region R, which contains P .
We concluded with a proof of Green’s theorem, that provides a review of
several basic concepts.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

EXERCISES for Section 18.3 F = ex sin yi +

Key: R–routine, 11.[R] 3x2 y 2 j, and R is the tri-
M–moderate, C–challenging e2x cos(y)j,
and R is the angle with vertices (0, 1),
rectangle with vertices (3, 4), and (2, 7).
(0, 0), (1, 0), (0, π/2), and 14.[R] F = xy −i j
2 + x2 y ,
1.[R] State the divergence form of Green’s Theorem (1, π/2). and R is the triangle with
in symbols. 12.[R] F = y tan(x)i + vertices (1, 1), (2, 2), and
y 2 j, and R is the square (1, 2). Hint: Write F with
with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), a common denominator.
2.[R] State the divergence form of Green’s Theorem (1, 1), and (0, 1).
in words, using no symbols to denote the vector fields,
13.[R] F = 2x3 yi −
etc.
H
15.[R] In Example 3 we found C F · n ds by comput-
ing a double integral. Instead, evaluate the integral
In Exercises 3 to 6 compute the divergence of the given H F · n ds directly.
C
vector fields.
16.[R] Let F(x, y) = i, a constant field.
√
3.[R] F = x3 yi + x2 y 3 j 6.[R] F = y 1 + x2 i + (a) Evaluate directly the flux of F around the tri-
3 3/5 x+y angular path, (0, 0) to (1, 0), to (0, 1) back to
4.[R] F = arctan(3xy)i+ ln((x+1) (sin(y)) e )j
(ey/x )j (0, 0).
5.[R] F = ln(x + y)i + (b) Use the divergence of F to evaluate the flux in
xy(arcsin y)2 j (a).

R H
In Exercises 7 to 10 compute R div F dA and C F ·
n ds and check that they are equal. 17.[R] Let a be a “small number” and R be the square
with vertices (a, a), (−a, a), (−a, −a), and (a, −a), and
C its boundary.
H If the divergence of F at the origin is
3, estimate C F · n ds.
7.[R] F = 3xi + 2yj, and vertices (0, 0), (a, 0) (a, b)
R is the disk of radius 1 and (0, b), where a, b > 0.
18.[R] Assume kF(P )k ≤ 4 for all points P on a
with center (0, 0).
curve of length L that bounds a region R of area A.
8.[R] F = 5y 3 i − 6x2 j, 10.[R] F = cos(x + What can be said about the integral R ∇ · F dA?
R
and R is the disk of ra- y)i + sin(x + y)j, and R is
dius 2 with center (0, 0). the triangle with vertices
19.[R] Verify the divergence form of Green’s Theorem
(0, 0), (a, 0) and (a, b),
for F = 3xi + 4yj and C the square whose vertices are
9.[R] F = xyi + x2 yj, where a, b > 0. (2, 0), (5, 0), (5, 3), and (2, 3).
and R is the square with
A vector field F is said to be divergence free when
∇ · F = 0 at every point in the field.
In Exercises 11 to 14 use Green’s Theorem
H expressed 20.[R] Figure 18.3.7 shows four vector fields. Two
in terms of divergence to evaluate C F · n ds for the are divergence-free and two are not. Decide which two
given F, where C is the boundary of the given region are not, copy them onto a sheet of Hdrawing paper, and
R. sketch a closed curve C for which C F · n ds is not 0.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.3 GREEN’S THEOREM, FLUX, AND DIVERGENCE

line y = x and the curve

x = t6 + t4


y = t3 + t

for t in [0, 1]. Hint: Use Green’s Theorem.

25.[M] Let f be a scalar function. Let R be a con-

vex region and C its boundary taken counterclockwise.
Show that
Z  2
∂2f
 I  
∂ f ∂f ∂f
+ 2 dA = dy − dx .
Figure 18.3.7: ∂x2 ∂y ∂x ∂x
R C

21.[R] For a vector field F,

26.[M] Let F be the vector field whose formula in
(a) Is the curl of the gradient of F always 0? polar coordinates is F(r, θ) = rnb
r, where r = xi + yj,
r = krk, and br = r/r. Show that the divergence of F is
(b) Is the divergence of the gradient of F always 0? (n + 1)rn−1 . Hint: First express F in rectangular co-
ordinates. Note: See also Exercise 46 in Section 18.8.
(c) Is the divergence of the curl of F always 0?

(d) Is the gradient of the divergence of F always 0?

27.[M] A region with a hole is bounded by two ori-
ented curves C1 and C2 , as in Figure 18.3.9. which
shows typical exterior-pointing unit normal vectors.
22.[R] Figure 18.3.8 describes the flow F of a fluid.
Decide whether ∇ · F is positive, negative, or zero at
each of the points A, B, and C.

Figure 18.3.8:

Figure 18.3.9:
R
H
23.[R] If div F at (0.1, 0.1) is 3 estimate C F · n ds, HFind an equationH expressing R ∇ · F dA in terms of
where C is the curve around the square whose vertices C1 F · n ds and C2 F · n ds. Hint: Break R into two
are (0, 0), (0.2, 0), (0.2, 0.2), (0, 0.2). regions that have no holes, as in Exercises 34 and 35.

24.[M] Find the area of the region bounded by the 28.[M] The region R is bounded by the

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

curves C1 and C2 , as in Figure 18.3.10. is never 0 in a certain region R. Show that none of
the stream lines in the region closes up to form a loop
within R. Hint: At each point P on a stream line,
F(P ) is tangent to that streamline.

33.[C] Let R be a region in the xy-plane bounded

by the closed curve C. Let f (x, y) be defined on the
plane. Show that
Z  2
∂2f
 I
∂ f
+ dA = Dn (f ) ds.
∂x2 ∂x2
R C

Figure 18.3.10: 34.[C] Assume that F is defined everywhere in the xy-

plane except at the origin and that the divergence of F
H R R
(a) Show that C1 F · n ds − C2 F · n ds = R (∇ · is identically 0. Let C1 and C2 be two counterclockwise
F) dA. simple curves circling the origin.
H C1 lies within
R the re-
R gion within C2 . Show that C1 F · n ds = C2 F · n ds.
(b) If ∇ · F = 0 in R, show that C1 F · n ds = (See Figure 18.3.12(a).)
R
C2 F · n ds.

29.[M] Let F be a vector field in the xy-plane whose

flux across any rectangle is 0. Show that its flux across (a) (b)
the curves in Figure 18.3.11(a) and (b) is also 0.
Figure 18.3.12:
Hint: Draw the dashed lines in Figure 18.3.12(b) to
cut the region between C1 and C2 into two regions.

35.[C] (This continues Exercise 34.) Assume that

(a) (b) F is defined everywhere in the xy-plane except at the
origin and that the divergence of F is identically 0.
Figure 18.3.11: Let C1 and C2 be two counterclockwise simple curves
circling
H the origin.
H They may intersect. Show that
C1 F · n ds = C2 F · n ds. The message from this
Exercise is this: if the divergence of F is 0, you are
30.[M] Assume that the circulation of F along every
permitted to replace an integral over a complicated
circle in the xy-plane is 0. Must F be conservative?
curve by an integral over a simpler curve.

31.[C] The field F is defined throughout the xy-plane. 36.[C]

If the flux of F across every circle is 0, must the flux
of F across every square be 0? Explain. (a) Draw enough vectors for the field F(x, y) =
(xi + yj)/(x2 + y 2 ) to show what it looks like.
32.[C] Let F(x, y) describe a fluid flow. Assume ∇ · F (b) Compute ∇ · F.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.3 GREEN’S THEOREM, FLUX, AND DIVERGENCE 1321

(c) Does your sketch in (a) agree with what you

found for ∇ · F. in (b)? (If not, redraw the
vector field.)

Calculus October 22, 2010

1322 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

18.4 Central Fields and Steradians

Central fields are a special but important type of vector field that appear in
the study of gravity and the attraction or repulsion of electric charges. These
fields radiate from a point mass or point charge. Physicists invented these
fields in order to avoid the mystery of “action at a distance.” One particle
acts on another directly, through the vector field it creates. This comforts
students of gravitation and electromagnetism by glossing over the riddle of
how an object can act upon another without any intervening object such as a
rope or spring.

Central Fields
A central field is a continuous vector field defined everywhere in the plane
(or in space) except, perhaps, at a point O, with these two properties:

1. Each vector points towards (or away from) O.

Figure 18.4.1:
2. The magnitudes of all vectors at a given distance from O are equal.

O is call the center, or pole, of the field. A central field is also called
“radially symmetric.” There are various ways to think of a central vector
field. For such a field in the plane, all the vectors at points on a circle with
center O are perpendicular to the circle and have the same length, as shown
in Figures 18.4.1 and 18.4.2.
The same holds for central vector fields in space, with “circle” replaced by
“sphere.”
The formula for a central vector field has a particularly simple form. Let
−→
the field be F and P any point other than O. Denote the vector OP by r and
its magnitude by r and r/r by b r. Then there is a scalar function f , defined
for all positive numbers, such that

F(P ) = f (r)b
r.

The magnitude of F(P ) is kf (r)k. If f (r) is positive, F(P ) points away

from O. If f (r) is negative, F(P ) points toward O.
Figure 18.4.2:
To conclude this introduction to central fields we point out that a central
field is a vector-valued function of more than one variable. Because the point
−→
P with coordinates (x, y, z) is also associated with the vector r = OP =
xi + yj + zk we may denote F(P ) as F(x, y, z) or F(r).

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.4 CENTRAL FIELDS AND STERADIANS 1323

Central Vector Fields in the Plane

Using polar coordinates with pole placed at the point O, we may express a
central field in the form
F(r) = f (r)b
r,
where r = krk and b r = r/r. The magnitude of F(r) is |f (r)|.
We already met such a field in Section 18.1 in the study of line integrals.
In that case, f (r) = 1/r; the “field varied as the inverse first power.” When, See page 1051.
in Section 15.4, we encountered the line integral for the normal component of
this field along a curve we found that it gives the number of radians the curve
subtends.
The vector field F(r) = (1/r)br can also be written as
r
F(r) = . (18.4.1)
r2
When glancing too quickly at (18.4.1), you might think its magnitude is in-
versely proportional to the square of r. However, the magnitude of the vector
r in the numerator is r; the magnitude of r/r2 is r/r2 = 1/r, the reciprocal of
the first power of r.
H
EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate the flux C F · n ds for the central field F(x, y) =
f (r)b
r, where r = xi + yj, over the closed curve shown in Figure 18.4.3. We
have a < b and the path goes from A = (a, 0) to B = (b, 0) to C = (0, b), to
D = (0, a) and ends at A = (a, 0).
SOLUTION On the paths from A to B and from C to D the exterior normal,
n, is perpendicular to F, so F · n = 0, and these integrands contribute nothing
to the integral. On BC, F equals f (b)b r. There br = n, so F · n = f (b) since
r · n = 1. Note that the length of arc BC is (2πb)/4 = πb/2. Thus Figure 18.4.3:

ZC ZC ZC
πb
F · n ds = f (b) ds = f (b) ds == f (b)
2
B B B

r = −n. A similar calculation shows that

On the arc DC, b

ZC
π
F · n ds = − af (a).
2
D

Hence
I
π π π
F · n ds = 0 + bf (b) + 0 − af (a) = (bf (b) − af (a)).
2 2 2
C

Calculus October 22, 2010

1324 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS


In order for a central field f (r)b
r to have zero flux around all paths of the
special type shown in Figure 18.4.3, we must have

f (b)b − f (a)a = 0,

for all positive a and b. In particular,

f (1)
f (b)b − f (1)1 = 0 or f (b) = .
b
Thus f (r) must be inversely proportional to r and there is a constant c such
that
c
f (r) = .
r
If f (r) is not of the form c/r, the vector field F(x, y) = f (r)b
r does not have
zero flux across these paths. In Exercise 5 you may compute the divergence of
(c/r)b
r and show that it is zero.

The only central vector fields with center at the origin in the plane with zero
divergence are these whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the distance
from the origin.

We underline “in the plane,” because in space the only central fields with
zero flux across closed surfaces have a magnitude inversely proportional to the
square of the distance to the pole, as we will see in a moment.
Knowing that the central field F = b rH/r has zero divergence enables us to
evaluate easily line integrals of the form C brr·n ds, as the next example shows.
H
EXAMPLE 2 Let F(r) = b r/r. Evaluate C F · n ds where C is the coun-
terclockwise circle of radius 1 and center (2, 0), as shown in Figure 18.4.4.

SOLUTION Exercise 5 shows that the field F has 0-divergence throughout

C and the region R that C bounds. By Green’s Theorem, the integral also
equals the integral of the divergence over R:
I Z
Figure 18.4.4: F · n ds = ∇ · F dA. (18.4.2)
C R

Since the divergence of HF is 0 throughout R, the integral on the right side of

(18.4.2) is 0. Therefore C F · n ds = 0. 

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.4 CENTRAL FIELDS AND STERADIANS 1325

The next example involves a curve that surrounds a point where the vector
field F = b
r/r is not defined.

HEXAMPLE 3 Let C be a simple closed curve enclosing the origin. Evaluate

C
F · n ds, where F = b
r/r.
SOLUTION Figure ?? shows C and a small circle D centered at the origin
and situated in the region
H that C bounds. Without a formula describing C,
we could not compute C F · n ds directly. However, since the divergence of F
is 0 throughout the region bounded by C and D, we have, by the Two-Curve See page 1051 in
Case of Green’s Theorem, Section 15.4.
I I
F · n ds = F · n ds. (18.4.3)
C D

The integral on the right-hand side of (18.4.3) is easy to compute directly. To

do so, let the radius of D be a. Then for points P on D, F(P ) = br/a. Now, b r
and n are the same unit vector. So br · n = 1. Thus
r·n
I I Z
1 1
F · n ds =
b
ds = ds = 2πa = 2π.
a a a
D D D
H
Hence C
F · n ds = 2π. 

Central Fields in Space

A central field in space with center at the origin has the form F(x, y, z) =
F(r) = f (r)br We show that if the flux of F over any surface bounding certain
special regions is zero then f (r) must be inversely proportional to the square
of r.
Consider the surface S shown in Figure 18.4.5. It consists of an octant of
two concentric spheres, one of radius a, the other of radius b, a < b, together
with the flat surfaces on the coordinate planes. Let R be the region bounded by Figure 18.4.5:
the surface S. On its three flat sides F is perpendicular to the exterior normal.
On the outer sphere F(x, y, z) · n = f (b). On the inner sphere F(x, y, z) · n =
−f (a). Thus Surface area of a sphere of
I radius r is 4πr2 .
1 1 π
F · n dS = f (b)( )(4πb2 ) − f (a)( )(4πa2 ) = (f (b)b2 − f (a)a2 ).
8 8 2
S

Since this is to be 0 for all positive a and b, it follows that there is a constant
c, such that Compare with Example 1.
c
f (r) = 2 .
r
The magnitude must be proportional to the “inverse square.”
The following fact is justified in Exercise 28:

Calculus October 22, 2010

1326 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

The only central vector field with center at the origin in the plane with zero
divergence are these whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the distance
from the origin.

A Geometric Application
See Sections 18.7 and 18.9.
As we will see later in this chapter an “inverse square” central field is at
the heart of gravitational theory and electrostatics. Now we show how it is
used in geometry, a result we will apply in both areas.
In Section 15.4 we
R showed how radian measure could be expressed in terms
r/r) · n ds, that is, in terms of the central field whose
of the line integral C (b
magnitude is inversely proportional to the first power of the distance from
the center. That was based on circular arcs in a plane. Now we move up
one dimension and consider patches on surfaces of spheres, which will help us
measure solid angles.
Let O be a point and S a surface such that each ray from O meets S in at
most one point. Let S ∗ be the unit sphere with center at O. The rays from O
that meet S intersect S ∗ in a set that we call R, as shown in Figure 18.4.6(a).
Let the area of R be A. The solid angle subtended by S at O is said to have
Steradians comes from a measure of A steradians
stereo, the Greek word for For instance, a closed surface S that encloses O subtends a solid angle of
space, and radians. 4π steradians, because the area of the unit sphere is 4π.

(a) (b)

Figure 18.4.6:

EXAMPLE 4 Let S be part of the surface of a sphere of radius a, Sa , whose

center is O. Find the angle subtended by S at O. (See Figure 18.4.6(b).)

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.4 CENTRAL FIELDS AND STERADIANS 1327

SOLUTION The entire sphere Sa subtends an angle of 4π steradians because

it has an area 4πa2 . We therefore have the proportion

Angle S subtends Area of S

= ,
Angle Sa subtends Area of Sa

or
Angle S subtends Area of S
= .
4π 4πa2
Hence
Area of S
Angle S subtends = steradians.
a2


EXAMPLE 5 Let S be a surface such that each ray from the point O
meets S in at most one point. Find an integral that represents in steradians
the solid angle that S subtends at O.
SOLUTION Consider a very small patch of S. Call it dS and let its area
be dA. If we can estimate the angle that this patch subtends at O, then we
will have the local approximation that will tell us what integral represents the
total solid angle subtended by S.
Let n be a unit normal at a point in the patch, which we regard as es-
sentially flat, as in Figure 18.4.7. Let dA be the projection of the patch dS
on a plane perpendicular to r, as shown in Figure 18.4.7. The area of dA is
approximately dA, where
Figure 18.4.7:
r · n dS.
dA = b

Now, dS and dA subtend approximately the same solid angle, which ac-
cording to Example 4 is about

r·n
b
dS steradians.
krk2

Consequently S subtends a solid angle of

r·n
Z
b
dS steradians.
krk2
S

The following special case will be used in Section 18.5.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1328 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Let O be a point in the region bounded by the closed surface S. Assume each
ray from O meets S in exactly one point, and let r denote the position vector
from O to that point. Then

r·n
Z
b
dS = 4π. (18.4.4)
r2
S

Incidentally, (18.4.4) is easy to establish when S is a sphere of radius a

and center at the Rorigin. In that case b r · n = 1. Also, r = a. Then
r = n, so b
2 2 2
(18.4.4) becomes S (1/a ) dS = (1/a )4πa = 4π. However, it is not obvious
that (18.4.4) holds far more generally, for instance when S is a sphere and the
origin is not its center, or when S is not a sphere.

EXAMPLE 6 Let S be the cube of side 2 bounded H by the six planes x = ±1,
y = ±1, z = ±1, shown in Figure 18.4.8. Find S brr·n2 dS, where S is one of
the six faces of the cube.
SOLUTION Each of the six faces subtends the same solid angle at the origin.
Since the entire surface subtends 4π steradians, each face subtends 4π/6 =
2π/3 steradians. Then the flux over each face is

r·n
Z
b 2π
2
dS = .
Figure 18.4.8: r 3
S

In physics books you will see the integral S brr·n2 dS written using other nota-
R

tions, including:

r·n r · dS r · dS
Z Z Z Z
b b cos(r, n)
3
dS, 2
, 3
, dS.
r r r r2
S S S S
Figure 18.4.9:
The symbol dS is short for n dS, and calls to mind Figure 18.4.9, which shows
a small patch on the surface, together with an exterior normal unit vector.
Recall that cos(r, n)
denotes the cosine of the
angle between r and n; see
also Section 14.2. October 22, 2010 Calculus
§ 18.4 CENTRAL FIELDS AND STERADIANS 1329

Summary
We investigated central vector fields. In the plane the only divergence-free
central fields are of the form (c/r)br where c is a constant, “an inverse first
power.” In space the only incompressible central fields are of the form (c/r2 )b
r,
“an inverse second power.” The field b r/r2 can be used to Rexpress the size of
a solid angle of a surface S in steradians as an integral:
R S
r · n/r2 dS. In
b
r · n/r2 dS = 4π.
particular, if S encloses the center of the field, then S b Incompressible vector fields
have divergence zero, and
are discussed again in
Section 18.6.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

EXERCISES for Section 18.4 Key: R–routine,

M–moderate, C–challenging

1.[R] Define a central field in words, using no sym-

bols.

2.[R] Define a central field with center at O, in sym- (a) (b)

bols.
Figure 18.4.10:
3.[R] Give an example of a central field in the plane 9.[R] Figure 18.4.11 shows a cube of side 2 with one
that corner at the origin.

(a) does not have zero divergence,

(b) that does have zero divergence.

4.[R] Give an example of a central field in space that

(a) that is not divergence-free,

Figure 18.4.11:
(b) that is divergence-free. Evaluate as easily as you can the integral of the func-
r · n/r2 over
tion b
(a) the square EF GH,

(b) the square ABCD,

5.[R] Let F(x, y) be an inverse-first-power central field
in the plane F(x, y) = (c/r)b
r, where r = xi + yj. Com- (c) the entire surface of the cube.
pute the divergence of F. Hint: First write F(x, y) as
cxi+cyj
x2 +y 2
.
10.[R] Let F(r) = b r/r3 . Evaluate the flux of F over
6.[R] Show that the curl of a central vector field in the sphere of radius 2 and center at the origin.
the plane is 0.
11.[R] A pyramid is made of four congruent equilat-
7.[R] Show that the curl of a central vector field in eral triangles. Find the steradians subtended by one
space is 0. face at the centroid of the pyramid. (No integration is
necessary.)
H
8.[R] Let F(r) = b r/r. Evaluate C F · n ds as simply
12.[R] How many steradians does one face of a cube
as you can for the two ellipses in Figure 18.4.10.
subtend at

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.4 CENTRAL FIELDS AND STERADIANS

(a) One of the four vertices not on that face? 19.[M]

Let F be a planar central
√ field. Show that
g( x2 +y 2 (xi+yj))
(b) The center of the cube? Note: No integration ∇ × F is 0. Hint: F(x, y) = √ for some
x2 +y 2
is necessary. scalar function g.

20.[M] (This continues Exercise 19.) p Show that F

H is a gradient field; to be specific, F = ∇g( x2 + y 2 ).
r · n/r ds turned
13.[M] In Example 2 the integral C b
out to be 0. How would you explain this in terms of
21.[C] Carry out the computation to show that the
subtended angles?
only central fields in space that have zero divergence
have the form F(r) = cb r/r2 , if the origin of the coor-
14.[M] Let F and G be central vector fields in the dinates is at the center of the field.
plane with different centers.

(a) Show that the vector field F + G is not a central 22.[C] If we worked in four-dimensional space instead
field. of the two-dimensional plane or three-dimensional
space, which central fields do you think would have
(b) Show that the divergence of F + G is 0. zero divergence? Carry out the calculation to confirm
your conjecture.

23.[C] Let F = b r/r2 and S be the surface of the

15.[M] In Example 6, we evaluated a surface integral
lopsided pyramid with square base, whose vertices are
by interpreting it in terms of the size of a subtended
(0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1).
solid angle. Evaluate the integral directly, without
that knowledge. (a) Sketch the pyramid.

16.[M] Let S be the triangle whose vertices are (b) What is the integral of F·n over the square base?
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1). Evaluate S brr·n
R
2 dS by using
(c) What is the integral of F · n over each of the
steradians. remaining four faces?
H
17.[M] Evaluate the integral in Exercise 16 directly. (d) Evaluate S F · n dS.

xi+yj+0k
18.[M] Let F(x, y, z) = x2 +y 2
be a vector field in
space.
24.[C] Let C be the circle x2 +y 2 = 4 in the xy-plane.
(a) What is the domain of F? For each point Q in the disk bounded by C consider the
−−→
central field with center Q, F(P ) = P Q/kP Qk2 . Its
(b) Sketch F(1, 1, 0) and F(1, 1, 2) with tails at the magnitude is inversely proportional to the first power
given points. of the distance P is from Q. For each point Q consider
the flux of F across C.
(c) Show F is not a central field.
(a) Evaluate directly the flux when Q is the origin
(d) Show its divergence is 0.
(0, 0).

(b) If Q is not the origin, evaluate the flux of F.

Exercises 19 to 26 are related. (c) Evaluate the flux when Q lies on C.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

x is tan4 (x).

25.[C] Let F be the central field in the plane, with 28.[R] Use integration by parts to show that
center at (1, 0) and with magnitude inversely pro-
tann−1 (x)
Z Z
n
portional to the first power of the distance to (1, 0): tan (x) dx = − tann−2 (x) dx.
(x−1)i+yj n − 1
F(x, y) = k(x−1)i+yjk 2 . Let C be the circle of radius 2

and center at (0, 0).

(a) By thinking Hin terms of subtended angle, evalu- 29.[R] Entry 16 in the Table of Antiderivatives in the
ate the flux C F · n ds. front cover of this book is:
(b) Evaluate the flux by carrying out the integration. Z  
dx 1  x 
= ln  .
x(ax + b b ax + b 

26.[C] This exercise gives a geometric way to see why (a) Use a partial fraction expansion to evaluate the
a central force is conservative. Let F(x, y) = f (r)br. antiderivative.
→
−
Figure 18.4.12 shows F(x, y) and a short vector dr and
two circles. (b) Use differentiation to check that this formula is
correct.

30.[R] Repeat Exercise 29 for entry 17 in the Table

of Antiderivatives:
Z  
dx 1  x 
= ln  .
x(ax + b) b ax + b 

√
31.[R] Show that x arccos(x) − 1 − x2 is an integral
of arccos(x).
Figure 18.4.12:
R
(a) Why is F(x, y)· dr approximately f (r) dr, where 32.[R] Find arctan(x).
dr is the difference in the radii of the two circles?
(b) Let C be a curve from A to B, where A = (a, α) 33.[R]
(a) Find xeax dx.
R
and B = (b, β) in polar coordinates. Why is
R Rb
C F · dr = a f (r) dr?
(b) Use integration by parts to show that
(c) Why is F conservative?
xm eax m
Z Z
m ax
x e dx = − xm−1 eax dx.
a a

(c) Verify the equation in (b) by differentiating the

right hand side.

Skill Drill

1
27.[R]
OctoberShow that the derivative of
22, 2010 3 tan3 (x)−tan(x)+
Calculus
§ 18.5 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM IN SPACE (GAUSS’ THEOREM) 1333

18.5 The Divergence Theorem in Space (Gauss’

Theorem)
In Sections 18.2 and 18.3 we developed Green’s theorem and applied it in two
forms for a vector field F in the plane.
H One form concerned the
H line integral
of the tangential component of F, C F · T ds, also writtenHas C F · dr. The
other concerned the integral of the normal component of F, C F · n ds. In this
section we develop the Divergence Theorem, an extension of the second
form from the plane to space. The extension of the first form to space is
the subject of Section 18.6. In Section 18.7 the Divergence Theorem will be
applied to electro-magnetism.

The Divergence (or Gauss’s) Theorem

Consider a region R in space bounded by a surface S. For instance, R may be
a ball and S its surface. This is a case encountered in the elementary theory of
electro-magnetism. In another case, R is a right circular cylinder and S is its
surface, which consists of two disks and its curved side. See Figure 18.5.1(a).
Both figures show typical unit exterior normals, perpendicular to the surface.

(a) (b)

Figure 18.5.1:

The Divergence Theorem relates an integral over the surface to an integral

over the region it bounds.

Theorem (Divergence Theorem —One-Surface Case.). Let V be the region in

space bounded by the surface S. Let n denote the exterior unit normal of V

Calculus October 22, 2010

1334 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

along the boundary S. Then

Z Z
F · n ds = ∇ · F dV
S V

for any vector field F defined on V.

State the Theorem aloud.
In words: “The integral of the normal component of F over a surface equals
the integral of the
R divergence of F over the region the surface bounds.”
The integral S F · n dS is called the flux of the field F across the surface
S.
If F = P i+Qj+Rk and cos(α), cos(β), and cos(γ) are the direction cosines
of the exterior normal, then the Divergence Theorem reads
Z Z  
∂P ∂Q ∂R
(P i+Qj+Rk)·(cos(α)i+cos(β)j+cos(γ)k) dS = + + dV.
∂x ∂y ∂z
S V

Direction cosines are Evaluating the dot product puts the Divergence Theorem in the form
defined in Section 14.4.
Z Z  
∂P ∂Q ∂R
(P cos(α) + Q cos(β) + R cos(γ)) dS = + + dV.
∂x ∂y ∂z
S V

When the Divergence Theorem is expressed in this form, we see that it amounts
to three scalar theorems:
Z Z Z Z Z Z
∂P ∂Q
P cos(α) dS = dV, Q cos(β) dS = dV, and R cos(γ) dS =
∂x ∂y
S V S V S V
(18.5.1)
As is to be expected, establishing these three equations proves the Diver-
gence Theorem. We delay the proof to the end of this section, after we have
shown how the Divergence Theorem is applied.
You could have guessed the result in this Example by thinking in terms of
the solid angle and steradians. Why?

Two-Surface Version of the Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem also holds if the solid region has several holes like a
piece of Swiss cheese. In this case, the boundary consists of several separate
closed surfaces. The most important case is when there is just one hole and
hence an inner surface S1 and an outer surface S2 as shown in Figure 18.5.2.

Figure 18.5.2: October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.5 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM IN SPACE (GAUSS’ THEOREM) 1335

Theorem (Divergence Theorem — Two-Surface Case.). Let V be a region in

space bounded by the surfaces S1 and S2 . Let n∗ denote the exterior normal
along the boundary. Then
Z Z Z
∗ ∗
F · n dS + F · n dS = div F dV
S1 S2 V

for any vector field defined on V.

Compare with (18.2.4) in
The importance of this form of the Divergence Theorem is that it allows Exercise 3 in Section 18.2.
us to conclude that the flux across each of the surfaces are the same provided
these surfaces form the boundary of a solid where div F = 0.

Let S1 and S2 be two closed surfaces that form the boundary of the region V.
Let F be a vector field defined on V such that the divergence of F, ∇ · F, is 0
throughout V. Then Z Z
F · n dS = F · n dS (18.5.2)
S1 S2

The proof of this result closely parallels the derivation of (18.2.4) in Sec-
tion 18.2.
The next example is a major application of (18.5.2), which enables us, if
the divergence of F is 0, to replace the integral of F · n over a surface by an
integral of F · n over a more convenient surface.

EXAMPLE 1 Let F(r) = b r/r2 , the inverse square vector field with center
at the origin. Let S beRa convex surface that encloses the origin. Find the flux
of F over the surface, S F · n dS.

SOLUTION Select a sphere with center at the origin that does not intersect
S. This sphere should be very small in order to miss S. Call this spherical
surface S1 and its radius a. Then, by (18.5.2),
Z Z
F · n dS = F · n dS
S S1

r/r2 ) · n equals r·n

R
But S1 F · n dS is easy because the integrand (b r2
. Then, r · n
is just 1. Thus:
Z Z Z
1 1 1
F · n dS = 2
dS = 2 dS = 2 4πa2 = 4π.
a a a
S1 S1 S1

Calculus October 22, 2010

1336 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

A uniform or constant vector field is a vector field where vectors at every

point are all identical. Such fields are used in the next example.

EXAMPLE 2 Verify the Divergence Theorem for the constant field F(x, y, z) =
2i+3j+4k and the surface S of a cube whose sides have length 5 and is situated
as shown in Figure 18.5.3.

Figure 18.5.3:

R
SOLUTION To find S F · n dS we consider the integral of F · n over each
of the six faces.
On the bottom face, ABCD the unit exterior normal is −k. Thus

F · n = (2i + 3j + 4k) · (−k) = −4.

So
Z Z Z
F · n dS = (−4) dS = −4 dS = (−4)(25) = −100.
ABCD ABCD ABCD

The integral
R over the top face involves the exterior unit normal k instead of
−k. Then EF GH F · n dS = 100. The sum of these two integrals is 0. Similar
computations show that the flux of F over the entire surface is 0.
R
The Divergence Theorem says that this flux equals R div F dV , where R
is the solid cube. Now, div F = ∂(2)/∂x + ∂(3)/∂y + ∂(4)/∂z = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
So the integral of div F over R is 0, verifying the divergence theorem. 

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.5 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM IN SPACE (GAUSS’ THEOREM) 1337

Why div F is Called the Divergence

Let F(x, y, z) be the vector field describing the flow for a gas. That is,
F(x, y, z) is the product of the density of the gas at (x, y, z) and the velocity
vector of the gasRthere.
The integral S F · n dS over a closed surface S represents the tendency of
the gas to leave the region R that S bounds. If that integral is positive the gas
is tending to escape or “diverge”. If negative, the net effect is for the amount
of gas in R to increase and become denser.
Let ρ(x, y, z, t) be the density
R of the gas at time t at the point P , with units
mass per unit volume. Then R ρ dV is the total mass of gas in R at a given
time. So the rate at which the mass in R changes is given by the derivative
Z
d
ρ dV.
dt
R

If ρ is sufficiently well-behaved, mathematicians assure us that we may

“differentiate past the integral sign.” Then
Z Z
d ∂p
ρ dV = dV.
dt ∂t
R R

Therefore Z Z
∂p
dV = F · n dS
∂t
R S
since both represent the rate at which
R gas accumulates
R in or escapes from R.
But, by the Divergence Theorem, S F · n dS = R ∇ · F dV , and so
Z Z
∂p
∇ · F dV = dV
∂t
R R
or, Z
∂p
(∇ · F − ) dV = 0. (18.5.3)
∂t
R

From this is it possible to conclude that ∇ · F − ∂p

∂t
= 0?
Recall that the Zero-Integral Principle (see Section 6.3) says: If a contin-
Rd
uous function f on an interval [a, b] has the property that c f (x) dx = 0 for
every subinterval [c, d] then f (x) = 0 on [a, b]. A natural extention of the
Zero-Integral Principle (see Exercise 27) is:

Zero-Integral Principle in Space

Let R be a region in space, that is, a set of points in space that is bounded
R let f be a continuous function on R. Assume that for every
by a surface, and
region S in R, S f (P ) dS = 0. Then f (P ) = 0 for all P in R.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1338 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Equation 18.5.3 holds not just for the solid R but for any solid region
within R. By the Zero-Integral Principle in Space, the integrand must be zero
thoughout R, and we conclude that
∂p
∇·F= .
∂t
This equation tells us that div F at a point P represents the rate gas is
getting denser or lighter near P . That is why div F is called the “divergence
of F”. Where div F is positive, the gas is dissipating. Where div F is negative,
See Exercise 20 in the gas is collecting.
Section 18.3. For this reason a vector field for which the divergence is 0 is called incom-
pressible. An incompressible is also called “divergence free”.
We conclude this section with a proof of the Divergence Theorem.

Proof of the Divergence Theorem

We prove the theorem only for the special case that each line parallel to an
axis meets the surface S in at most two points and V is convex. We prove the
third equation in (18.5.1). The other two are established in the same way.
We wish to show that
Z Z
∂R
R cos(γ) dS = dV. (18.5.4)
∂z
V V

Let A be the projection of S on the xy plane. Its description is

a ≤ x ≤ b, y1 (x) ≤ y ≤ y2 (x).

The description of V is then

a ≤ x ≤ b, y1 (x) ≤ y ≤ y2 (x), z1 (x, y) ≤ z ≤ z2 (x, y).

Then (see Figure 18.5.4)

Z Zb yZ2 (x) z2Z(x,y)

∂R ∂R
dV = dz dy dx. (18.5.5)
∂z ∂z
V a y1 (x) z1 (x,y)

The first integration gives

Figure 18.5.4: z2Z(x,y)
∂R
dz = R(x, y, z2 ) − R(x, y, z1 ),
∂z
z1 (x,y)

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.5 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM IN SPACE (GAUSS’ THEOREM) 1339

by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. We have, therefore,

Z Zb yZ2 (x)
∂R
dV = (R(x, y, z2 ) − R(x, y, z1 )) dy dx,
∂z
V a y1 (x)

hence Z Z
∂R
dV = (R(x, y, z2 ) − R(x, y, z1 )) dA.
∂z
V A

This says that, essentially, on the “top half” of V, where 0 < γ < π/2, dA =
cos(γ) dS is positive. And, on the bottom half of V, where π/2 < γ < π,
dA = − cos(γ) dS. According to (17.7.1) in Section 17.7, the last integral
equals Z
R(x, y, z) cos(γ) dS.
S

Thus Z Z
∂R
dV = R cos γ dS,
∂z
V S

and (18.5.4) is established.

Similar arguments establish the other two equations in (18.5.1).

Summary
We stated the Divergence Theorem for a single surface and for two surfaces.
They enable one to calculate the flux of a vector field F in terms of an integral
of its divergence ∇ · F over a region. This is especially useful for fields that
are incompressible (divergence free). The most famous such field in space is
r/r2 . The flux across a surface of such a field
the inverse-square vector field: b
depends on whether its center is inside or outside the surface. Specifically, if
−
−→
the center is at Q and the field is of the form c −QP
→ 3 , its flux across a surface
−
kQP k
not enclosing Q is 0. If it encloses Q, its flux is 4π. This is a consequence
of the divergence theorem. It also can be explained geometrically, in terms of
solid angles.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

EXERCISES for Section 18.5 Let V be the solid region bounded by the xy
Key: R–routine, 11.[R]
M–moderate, C–challenging plane and the paraboloid z = 9 − x2 − y 2 . Evaluate
3 3 3
R
S F · n dS, where F = y i + z j + x k and S is the
1.[R] State the Divergence Theorem in symbols. boundary of V.
R
12.[R]
p
Evaluate V∇ · F dV for F =
2.[R] State the Divergence Theorem using only words, x2 + y 2 + z 2 (xi + yj + zk) and V the ball of ra-
not using symbols, such as F, ∇ · F, n, S, or V. dius 2 and center at (0, 0, 0).

R
3.[R] Explain why ∇·F at a point P can be expressed In Exercises 13 and 14 find S F · n dS for the given F
as a coordinate-free limit. and S.
√
4.[R] What is the two-surface version of Gauss’s the- 13.[R] F = z √ x2 + z 2 i + z)j + (4x + 2z)k and S is
orem? (y + 3)j − x x2 + z 2 k the surface of the cube
and S is the boundary of bounded by the planes
5.[R] Verify the divergence theorem for F(x, y, z) = the solid region between x = 1, x = 3, y = 2,
2 + y 2 and the plane y = 4, z = 3 and z = 5.
xi + yj + 0k and the surface x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9. z = x
z = 4x.
14.[R] F = xi + (3y +
6.[R] Verify the divergence theorem for the field
F(x, y, z) = xi and the cube whose vertices are (0, 0, 0), 15.[R] Evaluate R F·n dS, where F = 4xzi−y 2 j+yzk
S
(2, 0, 0), (2, 2, 0), (0, 2, 0), (0, 0, 2), (2, 0, 2), (2, 2, 2), and S is the surface of the cube bounded by the planes
(0, 2, 2). x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, z = 0, and z = 1, with the face
corresponding to x = 1 removed.
7.[R] Verify the divergence theorem for F = 2i + R
16.[R] Evaluate S F · n dS, where F = xi + yj + 2xk
3j + 4k and the tetrahedron whose four vertices are
and S is the boundary of the tetrahedron with vertices
(0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1).
(1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 1) (2, 1, 4), and (1, 3, 5).
17.[R] Let S be a surface of area S that bounds a
8.[R] Verify the two-surface version of Gauss’s theo-
region V of volume V . Assume that kF(P )k ≤ 5 for
rem for F(x, y, z) = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )(xi + yj + zk) and
all points P on the surface S. What can be said about
the surfaces are the spheres of radii 2 and 3 centered R
at the origin. V ∇ · F dV ?
18.[R] Evaluate S F·n dS, where F = x3 i+y 3 j+z 3 k
R

and S is the sphere of radius a and center (0, 0, 0).

9.[R] Let F = 2xi + 3yj + (5z + 6x)k, and let
G = (2x + 4z 2 )i + (3y + 5x)j + 5zk. Show that
r/r2
R
Z Z In Exercises 19 to 22 evaluate S F · n dS for F = b
F · n dS = G · n dS, and the given surfaces, doing as little calculation as
possible.
S S
19.[R] S is the sphere of radius 2 and center (5, 3, 1).
where S is any surface bounding a region in space.
20.[R] S is the sphere of radius 3 and center (1, 0, 1).
10.[R] Show that the divergence of b r/r2 is 0.
Hint: r = xi + yj + zk. 21.[R] S is the surface of the box bounded by the
planes x = −1, x = 2, y = 2, y = 3, z = −1, and
In Exercises 11 to 18 use the Divergence Theorem. z = 6.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.5 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM IN SPACE (GAUSS’ THEOREM)

22.[R] S is the surface of the box bounded by the (a) Show that the proof in the text of the Divergence
planes x = −1, x = 2, y = −1, y = 3, z = −1, and Theorem applies to a tetrahedron. Hint: Choose
z = 4. your coordinate system carefully.

(b) Deduce that if the Divergence Theorem holds for

23.[M] Assume that the flux of F across every sphere
a tetrahedron then it holds for any polyhedron.
is 0. Must the flux of F across the surface of every
Hint: Each polyhedron can be cut into tetrahe-
cube be 0 also?
dra.
24.[R] If F is always tangent to a given surface S
what can be said about the integral of ∇ · F over the
region that S bounds?
25.[M] Let F(r) = f (r)b r be a central vector field 30.[C] In Exercise 25 you were asked to show gener-
in space that has zero divergence. Show that f (r) ally that the only central fields with zero divergence
must have the form f (r) = a/r2 for some constant a. are the inverse square fields. Show this, instead, by
Hint: Consider the flux of F across the closed surface computing the divergence of F(x, y, z) = f (r)r̂, where
in Figure 18.5.5. r = xi + yj + zk.

31.[C] Let F be defined everywhere in space except

at the origin. Assume that
F(r)
lim =0
krk→∞ krk2

and that F is defined everywhere except at the ori-

gin,
R and is divergence free. What can be said about
S F · n dS, where S is the sphere of radius 2 centered
at the origin?

We proved one-third of the Divergence Theorem. Ex-

ercises 32 and 33 concern the other two-thirds.
Figure 18.5.5: 32.[C] Prove that
26.[M] Let F be defined everywhere except at the
origin and be divergence-free. Let S1 and S2 be two
Z Z
∂Q
Q cos(β) dS = dV.
closed
R surfaces that
R enclose the origin. Explain why ∂y
S V
S1 F · n dS = S2 F · n dS. (The two surfaces may
intersect.)
33.[C] Prove that
27.[M] Provide the details for the proof of the Zero- Z Z
∂P
Integral Principle in Space. Hint: You need to consider P cos(α) dS = dV.
∂x
the two cases when f > 0 and f < 0. S V

28.[M] Show that the flux of an inverse-square cen-

r/r2 across any closed surface that bounds 34.[C] Let f be a scalar function F(x, y, z) = f (r)b
tral field cb r,
a region that does not contain the origin is zero. where r = kr} and r = xi + yj + zk. Show that if
∇ · F = 0, then f (r) = c/r2 for some constant c.
29.[C]

Calculus October 22, 2010

1342 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

18.6 Stokes’ Theorem

In Section 18.1 we learned that Green’s theorem in the xy-plane can be written
as I Z
F · dr = (curl F) · k dA,
C R
where C is counterclockwise and C bounds the region R. The general Stokes’
Theorem introduced in this section extends this result to closed curves in space.
It asserts that if the closed curve C bounds a surface S, then
I Z
F · dr = (curl F) · n dS.
C S

As usual, the vector n is a unit normal to the surface. There are two such
normals at each point on the surface. In a moment we describe how to decide
which unit normal vector to use. The choice depends on the orientation of C.
In words, Stokes’ theorem reads, “The circulation of a vector field around
a closed curve is equal to the integral of the normal component of the curl of
Figure 18.6.1: the field over any surface that the curve bounds.”
Stokes’ published his theorem in 1854 (without proof, for it appeared as a
question on a Cambridge University examination). By 1870 it was in common
use. It is the most recent of the three major theorems discussed in this chapter,
for Green published his theorem in 1828 and Gauss published the divergence
theorem in 1839.

Choosing the Normal n

Figure 18.6.2: In order to state Stokes’ theorem precisely, we must describe what kind of
surface S is permitted and which of the two possible normals n to choose.
The typical surfaces S that we consider have the property that it is possible
to assign, at each point on S, a unit normal n in a continuous manner. On
the surface shown in Figure 18.6.2, there are two ways to do this. They are
shown in Figure 18.6.3.

(a) (b)

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.6 STOKES’ THEOREM 1343

Figure 18.6.3:
But, for the surface shown in Figure 18.6.4 (a Möbius band), it is impossible
to make such a choice. If you start with choice (1) and move the normal
continuously along the surface, by the time you return to the initial point on
the surface at stage (9), you have the opposite normal. A surface for which
a continuous choice can be made is called orientable or two-sided. Stokes’
theorem holds for orientable surfaces, which include, for instance, any part of
the surface of a convex body, such as a ball, cube or cylinder. Right-hand rule for choosing
Consider an orientable surface S, bounded by a parameterized curve C so n.
that the curve is swept out in a definite direction. If the surface is part of a
plane, we can simply use the right-hand rule to choose n: The direction of n
should match the thumb of the right hand if the fingers curl in the direction
of C and the thumb and palm are perpendicular to the plane. If the surface
is not flat, we still use the right-hand rule to choose a normal at points near
C. The choice of one normal determines normals throughout the surface.
Figure 18.6.5 illustrates the choice of n. For instance, if C is counterclockwise
in the xy-plane, this definition picks out the normal k, not −k.

Figure 18.6.4: Follow the

choices through all nine
stages — there’s trouble.

(a) (b)

Figure 18.6.5:

Theorem 18.6.1 (Stokes’ theorem). Let S be an orientable surface bounded

by the parameterized curve C. At each point of S let n be the unit normal
chosen by the right-hand rule. Let F be a vector field defined on some region
in space including S. Then
I Z
F · dr = (∇ × F) · n dS. (18.6.1)
C S

Some Applications of Stokes’ Theorem

R
Stokes’ theorem enables us to replace S (curl F) · n dS by a similar integral
over a surface that might be simpler than S. That is the substance of the
following special case of Stokes’ theorem.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1344 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

One way to evaluate some

surface integrals is to Let S1 and S2 be two surfaces bounded by the same curve C and oriented so
choose a simpler surface. that they yield the same orientation on C. Let F be a vector field defined on
both S1 and S2 . Then
Z Z
(curl F) · n dS = (curl F) · n dS (18.6.2)
S1 S2

H
The two integrals in (18.6.2) are equal since both equal C
F · dr.

EXAMPLE 1 Let F = xez i + (xR+ xz)j + 3ez k and let S be the top half of
the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1. Find S (curl F) · n dS, where n is the outward
normal. (See Figure 18.6.6.)
SOLUTION Let S ∗ be the flat base of the hemisphere. By (18.6.2),
Z Z
(∇ × F) · n dS = (∇ × F) · k dS.
S S∗

(On S ∗ note that k, not −k, is the correct normal to use.)

A straightforward calculation shows that
∇ × F = −xi + xez j + (z + 1)k,
Figure 18.6.6: ARTIST:
Add an arrow to indicate hence (∇ × F) · k = z + 1. On S ∗ , z = 0, so
the unit circle in the plane Z Z
is to be oriented coun- (∇ × F) · k dS = dS = π.
terclockwise. Also add S∗ S∗
“counterclockwise” to the
thus the original integral over S is also π. 
text label for C.
Just as there are two-curve versions of Green’s Theorem and of the Diver-
gence Theorem, there is a two-curve version of Stokes’ Theorem.

Two-curve version of Stokes’ Theorem for a Surface Bounded by Two Closed Curves
Stokes’s Theorem Let S be an orientable surface whose boundary consists of the two closed
curves C1 and C2 . Give C1 an orientation. Orient S consistent with the the
right-hand rule, as applied to C1 . Give C2 the same orientation as C1 . (If C2
is moved on S to C1 , the orientations will agree.) Then
I I Z
F · dr − F · dr = (∇ × F) · n dS. (18.6.3)
C1 C2 S

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.6 STOKES’ THEOREM 1345

Proof
Figure 18.6.7(a) shows the typical situation.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 18.6.7:
The cancellation principle
We will obtain (18.6.3) from Stokes’s theorem with the aid of the cancella- was introduced in
tion principle. Introduce lines AB and CD on S, cutting S into two surfaces, Section 18.2.
S ∗ and S ∗∗ . (See Figure 18.6.7(c).) Now apply Stokes’s theorem to S ∗ and
S ∗∗ . (See Figure 18.6.7(c).)
Let C ∗ be the curve that bounds S ∗ , oriented so that where it overlaps C1
it has the same orientation as C1 . Let C ∗∗ be the curve that bounds S ∗∗ , again
oriented to match C1 . (See Figure 18.6.7(c).)
By Stokes’ theorem,
I Z
F · dr = (curl F) · n dS (18.6.4)
C∗ S∗

and I Z
F · dr = (curl F) · n dS. (18.6.5)
C ∗∗ S ∗∗

Adding (18.6.4) and (18.6.5) and using the cancellation principle gives
I I Z
F · dr − F · dr = (curl F) · n dS.
C1 C2 S

•
Recall, from Section 18.2,
In practice, it is most common to apply (18.6.3) when curl F = 0. This is that F is irrotational when
so important we state it explicitly: curl F = 0.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1346 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Let F be a field such that curl F = 0. Let C1 and C2 be two closed curves
that together bound an orientable surface S on which F is defined. If C1 and
C2 are similarly oriented, then
I I
F · dr = F · dr. (18.6.6)
C1 C2

R
Equation (18.6.6) follows directly from (18.6.3) since S
(curl F) · n dS = 0.

EXAMPLE 2 Assume Hthat F is irrotational and H defined everywhere

H except
on the z-axis. Given that C1 F · dr = 3, find (a) C2 F · dr and (b) C3 F · dr.
(See Figure 18.6.8.) H H
SOLUTION (a) By (18.6.6), C2 F · dr = C1 F · dr = 3. (b) By Stokes’
H
theorem, (18.6.1), C3 F · dr = 0. 

Curl and Conservative Fields

In Section 18.1 we learned that if F = P i+Qj is defined on a simply connected
region in the xy-plane and if curl F = 0, then F is conservative. Now that we
have Stokes’ theorem, this result can be extended to a field F = P i + Qj + Rk
defined on a simply connected region in space.
Figure 18.6.8:
Theorem 18.6.2. Let F be defined on a simply connected region in space. If
curl F = 0, then F is conservative.

Proof
We provide only a sketch of the proof of this result. Let C be a simple closed
curve situated in the simply connected region. To avoid topological com-
plexities,
H we assume that it bounds an orientable surface S. To show that
C
F · dr = 0, we use the same short argument as in Section 18.2:
I Z Z
F · dr = (∇ × F) · n dS = 0 dS = 0.
C S S

•
It follows from Theorem 18.6.2 that every central field F is conservative
because a straightforward calculation shows that the curl of a central field
is 0. (See Exercises 6 and 7 in Section 18.4.) Moreover, F is defined either
throughout space or everywhere except at the center of the field.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.6 STOKES’ THEOREM 1347

Exercise 26 of Section 18.4 presents a purely geometric argument for why

a central field is conservative.
In Sections 18.7 and 18.9 we will show how Stokes’s theorem is applied in
the theory of electromagnetism.

Why Curl is Called Curl

Let F be a vector field describing the flow of a fluid, as in Section 18.1. Stokes’s
theorem will give a physical interpretation of curl F.
Consider a fixed point P0 in space. Imagine a small circular disk S with
center P0 . Let C be the boundary of S oriented in such a way that C and n Figure 18.6.9:
fit the right-hand rule. (See Figure 18.6.9)
Now examine the two sides of the equation
Z I
(curl F) · n dS = F · T ds. (18.6.7)
S C

The right side of (18.6.7) measures the tendencyH of the fluid to move along
C (rather than, say, perpendicular to it.) Thus C F · T ds might be thought
of as the “circulation” or “whirling tendency” of the fluid along C. For each
tilt of the small disk S at PH0 — or, equivalently, each choice of unit normal
vector n – the line integral C F · T ds measures a corresponding circulation.
It records the tendency of a paddle wheel at P0 with axis along n to rotate.
(See Figure 18.6.10.)
Consider the left side of (18.6.7). If S is small, the integrand is almost
constant and the integral is approximately
Figure 18.6.10:
(curl F)P0 · n · Area of S, (18.6.8)

where (curl F)P0 denotes the curl of F evaluated at P0 .

Keeping the center of S at P0 , vary the vector n by tilting the disk S. For
which choice of n will (18.6.8) be largest? Answer: For that n which has the
same direction as the fixed vector (curl F)P0 . With that choice of n, (18.6.8)
becomes
k(curl F)P0 k Area of S .
Thus a paddle wheel placed in the fluid at P0 rotates most quickly when its The physical interpretation
axis is in the direction of curl F at P0 . The magnitude of curl F is a measure of curl
of how fast the paddle wheel can rotate when placed at P0 . Thus curl F
records the direction and magnitude of maximum circulation at a given point.
If curl F is 0, there is no tendency of the fluid to rotate; that is why such
vector fields are called irrotational.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1348 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

A Vector Definition of Curl

In Section 18.1 curl F was defined in terms of the partial derivatives of the
components
H of F. By Stokes’ theorem, curl F is related to the circulation,
C
F · dr. We exploit this relation to obtain a new view of curl F, free of
coordinates.
Let P0 be a point in space and let n be a unit vector. Consider a small
disk Sn (a), perpendicular to n, whose center is P0 , and which has a radius
a. Let Cn (a) be the boundary of Sn (a), oriented to be compatible with the
right-hand rule. Then
Z I
(curl F) · n dS = F · dr.
Sn (a) Cn (a)

As in our discussion of the physical meaning of curl, we see that

I
(curl F)(P0 ) · n · Area of Sn (a) ≈ F · dr,
Cn (a)

or H
Cn (a)
F · dr
(curl F)(P0 ) · n ≈ .
Area of Sn (a)
Thus H
Cn (a)
F · dr
(curl F)(P0 ) · n = lim . (18.6.9)
a→0 Area of Sn (a)
Equation (18.6.9) gives meaning to the component of (curl F)(P0 ) in any
direction n. So the magnitude and direction of curl F at P0 can be described
in terms of F, without looking at the components of F.

The magnitude of (curl F)P0 is the maximum value of

H
Cn (a)
F · dr
lim , (18.6.10)
a→0 Area of Sn (a)

for all unit vectors n.

The direction of (curl F)P0 is given by the vector n that maximizes the limit
(18.6.10).

EXAMPLE 3 Let F Hbe a vector field such that at the origin curl F =
2i + 4j + 4k. Estimate C F · dr if C encloses a disk of radius 0.01 in the

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.6 STOKES’ THEOREM 1349

xy-plane with center (0, 0, 0). C is swept out clockwise. (See Figure 18.6.11.)
SOLUTION Let S be the disk whose border is C. Choose the normal to
S that is consistent with the orientation of C and the right-hand rule. That
choice is −k. Thus H
F · dr
(curl F) · (−k) ≈ C .
Area of S
The area of S is π(0.01)2 and curl F = 2i + 3j + 4k. Thus
H
F · dr
(2i + 3j + 4k) · (−k) ≈ C .
π(0.01)2 Figure 18.6.11:
From this it follows that
I
F · dr ≈ −4π(0.01)2 .
C

In a letter to the mathematician Tait written on November 7, 1870, Maxwell

offered some names for ∇ × F:

Here are some rough-hewn names. Will you like a good Divinity
shape their ends properly so as to make them stick? . . .
The vector part ∇ × F I would call the twist of the vector func-
tion. Here the word twist has nothing to do with a screw or helix.
The word turn . . . would be better than twist, for twist suggests
a screw. Twirl is free from the screw motion and is sufficiently
racy. Perhaps it is too dynamical for pure mathematicians, so for
Cayley’s sake I might say Curl (after the fashion of Scroll.)

His last suggestion, “curl,” has stuck.

Proof of Stokes’ Theorem

We include this proof because it reviews several basic ideas. The proof uses
Green’s theorem, the normal to a surface z = f (x, y), and expressing an inte-
gral over a surface as an integral over its shadow on a plane. The approach
is straightforward. As usual, we begin by expressing the theorem in terms of
components. We will assume that the surface S meets each line parallel to an
axis in at most one point. That permits us to project S onto each coordinate
plane in an one-to-one fashion.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1350 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

To begin we write F(x, y, z) as P (x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k, or,
simply F = P i + Qj + Rk. We will project S onto the xy-plane, so write the
equation for S as z − f (x, y) = 0. A unit normal to S is

− ∂f
∂x
i− +k∂f
∂y
j
n= r  2 .
∂f 2
+ ∂f


∂x ∂y
+1

(Since the k component of n is positive, it is the correct normal, given by

the right-hand rule.) Let C ∗ be the projection of C on the xy-plane, swept
See Exercise 9. out counterclockwise.
A straightforward computation shows that Stokes’ theorem, expressed in
components, reads
Z
P dx + Q dy + R dz
C
∂Q
 

 
∂R
− ∂f ∂R
− ∂f
∂P
+ ∂Q ∂P



Z
∂x
− ∂z ∂x
− ∂x
− ∂z
∂y ∂x
− ∂y
(1)
= r  2 dS.
∂f 2 ∂f


S
∂x
+ ∂y
+1

As expected, this equation reduces to three equations, one for P , one for Q,
and one for R.
We will establish the result for P , namely
Z Z ∂P
∂z
(− ∂f
∂y
) − ∂P
∂y
(1)
P dx = q dS. (18.6.11)
C S
( ∂f
∂x
)2 + ( ∂f )2 + 1
∂y

To change the integral over p S to an integral over its projection, S ∗ , on

the xy-plane, we replace dS by (∂f /∂x)2 + (∂f /∂y)2 + 1 dA. At the same
time we project C onto a counterclockwise curve C ∗ . The square roots cancel
leaving us with this equation in the xy-plane:
Z Z  
∂P ∂f ∂P
P (x, y, f (x, y)) dx = − − dA. (18.6.12)
∂z ∂y ∂y
C∗ R

Finally, we apply Green’s theorem to the left side of (18.6.12), and obtain:
Z Z
∂P (x, y, f (x, y))
P (x, y, f (x, y)) dx = − dA.
∂y
C∗ S∗
Be sure you understand
each of the four steps in
this proof, and why they are
valid. October 22, 2010 Calculus
§ 18.6 STOKES’ THEOREM 1351

But
∂P (x, y, f (x, y)) ∂P ∂P ∂f
= + . (18.6.13)
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂y
Combining (18.6.12) and (18.6.13) completes the proof of (18.6.11).
In this proof we assumed that the surface S has a special form, meeting
lines parallel to an axis just once. However, more general surfaces, such as the
surface of a sphere or a polyhedron can be cut into pieces of the type treated
in the proof. Exercise 48 shows why this observation then implies that Stokes’
Theorem holds in these cases also.

Summary
Stokes’ Theorem relates the circulation of a vector field over a closed curve C
to the integral over a surface S that C bounds. The integrand over the surface
is the component of the curl of the field perpendicular to the surface,
Z Z
F · dr = (curl F) · n dS.
C S

The normal n is the normal vector to S given by the right-hand rule.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

EXERCISES for Section 18.6 Key: R–routine, Jane: Just start with any scalar function f (x, y, z)
M–moderate, C–challenging with continuous partial derivation of the first and
second orders. Then its gradient will be a con-
1.[C] We dealt only with the component P . What servative field.
is the analog of (18.6.11) for Q? Prove it. Hint: The Sam: O.K. But I bet there are still more.
steps would parallel the steps used for P .
Jane: No. I got them all.
2.[R] State Stokes’ Theorem (symbols permitted). Question: Who is right?

3.[R] State Stokes’ Theorem in words (symbols not Exercises 9 to 14 concern the proof of Stokes’ Theorem.
permitted). 9.[C] Carry out the calculations in the proof that
translated Stokes’ Theorem into an equation involving
the components P , Q, and R.
4.[M] Explain why (18.6.5) holds if S1 and S2 to-
∗ ∗
gether form the boundary surface S of a solid region 10.[C] Draw a picture of S, S , C and C that appear
R. Use the Divergence Theorem, not Stokes’ Theorem. in the proof of Stokes’ Theorem.
11.[C] Write the four steps involved in the proof of
Stokes’ Theorem, giving an explanation for each step.
5.[R] Let F (r) be an antiderivative of f (r). Show
r is the gradient of F (r), hence is conserva- 12.[C] In the proof of Stokes’ Theorem we used a nor-
that f (r)b
tive. Note: f (r) rr = f (r)b
r. mal n. Show that it is the “correct” one, compatible
with counterclockwise orientation of C ∗ .
6.[M] Show that a central field f (r)b r is conservative 13.[C]
R
by showing that it is irrotational and defined on a sim- (a) State Stokes’ Theorem for C Q dy.
ply connected region. Hint: Express b r in terms of x, R
(b) Prove Stokes’ Theorem for C Q dy.
y and z. Note: See also Exercise 47.
R
(c) State Stokes’ Theorem for C R dz.
7.[R] R
(d) Prove Stokes’ Theorem for C R dz.
(a) Use the fact that a gradient, ∇f , is conservative,
to show that its curl is 0. 14.[C] Draw a picture of S, S ∗ , C and C ∗ that appear
in the proof.
(b) Compute ∇×∇f in terms of components to show
that the curl of a gradient is 0.
Exercises 15 to 17 prepare you for Exercise 18.
15.[M] Assume that G is the curl of another vector
field F, G = ∇ × F. Let S be a surface that bounds a
8.[C] (See also Exercises 5 and 6.) solid region V . Let C be a closed curve on the surface
S breaking S into two pieces S1 and S2 .
Sam: The only conservative fields in space that I know 16.[M] Using the Divergence Theorem, show that
R
are the “inverse square central fields” with cen- S G · n dS = 0.
ters anywhere I please. 17.[M] Using Stokes’ Theorem, show that S G ·
R

n dS = 0. Hint: Break the integral into integrals over

Jane: There are a lot more.
S1 and S2 .
Sam: Oh? 18.[R] Let F = exy i + tan(3yz)j + 5zk and S be

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.6 STOKES’ THEOREM

the tetrahedron whose vertices are (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), where F(x, y, z) = xi − yj and S is the surface of the
(0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1). Let S1 be the base of S in the cube bounded by the three coordinate planes and the
xy-plane
R and S2 consist of the other three faces. Find planes x = 1, y = 1, z = 1, exclusive of the surface in
S (∇ × F) · n dS. Hint: think about the preceding the plane x = 1. (Let n be outward from the cube.)
two exercises.
R
25.[R] Using Stokes’ Theorem, evaluate S (∇ × F) ·
19.[R] Assume that F is defined everywhere except n dS, where F = (x2 + y − 4)i + 3xyj + (2xz + z 2 )k,
on the z-axis and is irrotational. The curves C1 , C2 , and S is the portion of the surface z = 4 − (x2 + y 2 )
C3 , and C4 are as shown in Figure 18.6.12. What, if above the xy plane. (Let n be the upward normal.)
anything, can be said about
I I I I In each of Exercises 26 to 29 use Stokes’ Theorem to
F· dr, F· dr, F· dr, and F· dr.evaluate H F · dr for the given F and C. In each
C
C1 C2 C3 C4 case assume that C is oriented counterclockwise when
viewed from above.
26.[R] F = sin(xy)i; C is the intersection of the plane
x + y + z = 1 and the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1.

27.[R] F = ex j; C is the triangle with vertices (2, 0, 0),

(0, 3, 0) and (0, 0, 4).

28.[R] F = xyk; C is the intersection of the plane

z = y with the cylinder x2 − 2x + y 2 = 0.

29.[R] F = cos(x + z)j; C is the boundary of the

rectangle with vertices (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1), and
Figure 18.6.12: (0, 0, 0).

30.[R] Let S1 be the top half and S2 the bottom half

In Exercises 20 to 23 verify Stokes’ Theorem for the of a sphere of radius a in space. Let F be a vector
given F and surface S. field defined on the sphere and let n denote an ex-
2 3 2
20.[R] F = xy i + y j + y zk; S is the top half of the terior normal Rto the sphere. WhatR relation, if any, is
sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1. there between S1 (∇×F)·n dS and S2 (∇×F)·n dS?

21.[R] F = yi + xzj + x2 k; S is the triangle with 31.[R] Let F be a vector field throughout space such
vertices (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1). that F(P ) is perpendicular to the curve C at each point
P on C, the boundary of a surface S. What can one
22.[R] F = y 5 i + x3 j + z 4 k; S is the portion of conclude about
z = x2 + y 2 below the plane z = 1. Z
(∇ × F) · n dS?
23.[R] F = −yi + xj + zk, S is the portion of the S
cylinder z = x2 inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 4.
R
24.[R] Evaluate as simply as possible S F · n dS, 32.[R] Let C1 and C2 be two closed curves in the

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

xy-plane that encircle the origin and are similarly ori-

ented, as in Figure 18.6.13.
34.[R] Which of the following sets are connected?
simply connected?
(a) A circle (x2 + y 2 = 1) in the xy-plane
(b) A disk (x2 + y 2 ≤ 1) in the xy-plane
(c) The xy-plane from which a circle is removed
(d) The xy-plane from which a disk is removed
(e) The xy-plane from which one point is removed
(f) xyz-space from which one point is removed
(g) xyz-space from which a sphere is removed
Figure 18.6.13:
Let F be a vector field defined throughout the plane (h) xyz-space from which a ball is removed
except at the origin. Assume that ∇ × F = 0.
(i) A solid torus (doughnut)
H
(a) Must C F · dr = 0?
(j) xyz-space from which a solid torus is removed
H
(b) What, it any, relation exists between C1 F · dr (k) A coffee cup with one handle
H
and C2 F · dr?
(l) xyz-space from which a solid doughnut is re-
moved

33.[R] Let F be defined everywhere in space except

on
H the z-axis. Assume also that F is irrotational,
H 35.[R] Which central fields have curl 0?
C1 F · dr = 3, and C2 F · dr = 5. (See Figure 18.6.14.)
What if, anything, can be said about
H 36.[R] Let V be the solid bounded by z = x + 2,
(a) C3 F · dr, x2 + y 2 = 1, and z = 0. Let S1 be the portion of
H the plane z = x + 2 that lies within the cylinder
(b) C4 F · dr?
x2 + y 2 = 1. Let C be the boundary of S1 , with a
counterclockwise orientation (as viewed from above).
Let F = yi + xzj
H + (x + 2y)k. Use Stokes’ Theorem for
S1 to evaluate C F · dr.

37.[R] (See Exercise 36.) Let S2 be the curved surface

of V together with Hthe base of V. Use Stokes’ Theorem
for S2 to evaluate C F · dr.

38.[R] Verify Stokes’ theorem for the special case

when F has the form ∇f , that is, is a gradient field.

39.[R] Let F be a vector field Rdefined on the surface

Figure 18.6.14: S of a convex solid. Show that S (∇ × F) · n dS = 0

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.6 STOKES’ THEOREM

(a) by the Divergence Theorem,

(b) by drawing a closed curve on C on S and using

44.[M] Let C be the curve formed by the intersection
Stokes’ Theorem on the two parts into which C
of the plane z = x and the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 .
divides S.
Orient C to be Hcounterclockwise when viewed from
above. Evaluate C (xyz dx + x2 dy + xz dz).

H 45.[M] Assume that Stokes’ Theorem is true for tri-

40.[R] Evaluate C F · dr as simply as possible if
angles. Deduce that it then holds for the surface S
F(x, y, z) = (−yi + xj)/(x2 + y 2 ) and C is the inter-
in Figure 18.6.15(a), consisting of the three triangles
section of the plane z = 2x + 2y and the paraboloid
DAB, DBC, DCA, and the curve ABCA.
z = 2x2 +3y 2 oriented counterclockwise as viewed from
above.

41.[R] Let F(x, y) be a vector field defined every-

where in the plane except at the origin. Assume that
∇ × F = 0. Let C1 be the circle x2 + y 2 = 1 counter-
clockwise; let C2 be the circle x2 +y 2 = 4 clockwise; let
(a) (b)
C3 be the circle (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1 counterclockwise; let
C4 beH the circle(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 9 clockwise. Assuming
Figure 18.6.15:
that C1 F · dr is 5, evaluate
46.[C] A Möbius band can be made by making a half-
H
(a) C2 F · dr twist in a narrow rectangular strip, bringing the two
ends together, and fastening them with glue or tape.
See Figure 18.6.15(b).
H
(b) C3 F · dr
H (a) Make a Möbius band.
(c) C4 F · dr.
(b) Letting a pencil represent a normal n to the
band, check that the Möbius band is not ori-
entable.
42.[M] Let F(x, y, z) = r/krka , where r = i + uj + zk
(c) If you form a band by first putting in a full twist
and a is a fixed real number.
(360◦ ), is it orientable?
(a) Show that ∇ × F = 0. (d) What happens when you cut the bands in (a)
(b) Show that F is conservative. and (c) down the middle? one third of the way
from one edge to the other?
(c) Exhibit a scalar function f such that F = ∇f .

47.[C]
43.[M] Let F be defined throughout space and have (a) Explain why the line integral of a central vector
continuous divergence and curl. field f (r)b
r around the path in Figure 18.6.16(a)
R is 0.
(a) For which F is S F · n dS = 0 for all spheres S?
H (b) Deduce from (a) and the coordinate-free view of
(b) For which F is C F · dr = 0 for all circles C? curl that the curl of a central field is 0.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1356 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

49.[M] Sam has a different way to

n.

Sam: I think the book’s way of cho

plicated.

Jane: OK. How would you do it?

(a) (b) Sam: Glad you asked. First, I w

normal n at one point on the
Figure 18.6.16: Jane: That’s a good start.
48.[C]
Sam: Then I choose unit normals
(a) The proof of Stokes’ Theorem we gave would
everywhere on the surface st
not apply to surfaces that are more complicated,
choice.
such as the “top three fourths of a sphere,” as
shown in Figure 18.6.16(b). However, how could Jane: And how would you finish?
you cut S into pieces to each of which the proof
applies? (Describe them in general terms, in Sam: My last step is to orient the
words.) be compatible with the right

(b) How could you use (a) to show that Stokes’ The- Would this proposal work? If it d
orem holds for C and S in Figure 18.6.16(b) with the approach in the text.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

 r/krk2
§ 18.7 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND b 1357

18.7 Connections Between the Electric Field

r/krk2
and b
Even if you are not an engineer or physicist, as someone living in the 21st cen-
tury you are surrounded by devices that depend on electricity. For that reason
we now introduce one of the four equations that explain all of the phenomena of
electricity and magnetism. Later in the chapter we will turn to the other three
equations, all of which are expressed in terms of vector fields. The chapter
concludes with a detailed description of how James Clerk Maxwell, using just
these four equations, predicted that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
Our explanation does not assume any prior knowledge of physics.

The Electric Field Due To a Single Charge

The starting point is some assumptions about the fundamental electrical charges,
electrons and protons. An electron has a negative charge and a proton has a
positive charge of equal absolute value. Two like charges exert a force of
repulsion on each other; unlike charges attract each other.
Let C and P denote the location of charges q and q0 , respectively. Let r be
the vector from C to P , as in Figure 18.7.1, so r = krk is the distance between
the two charges.
If both q and q0 are protons or both are electrons, the force pushes the
charges further apart. If one is a proton and the other is an electron, the
force draws them closer. In both cases the magnitude of the force is inversely
proportional to r2 , the square of the distance between the charges.
Assume that q is positive, that is, is the charge of a proton. The magnitude
of the force it exerts on charge q0 is proportional to q and also proportional
to q0 . It is also inversely proportional to r2 . So, for some constant k, the
magnitude of the force is of the form
q q0
k 2 . Figure 18.7.1: ARTIST:
r
It is directed along the vector r. If q0 is also positive, it is in the same direction Please modify labeling to
as r. If q0 is negative, it is in the direction of −r. We can summarize these reflect that the charges are
observations in one vector equation located at C and P with
charges q and q0 , respec-
q q0
F=k 2 b r (18.7.1) tively.
r
where the constant k is positive. Read 0 as “epsilon zero” or
For convenience in later calculations, k is replaced by 1/(4π0 ) The value “epsilon null.”
of 0 depends on the units in which charge, distance, and force are measured.
Then (18.7.1) is written
q q0
F= r.
4π0 r2
b

Calculus October 22, 2010

1358 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Physicists associate with a charge q a vector field. This field in turn exerts
a force on other charges.
Consider a positive charge q at point C.
It “creates” a central inverse-square vector field E with center at C. It is
defined everywhere except at C. Its value at a typical point P is

qbr
E(P ) =
4π0 r2
−→
where →
−
r = CP , as in Figure 18.7.2.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 18.7.2:

The value of E depends only on q and the vector from C to P .

To find the force exerted by charge q on charge q0 at P just multiply E by
q0 , obtaining
F = q0 E (18.7.2)
The field E, which is a sheer invention, can be calculated in principle by
putting a charge q0 at P , observing the force F and then dividing F by q0 .
The field E enables the charge q to “act at a distance” on other charges. It
plays the role of a rubber band or a spring.

The Electric Field Due to a Distribution of Charge

Electrons and protons usually do not live in isolation. Instead, charge may be
distributed on a line, a curve, a surface or in space.
Imagine a total charge Q occupying a region R in space. The density of
the charge varies from point to point. Denote the density at P by δ(P ). Like
the density of mass it is defined as a limit as follows. Let V (r) be a small ball
of radius r and center at P . Then we have the definition
charge in V (r)
δ(P ) = lim+ .
r→0 volume of V (r)

October 22, 2010 Calculus

 r/krk2
§ 18.7 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND b 1359

The charge in V (r) is approximately the volume of V (r) times δ(P ). We

will be interested only in uniform charges, where the density is constant, with
the fixed value δ. Thus the charge in a region of volume V is δV .
The field due to a uniform charge Q distributed in a region R is the sum
of the fields due to the individual point charges in Q.
To describe that field we need the concept of the integral of a vector field.
The definition is similar to the definition of the definite integral in Section 6.2.
Let F(P ) be a continuous vector field defined on some solid region R. Break
Pn a point Pi in Ri , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
R into regions R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn and choose
Let the volume of Ri be Vi . The sums i=1 F(Pi )Vi have R a limit as all Ri
are chosen smaller and smaller. This limit, denoted R F(P ) dV is called
the integral of F over R. Computationally, this integral can be computed
Rcomponentwise.
R For example,
R if F = R F1 i + F2 j + P3 k then RF(P ) then
R
F dV = R F1 dV i + R F1 dV j + R F1 dV k. Similar definitions hold for
vector fields defined on surfaces or curves.
To estimate this field we partition R into small regions R1 , R2 , . . . Rn and
choose a point Pi in Ri , i = 1, 2 . . . , n. The volume of Ri is Vi . The charge
in Ri is δVi , where δ is the density of the charge. Figure 18.7.3 shows this
contribution to the field at a point P .
Let ri be the vector from Pi to P , and ri = |ri |. Then the field due to the
charge in this small patch Ri is approximately
δbri Vi
.
4π0 ri2
As an estimate of the field due to Q, we have the sum Figure 18.7.3:
n
X δbri Vi
.
i=1
4π0 ri2

Taking limits as all the regions Ri are chosen smaller, we have

Z
δbr
E(P ) = Field at P = dV
4π0 r2
R

Factoring out the constant δ/4π0 , we have

Z
δ r
b
E(P ) = dV
4π0 r2
R

That is an integral over a solid region. If the charge is just on a surface S

with uniform surface density σ, the field would be given by
Z
σ r
b
E(P ) = dS.
4π0 r2
S

Calculus October 22, 2010

1360 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

If the charge lies on a line or a curve C, with uniform density λ, then

Z
λ r
b
E(P ) = ds.
4π0 r2
C

To illustrate the definition we compute one such field value directly. In

Example 2 we solve the same problem much more simply.

EXAMPLE 1 A charge Q is uniformly distributed on a sphere of radius a,

S. Find the electrostatic field E at a point B a distance b > a from the center
of the sphere.
SOLUTION We evaluate
Z
σ r
b
dS. (18.7.3)
4π0 r2
S

Note that σ = Q/4πa2 , since the charge is uniform over an area of 4πa2 .
Place a rectangular coordinate system with its origin at the center of the
sphere and the z-axis on B, so that B = (0, 0, b), as in Figure 18.7.4(a).
Before we start to evaluate an integral, let us use the symmetry of the sphere

(a) (b)

Figure 18.7.4:

to predict something about the vector E(B). Could it look like the vector v,
which is not parallel to the z-axis, as in Figure 18.7.4(b)?
If you spin the sphere around the z-axis, the vector v would change. But
the sphere is unchanged and so is the charge. So E(B) must be parallel to the
z-axis. That means we know its x- and y-components are both 0. So we must
find just its z-component, which is E(B) · k.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

 r/krk2
§ 18.7 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND b 1361

Let (x, y, z) be a typical point on the sphere S. Then

r = (0i + 0j + bk) − (xi + yj − zk) = −xi − yj + (b − z)k. (18.7.4)

So
r
b r −xi − yj + (b − z)k −xi − yj + (b − z)k
2
= 3 = p = . (18.7.5)
r r 2 2 2
( x + y + b − 2bz + z )2 3 (a2 + b2 − 2bz)3/2

We need only the z-component of this,

b−z
.
(a2 + b2 − 2bz)3/2

The magnitude of E(B) is therefore

b−z
Z
σ
dS. (18.7.6)
4π0 (a + b2 − 2bz)3/2
2
S

We evaluate the integral in (18.7.6). To do this, introduce spherical coordi-

nates in the standard position. We have dS = a2 sin(φ)dφ dθ and z = a cos(φ).
So (18.7.6) becomes

Zπ Z2π
(b − a cos φ)a2 sin φ
dθ dφ;
(a2 + b2 − 2ab cos φ)(3/2)
0 0

which reduces, after the first integration with respect to θ, to

Zπ
(b − a cos φ) sin φ dφ
2πa2 (18.7.7)
(a2 + b2 − 2ab cos φ)3/2
0

Let u = cos(φ), hence du = − sin(φ) dφ. This transforms (18.7.7) into

Z−1
2 (b − au) du
−2πa . (18.7.8)
(a2 + b2 − 2abu)3/2
1

Then we make a second substitution, v = a2 + b2 − 2abu.

As you may check, this changes (18.7.8) into
(b+a)2

2πa2 v + b 2 − a2
Z
dv (18.7.9)
4ab2 v 3/2
(b−a)2

Calculus October 22, 2010

1362 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

√
Write the integrand as the sum of 1/ v and (b2 − a2 )/v 3/2 , and use the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, to show that (18.7.8) equals 4πa2 /b2 .
Combining this with (18.7.9) shows that

σ 4πa2 Q
E(B) = 2
k= k.
4π0 b 4π0 b2

The result in this example, Q/(4π0 b2 )k is the same as if all the charge
Q were at the center of the sphere. In other words, a uniform charge on a
sphere acts on external particles as though the whole charge were placed at its
center. This was discovered for the gravitational field by Newton and proved
geometrically in his Principia of 1687.

Using Flux and Symmetry to Find E

We included Example 1 for two reasons. First, it reviews some integration
techniques. Second, it will help you appreciate a much simpler way to find the
field E due to a charge distribution.
Picture a charge Q distributed outside the region bound by a surface S, as
in Figure 18.7.5.

Figure 18.7.5:

The flux of E associated with a point charge q over a closed surface S is

r·n r·n
Z Z Z
1
E(P ) · n dS =
b
2
dS = dS.
4π0 r 4π0 r2
S S S

As we saw in Section 18.5 the integral is 4π when the charge is inside the
solid bounded by the surface and 0 if the charge is outside. (See Exercise 28
in that section). Thus the total flux is q/0 if the charge is inside and 0 if it is
outside.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

 r/krk2
§ 18.7 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND b 1363

Consider a charge Q contained wholly within the region bounded by S. We

will find the flux of a total charge Q distributed in a solid R inside a surface
S. (See Exercise 6 for the case when the charge is outside S.)
Chop the solid R that the charge occupies into n small regions R1 , R2 ,
. . . , Rn . In region Ri select a point Pi . Let the density of charge at Pi be
δ(Pi ). Thus the charge in Ri produces a flux of approximately δ(Pi )Vi /0 .
Consequently
n
X δ(Pi )Vi
i=1
0
estimates the flux produced by Q. Taking limits, we see that
Z
δ(Pi )
Flux across S produced by Q = dV
0
R
R
But R
δ(Pi ) dV is the total charge Q. Thus we have

Q
Flux = .
0

Thus we have one of the four fundamental equations of electrostatics:

Gauss’ Law
The flux produced by a distribution of charge across a closed surface is the
charge Q in the region bounded by the surface divided by 0 .

The charge outside of S produces no flux across S. (More precisely, the

negative flux across S cancels the positive flux.)
Let’s illustrate the power of Gauss’ Law by applying it to the case in Figure 18.7.6:
Example 1.

EXAMPLE 2 A charge Q is distributed uniformly on a sphere of radius a.

Find the electrostatic field E at a point B at a distance b from the center of a
sphere of radius a, with b > a.
SOLUTION We don’t need to introduce a coordinate system in Figure 18.7.6.
By symmetry, the field at any point P outside the sphere is parallel to the vec-
−→
tor CP . Moreover, the magnitude of the field is the same for all points at a
given distance from the origin C. Call this magnitude, f (r), where r is the
distance from C. We want to find f (b).
To do this, imagine another sphere S ∗ , with center C and radius b, as in
Figure 18.7.7.
The flux of E across S ∗ is S ∗ E · n dS.
R

Calculus October 22, 2010

Figure 18.7.7:
1364 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

But E · n is just f (b) since E and

R n are parallelR and E(P ) has magnitude
∗
R
f (b) for all points P on S . Thus S ∗ E · n dS = S ∗ f (b) dS = f (b) S ∗ dS =
f (b)4πb2 .
By Gauss’ Law
Q
= f (b)(4πb2 ).
0
That tells us that
Q
f (b) = .
4π0 b2
This is the same result as in Example 1, but compare the work in each
case. Symmetry and Gauss’ Law provide an easy way to find the electrostatic
field due to distribution of charge. 
The same approach shows that the field E produced by the spherical charge
in Examples 1 and 2 inside the sphere is 0. Let f (r) be the magnitude of E
at a distance r from the center of the sphere. For r > a, f (r) = Q/(4π0 r2 );
for 0 < r < a, f (r) = 0. The graph of f is shown in Figure 18.7.8.

Figure 18.7.8:

If you are curious about f (a) and f (0), see Exercises 8 and 9.

Summary
The field due to a point charge q at a point C is given by the formula E(P ) =
1 qbr −→
4π0 r2
, where r = OP . This field produces a force q0 E(P ) on a charge q0
located at P .
The field due to a distribution of charge is obtained by an integration over
a surface of solid region, depending where this charge is distributed.
We showed that a charge Q outside a surface produces a net flux of zero
across the surface. However the flux produced by a charge within the surface
is simply Q/0 . That is Gauss’s Law.
We used Gauss’s Law to find the field produced by a spherical distribution
of charge.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

 r/krk2
§ 18.7 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND b

EXERCISES for Section 18.7 Key: R–routine, M–moderate, C–challenging

1.[R] The charge q is positive and produces the elec- (c) Find the magnitude of E by applying Gauss’s
trostatic field E. In what direction does E point at a Theorem to the cylinder in Figure 18.7.9(b). Let
charge q0 that is (a) positive and (b) negative? the area of the circular cross section be A and
the area of its curved side be B.
2.[R] Fill in the omitted details in the calculation in
Exercise 1.

3.[R] Describe to a friend who knows no physics the

field E produced by a point charge q. 8.[R] Find the field E of the charge in Example 1 at a
point on the surface of the sphere. Why is Gauss’s Law
4.[R] State Gauss’s Law aloud several times. not applicable here? Hint: Let the point be (0, 0, a).

5.[R] Why do you think that the constant k was re-

placed by 1/4π0 . Note: Later we will see why it is
9.[R] Find the field E of the charge in Example 1 at
convenient to have 0 in the denominator.
the center of the sphere. Hint: Use symmetry, don’t
integrate.
6.[R] Show that a charge Q distributed in a solid
region R outside a closed surface S induces zero-flux
across S. 10.[R] Complete the graph in Figure 18.7.8. That is,
fill in the function values corresponding to r = 0 and
7.[R] A charge is distributed uniformly over an infi- r = a.
nite plane. For any part of this surface of area A the
charge is kA, where k is a constant. Find the field E
due to the charge at any point P not in the plane. 11.[R] A charge is distributed uniformly along an in-
finite straight wire. The charge on a section of length
(a) Use symmetry to say as much as you can about l is kl. Find the field E due to this charge.
it. Be sure to discuss its direction.

(b) Show that the magnitude is constant by apply- (a) Use symmetry to say as much as you can about
ing Gauss’s Theorem to a cylinder whose axis is the direction and magnitude of E.
perpendicular to the plane and which does not
intersect the plane.
(b) Find the magnitude by applying Gauss’s Law to
the cylinder of radius r and height h shown in
Figure 18.7.10

(c) Find the force directly by an integral over the

(a) (b) line, as in Example 1.

Figure 18.7.9:

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

16.[R] In Exercise 11 you found the field E due to

a charge uniformly spread on an infinite line. If the
charge density is λ, E at a point at a distance a from
the line is (λ/(2πa0 )) j.
Now assume that the line occupies only the right half
of the x-axis, [0, ∞).

(a) Using the result in Exercise 11, show that the

j-component of E(0, a) is (λ/4πa0 )j.

(b) By integrating over [0, ∞), show that the i-

Figure 18.7.10: component of E at (0, a) is λ/(4πa0 )i.
12.[R] Figure 18.7.11(a) shows four surfaces. Inside
S1 is a total charge Q1 , and inside S2 is a total charge (c) What angle does E(0, a) make with the y-axis?
Q2 . Find the total flux across each of the four surfaces.
(d) Why is Gauss’ Law of no use in determining the
i-component of E in this case.

(a) (b) δ
R br
17.[M] We showed that E(P ) = 4π 0 R r
2 dV if
the charge density is constant. Find the correspond-
Figure 18.7.11: ing integral for E(P ) when the charge density varies.

18.[C] In Example 1, we used an integral to find the

13.[R] Imagine that there is a uniform distribution electrostatic field outside a uniformly charged sphere.
of charge Q throughout a ball of radius a. Use Gauss’ Carry out similar calculation to find the field inside the
Law to find the electrostatic field E produced by this sphere. Hint: Is the square root of (b−a)2 still b−a?
charge
(a) at points outside the ball, 19.[C] Use the approach in Example 2 to find the
electrostatic field inside a uniformly charged sphere.
(b) at points inside the ball.

20.[C] Graph the magnitude of the field in Exam-

14.[R] Let f (r) be the magnitude of the field in Ex- ple 1 as a function of the distance from the center of
ercise 13 at a distance r from the center of the ball. the sphere. This will need the results of Exercises 18
Graph f (r) for r ≥ 0. and 19.

15.[R] A charge Q lies partly inside a closed surface 21.[C] Find the field E in the Exercise 7 by inte-
S and partly outside. Let Q1 be the amount inside grating over the whole (infinite) plane. (Do not use
and Q2 the amount outside, as in Figure 18.7.11(b). Gauss’s Theorem.)
What is the flux across S of the charge Q?

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.8 EXPRESSING VECTOR FUNCTIONS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS 1367

18.8 Expressing Vector Functions in Other Co-

ordinate Systems
We have expressed the gradient, divergence, and curl in terms of rectangular
coordinates. However, students who apply vector analysis in engineering and
physics courses will see functions expressed in polar, cylindrical, and spherical
coordinates. This section shows how those expressions are found.

The Gradient in Polar Coordinates

Let g(r, θ) be a scalar function expressed in polar coordinates. Its gradient
has the form A(r, θ)br + B(r, θ)θ,
b where b r and θb are the unit vectors shown in
Figure 18.8.1. The unit “radial vector” br points in the direction of increasing r.
The unit “tangential vector” θb points in the direction determined by increasing
θ. Note that θb is tangent to the circle through (r, θ) with center at the pole.
Our goal is to find A(r, θ) and B(r, θ), which wedenote simply as A and B.
One might guess, in analogy with rectangular coordinates, that A(r, θ)
would be ∂g/∂r and B(r, θ) would be ∂g/∂θ. That guess is part right and
part wrong, for we will show that
Figure 18.8.1:

∂g 1 ∂g b
grad g = r+
b θ (18.8.1)
∂r r ∂θ
We reserve the use of ∇ for
Note the appearance of 1/r in the θb component. rectangular coordinates, and
One way to obtain (18.8.1) is labor-intensive and not illuminating: express use grad in all other
g, b
r, and θb in terms of x, y, i, j and use the formula for gradient in terms coordinate systems.
of rectangular coordinates, then translate back to polar coordinates. This
approach, whose only virtue is that it offers good practice applying the chain
rule for partial derivatives, is outlined in Exercises 17 and 18.
We will use a simpler way, that easily generalizes to the cylindrical and
spherical coordinates. It exploits the connection between a gradient and direc-
tional derivative of g at a point P in the direction u. In particular, it shows
why the coefficient 1/r appears in (18.8.1).
Recall that if u is a unit vector, the directional derivative of g in the
direction u is the dot product of grad g with u:

Du g = grad g · u.

In particular,
Dbr g = (Ab b ·b
r + B θ) r=A

Calculus October 22, 2010

1368 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

and
Dθbg = (Ab b · θb = B.
r + B θ)
So all we need to do is find Dbr g and Dθbg.
First,
g(r + ∆r, θ) − g(r, θ) ∂g
Dbr (g) = lim = .
∆r→0 ∆r ∂r
So A(r, θ) = ∂g/∂r(r, θ). That explains the expected part of (18.8.1).
Now we will see why B is not simply the partial derivation of g with respect
to θ.
If we want to estimate a directional derivative at P of g in the direction u
we pick a nearby point Q a distance ∆s away in the direction of u and form
the quotient
g(Q) − g(P )
(18.8.2)
∆s
Then we take the limit of (18.8.2) as ∆s → 0.
Now let u be θ,
b and let’s examine (18.8.2) in the case hwere P = (r, θ) and
Q = (r, θ + ∆θ). The numerator in (18.8.2) is
g(r, θ + ∆θ) − g(r, θ).
We draw a picture to find ∆s, as in Figure 18.8.2.
The distance between P and Q is not ∆θ. Rather it is approximately r∆θ
(when ∆θ is small). That tells us that ∆s in (18.8.2) is not ∆θ but r∆θ.
Therefore
g(r, θ + ∆θ) − g(r, θ) 1 g(r, θ + ∆θ) − g(r, θ) 1 ∂g
Dθ g = lim = lim = .
∆θ→0 r∆θ r ∆θ→0 ∆θ r ∂θ
Note r ∆θ in the denominator.
That is why there is a 1/r in the formula (18.8.1) for the gradient of g.
It occurs because a change ∆θ in the parameter θ causes a point to move
Figure 18.8.2:
approximately the distance r∆θ.

Divergence in Polar Coordinates

The divergence of F(x, y) = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j is simply ∂P/∂x + ∂Q/∂y.
But what is the divergence of a vector field described in polar coordinates,
G(r, θ) = A(r, θ)b b By now you are on guard, ∇ · G is not the sum
r + B(r, θ)θ.
of ∂A/∂r and ∂B/∂θ).
To find ∇ · G, use the relation between ∇ · G at P = (r, θ) and the flux
across a small curve C that surrounds P .
H
C
G · n ds
∇·G= lim (18.8.3)
length of C→0 Area within C

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.8 EXPRESSING VECTOR FUNCTIONS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS 1369

Note that (18.8.3) provides a coordinate-free description of divergence in the

plane.
We are free to choose the small closed curve C to make it easy to estimate
the flux across it. A curve C that corresponds to small changes ∆r and ∆θ is
convenient is shown in Figure 18.8.3. We will use (18.8.3) to find the divergence
at P = (r, θ). Now, P is not inside C; rather it is on C. However, since G is
continuous, G(P ) is the limit of values of G at points inside, so we may use
(18.8.3).
To estimate the flux across C, we estimate the flux across each of the four
parts of the curve. Because these sections are short when ∆r and ∆θ are small,
Figure 18.8.3: C is the
we may estimate the integral over each part by multiplying the value of the
curve QRST Q
integrand at any point of the section (even at an end point) by the length of
the section. As usual, nb denotes an exterior unit vector perpendicular to C.
On QR and ST , Bθ contributes to the flux (on RS and T Q it does not
since n · θ is 0). On QR, θ is parallel to n, as shown in Figure 18.8.4.
However, on ST it points in the opposite direction, θb · n
b is −1. So, across
ST , the flux contributed by B θ is approximately
b

(B θb · n
b )∆r = −B(r, θ)∆r.

(We would get a better estimate by using B(r + ∆r 2

, θ) but B(r, θ) is good
enough since B is continuous.)
On QR, θb and n b point in almost the same direction, hence θ · n
b is close to
1 when ∆θ is small. So on ST , B θb contributes approximately B(r, θ + ∆θ)∆r
to the flux. Figure 18.8.4:
All told, the total contribution of Bθ to the flux across C is

B(r, θ + ∆θ)∆r − B(r, θ)∆r (18.8.4)

The contribution of Abr to the flux is negligible on QR and ST because there

r and n
b b are perpendicular. On T Q, br and nb point in almost directly opposite
r·n
directions, hence b b is near −1. The flux of Ab r there, is approximately

r·n
A(r, θ)(b b )r∆θ = −A(r, θ)r∆θ. (18.8.5)

On RS, which has radius r + ∆r, br and n r·n

b are almost identical, hence b b is
near 1. The contribution on RS, which has radius r + ∆r is approximately

A(r + ∆r, θ)(r + ∆r)∆θ. (18.8.6)

Combining (18.8.4), (18.8.5) and (18.8.6), we see that the limit in (18.8.3)
is the sum of two limits:
A(r + ∆r, θ)(r + ∆r)∆θ − A(r, θ)r∆θ
lim (18.8.7)
∆r,∆θ→0 r∆r∆θ

Calculus October 22, 2010

1370 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

The area within C is and

approximately, r∆r∆θ. B(r, θ + ∆θ)∆r − B(r, θ)∆r
lim (18.8.8)
∆r,∆θ→0 r∆r∆θ
The first limit (18.8.7) equals

1 (r + ∆r)A(r + ∆r, ∆θ) − rA(r, θ)

lim ,
∆r,∆θ→0 r ∆r
which is
1 ∂(rA)
.
r ∂r
Note that r appears in the coefficient, 1/r, and also in the function, rA,
being differentiated.
The second limit (18.8.8) equals

1 B(r, θ + ∆θ) − B(r, θ)

lim ,
∆r,∆θ→0 r ∆θ
hence is
1 ∂B
.
r ∂θ
Here r appears only once, in the coefficient.
Note the use of div, not ∇·. All told, we have the desired divergence formula:

1 ∂(rA) 1 ∂B
div(Ab
r + Bθ) = + . (18.8.9)
r ∂r r ∂θ

Curl in the Plane

The curl of F(x, y) = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j + 0k, a vector field in the plane, is
given by the formula  
∂Q ∂P
curl F = − k.
∂x ∂y
What is the formula for the curl when the field is described in polar coordinates:
G(r, θ) = A(r, θ)b
r + B(r, θ)b n? To find out we will reason as we did with
divergence. This time we use
H
C
G · k ds
(curl G) · n
b= lim .
length of C→0 Area bounded by C

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.8 EXPRESSING VECTOR FUNCTIONS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS 1371

where C is a closed curve around a fixed point in the (r, θ) plane, and the See (18.6.9) on page 1348.
limit is taken as the length of C approaches 0. The curl is evaluated at a fixed
point, which is on or within C.
We compute the circulation of G = Ab r + Bθ around the same curve used
in the derivation of divergence in polar coordinates.
On T Q and RS, Ab r, being perpendicular to the curve, contributes nothing
to the circulation of G around C. On QR it contributes approximately

r · T)∆r = A(r, θ)∆r.

A(r, θ)(b

r · T = −1, it contributes approximately

On ST , since there b

A(r, θ + ∆θ)(r · T)∆r = −A(r, θ + ∆θ)∆r.

A similar computation shows that B θb contributes to the total circulation

approximately
B(r + ∆r, θ)(r + ∆r)∆θ − B(r, θ)r∆θ.
Therefore (∇ × G·)k in the sum of two limits:

A(r, θ)∆r − A(r, θ + ∆θ)∆r 1 ∂A

lim =−
∆r,∆θ→0 r∆r∆θ r ∂θ

and
B(r + ∆r, θ)(r + ∆r)∆θ − B(r, θ)r∆θ 1 ∂(rB)
lim = .
∆r,∆θ→0 r∆r∆θ r ∂r
All told, we have Note the use of curl, not
∇×.

 
1 ∂A 1 ∂(rB)
r + Bθ) = −
curl(Ab + k. (18.8.10)
r ∂θ r ∂r

EXAMPLE 1 Find the divergence and curl of F = rθ2b r + r3 tan(θ)θ.

SOLUTION The calculations are direct applications of (18.8.9) and (18.8.10).
First, the divergence:

1 ∂
1 ∂ 3
r · rθ2 +


div F = r tan(θ)
r ∂r r ∂θ
1 2

1 3 2

= 2rθ + r sec (θ) = 2θ2 + r2 sec2 (θ).
r r
Calculus October 22, 2010
1372 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

And, the curl:

 
1 ∂ 2

1 ∂ 3


curl F = − rθ + r · r tan(θ) k
r ∂θ r ∂r
 
1 1
4r tan(θ) k = −2θ + 4r2 tan(θ) k.
3



= − (2rθ) +
r r


Cylindrical Coordinates
In cylindrical coordinates the gradient of g(r, θ, z) is

∂g 1 ∂g b ∂g
grad g = r+
b θ+ b z (18.8.11)
∂r r ∂θ ∂z

Here bz is the unit vector in the positive z direction, denoted k in Chapter 14.
Note that (18.8.11) differs from (18.8.1) only by the extra term (∂g/∂z)b z. You
can obtain (18.8.11) by computing directional derivatives of g along b r, θ,
b and
z. The derivation is similar to the one that gave us the formula for the gradient
b
of g(r, θ).
The divergence of G(r, θ, z) = Ab r + B θb + Cb
z is given by the formula

1 ∂(rA) ∂B ∂(rC)
div G = + + . (18.8.12)
r ∂r ∂θ ∂z

Note that the partial derivatives with respect to r and z are similar in that the
factor r is present in both ∂(rA)/∂r and ∂(rC)/∂r. You can obtain (18.8.12)
by using the relation between ∇ · G and the flux across the small surface
determined by small changes ∆r, ∆θ, and ∆z.
The curl of G = Ab r + Bθ + Cbz is given by a formal determinant:

 
 r rθb k 
1  b
∂ ∂ ∂

curl G =  ∂r ∂θ ∂z
 (18.8.13)
r 
A rB C 

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.8 EXPRESSING VECTOR FUNCTIONS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS 1373

To obtain this formula consider the circulation around three small closed curves
lying in planes perpendicular to br, θb and k.

Spherical Coordinates
In mathematics texts, spherical coordinates are denoted ρ, φ, θ. In physics and
engineering a different notation is standard. There ρ is replaced by r, θ is the
angle with z-axis, and φ plays the role of the mathematicians’ θ, switching the
roles of φ and θ. The formulas we state are in the mathematicians’ notation.
Figure 18.8.5:
The three basic unit vectors for spherical coordinates are denoted ρ, φ, θ.
For instance, ρ points in the direction of increasing ρ. See Figure 18.8.5. Note
that, at the point P , φ and θ are tangent to the sphere through P and center
at the origin, while ρ is perpendicular to that sphere. Also, any two of ρ, φ, θ
are perpendicular.
To obtain the formulas for ∇ · G and ∇ × G, we would use the region
corresponding to small changes ∆ρ, ∆φ, and ∆θ, shown in Figure 18.8.6.
That computation yields the following formulas:

If g(ρ, φ, θ) is a scalar function,

∂g 1 ∂g 1 ∂g Figure 18.8.6:
grad g = ρ+ φ+ θ. (18.8.14)
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ρ sin(φ) ∂θ

If G(ρ, φ, θ) = Aρ + Bφ + Cθ

1 ∂(ρ2 A) 1 ∂(sin(φ)B) 1 ∂C
div G = 2
)+ + . (18.8.15)
ρ ∂r ρ sin(φ) ∂φ ρ sin(φ) ∂θ

and
 
1 1 ∂(sin(φ))C) 1 ∂B
curl G = − ρ
ρ sin(φ) ∂φ ρ sin(φ) ∂θ
   
1 1 ∂A ∂(ρC) 1 ∂(ρB) ∂A
+ − φ+ − θ
ρ sin(φ) ∂θ ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ∂φ

Each of these can be obtained by the method we used for polar coordinates.
In each case, keep in mind that the change in φ or θ is not the same as the
distance the corresponding point moves. However, a change in ρ is the same
as the distance the corresponding point moves. For instance, the distance
between (ρ, φ, θ) and (ρ, φ + ∆φ, ∆θ) is approximately ρ∆φ and the distance
between (ρ, φ, θ) and (ρ, φ, θ + ∆θ) is approximately ρ sin(φ)∆θ.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1374 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

An Application to Rotating Fluids

Consider a fluid rotating in a cylinder, for instance, in a centrifuge. If it rotates
as a rigid body, then its velocity at a distance r from the axis of rotation has
the form
G(r, θ) = crθ,
where c is a positive constant.
Then
1 ∂(cr2 )
curl G = k = 2ck.
r ∂r
The curl is independent of r. That means that an imaginary paddle held with
its axis held in a fixed position would rotate at the same rate no matter where
it is placed.
Now consider the more general case with

G(r, θ) = crn θ,

and n is an integer. Now

1 ∂(crn+1 )
curl G = k = c(n + 1)rn−1 k.
r ∂r
We just considered the case n = 1. If n > 1, the curl increases as r increases.
The paddle wheel rotates faster if placed farther from the axis of rotation. The
direction of rotation is the same as that of the fluid, counterclockwise.
Next consider the case n = −2. The speed of the fluid decreases as r
increases. Now
curl G = c(−2 + 1)r−2−1 k = −cr−3 k.
The minus sign before the coefficient c tells us that the paddle wheel spins
clockwise even though the fluid rotates counterclockwise. The farther the
paddle wheel is from the axis, the slower it rotates.

Summary
We expressed gradient, divergence, and curl in several coordinate systems.
Even though the basic unit vectors in each system may change direction from
point to point, they remain perpendicular to each other. That simplified the
computation of flux and circulation. The formulas are more complicated than
those in rectangular coordinates because tha amount a parameter changes is
not the same as the distance the corresponding point moves.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.8 EXPRESSING VECTOR FUNCTIONS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

EXERCISES for Section 18.8 Key: R–routine, 16.[R] Estimate the circulation of the field in the
M–moderate, C–challenging preceding exercise around the same circle.

In Exercises 1 through 4 find and draw the gradient of When translating between rectangular and polar co-
the given functions of (r, θ) at (2, π/4). ordinates, it may be necessary to express br and θb in
terms of i and j and also i and j in terms of r and θ.
b
1.[R] r 4.[R] r θ3 2 Exercise 17 and 18 concern this matter.
2
2.[R] r θ
17.[R] Let (r, θ) be a So we have b r and θ in
3.[R] e−r θ point that has rectangular terms of i and j:
In Exercises 5 through 8 find the divergence of the coordinates (x, y). 
r = √xi+yj
given function
 b
(a) Show that b r = x2 +y 2
√−yi+xj
cos(θ)i + sin(θ)j,  θ =
x2 +y 2
5.[R] 5b r + r2 θθb 8.[R] r sin(θ)b
r + which equals (18.8.16)
r2 cos(θ)θb
p
x/p x2 + y 2 i +
6.[R] r3 θbr + 3rθθb y/ x2 + y 2 j =
3 √ xi+yj 18.[R] Show that if
7.[R] rb r+r θ b
x2 +y 2 (x, y) has polar coordi-
In Exercises 9 through 12 compute the curl of the given nates (r, θ), then
(b) Show that θ =
function. − sin(θ)i + cos(θ)j, 
i = cos(θ)θb r − sin(θ)θ
which equals
9.[R] rθb 3
12.[R] 1/r θb
p
2 2 j = sin(θ)θbr + cos(θ)θ
−y/p x +y i +
10.[R] r3 θbr + er θb x/ x2 + y 2 j. by solving the simultane-
11.[R] r cos(θ)b r + rθθb
(c) Draw a picture to ous equations (18.8.16) in
13.[R] Find the directional derivative of r2 θ3 in the accompany the cal- the preceding exercise for
direction culations done in i and j.
(a) and (b).
(a) br
In exercises 19 through 22
(b) θb I. find the gradient of the given function, using the
formula for gradient in rectangular coordinates,
(c) i
II. find it by first expressing the function in polar
(d) j coordinates and again for gradient in polar coor-
dinates. (18.8.1),
show that the two results agree.
14.[R] What property of rectangular coordinates
makes the formulas for gradient, divergence, and curl 19.[R] x2 + y 2 p
22.[R] x/ x2 + y 2
in those coordinates relatively simple? p
20.[R] x2 + y 2
21.[R] 3x + 2y
15.[R] Estimate the flux of rθvrhat = r2 θ3 θb around
the circle of radius 0.01 with center at (r, θ) = (2, π/6). In Exercises 23 through 26
I. find the gradient of the given function, using its
formula in polar coordinates, that is (18.8.1),

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

II. find it by first expressing the function in rectan- (c) (r, θ, z + ∆z).
gular coordinates,

III. show that the two results agree.

32.[R] Approximate the distance from the point
(ρ, φ, θ) to
23.[R] r2 26.[R] er (a) (ρ + ∆ρ, φ, θ),
24.[R] r2 cos(θ) (b) (ρ, φ + ∆φ, θ),
25.[R] r sin(θ)
(c) (ρ, φ, θ + ∆θ).
In Exercise 27 and 28

I. find the divergence of the given vector field in

rectangular coordinates, 33.[M] Using the formulas for the gradient of
g(r, φ, θ), find the directional derivative of g in the di-
II. find it by first expressing the function in polar
rection
coordinates and using (18.8.9),
(a) ρb,
III. show that the results agree.
(b) φ,b

(c) θ.
b
27.[R] x2 i + y2j 28.[R] xyi

In Exercises 29 and 30 34.[M] Using the formulas for the gradient of

g(r, θ, z), find the directional derivative of g in the di-
I. find the curl of the given vector field in rectan- rection
gular coordinates,
(a) b r,
II. find it by first expressing the function in polar
(b) θ,
coordinates and using (18.8.10),
(c) k.
III. show that the two results agree.

35.[M] Without using the formula for the gradient,

29.[R] xyi + x2 y 2 j
p do Exercise 33.
30.[R] (x/ x2 + y 2 )i

The next two exercises are useful in developing the 36.[M] Without using the formula for the gradient,
formula for the gradient in cylindrical and spherical do Exercise 34.
coordinates.
31.[R] Approximately how far is it from the points 37.[M] Using as few mathematical symbols as you
(r, θ, z) to can, state the formula for the divergence of a vector
field given relative to b
r and θ.
(a) (r + ∆r, θ, z),

(b) (r, θ + ∆θ, z), 38.[M] Using as few mathematical symbols as you

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.8 EXPRESSING VECTOR FUNCTIONS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS 1377

can, state the formula for the curl of a vector field terms of polar coordinates, it is necessary to express
given relative to b
r and θ. ∂f /∂x, ∂f /∂y, i, and j in terms of partial derivative
of g(r, θ) and b
r and θ.
39.[M] In the formula for the divergence of Abr + B θ,
b
(a) Show that ∂r/∂x = cos(θ), ∂r/∂y = sin(θ),
why do the terms rA and 1/r appear in (1/r)(∂(rA)/∂r
∂θ/∂x = −(sin(θ))/r, ∂θ/∂y = (cos θ)/r.
and rA? Explain in detail why 1/r appears.
(b) Use the chain rule to express ∂f /∂x and ∂f /∂y
40.[M] Obtain the formula for the gradient in cylin- in terms of partial derivatives of g(r, θ).
drical coordinates.
(c) Recalling the expression of i and j in terms of rb
41.[M] Obtain the formula for curl in cylindrical co- and θb in Exercise 18 obtain the gradient of g(r, θ)
ordinates. in polar coordinates.

42.[M] Obtain the formula for divergence in cylindri-

cal coordinates. 46.[M] In Exercise 26 of Section 18.3, we found the
divergence of F = rnb
r using rectangular coordinates.
43.[M] Obtain the formula for the gradient in spher- Find the divergence using polar coordinates formally.
ical coordinates. Note: The second way is much easier.

44.[M] Where did we use the fact that rb and θb are 47.[M] In Exercise 6 of Section 18.6 we used rect-
perpendicular when developing the expression for di- angular coordinates to show that an irrotational pla-
vergence in polar coordinates? nar central field is symmetric. Use the formula for
curl in polar coordinates to obtain the same result.
45.[M] Obtain the formula for the gradient of g(r, θ) Note: This way is much easier.
in polar coordinates by starting with the formula for
the gradient of f (x, y) in rectangular coordinates. Dur-
48.[M] In Exercise 21 in Section 18.4 we used rect-
ing the calculations you will have some happy mo-
angular coordinates to show that an incompressible
ments as complicated expressions cancel and the iden-
symmetric central field in the plane must have the
tity cos2 (θ) + sin2 (θ) = 1 simplifies expressions. (See
Exercise 18.8.16.) form F(r) = (k/r)b r. Obtain this result using the for-
Assume g(r, θ) = f (x, y), where x = r cos(θ) and mula for divergence in polar coordinates.
y = r sin(θ). To express ∇f = ∂f /∂xi + ∂f /∂yj in

Calculus October 22, 2010

1378 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

18.9 Maxwell’s Equations

At any point in space there is an electric field E and a magnetic field B. The
electric field is due to charges (electrons and protons) whether stationary or
moving. The magnetic field is due to moving charges.
To assure yourself that the magnetic field B is everywhere, hold up a pocket
compass. The magnetic field, produced within the Earth, makes the needle
point north.
All of the electrical phenomena and their applications can be explained
by four equations, called Maxwell’s equations. These equations allow B
and E to vary in time. We state them for the simpler case when B and E
are constant: ∂B/∂t = 0 and ∂E/∂t = 0. We met the first equation in the
previous section. Here is the complete list

R
I. S
E · n dS = Q/0 , where S is a surface bounding a spatial region and
Q is the change in that region. (Gauss’s Law for Electricity)
H
II. C
E · dr = 0 for any closed curve C. (Faraday’s Law of Induction)
R
III. B · n dS = 0 for any surface S that bounds a spatial region. (Gauss’s
S
Law for Magnetism)
H R
IV. B · dr = µ0 S J · n dS, where C bounds the surface S and J is the
C
electric current flowing through S. (Ampere’s Law)

The constants 0 and µ0 (“myoo zero”) depend on the units used. They
will be important in the CIE on Maxwell’s Equations.
Each of the four statements about integrals can be translated into infor-
mation about the behavior of E or B at each point.
In derivative or “local” form the four principles read:

I’. div E = q/0 , where q is the charge density (Coulomb’s Law)

II’. curl E = 0

III’. div B = 0

IV’. curl B = µ0 J

It turns out that µ010 equals the square of the speed of light. Why that is
justified is an astonishing story told in CIE 23.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 1379

Going Back and Forth Between “Local” and “Global.”

Examples 1 and 2 show that Gauss’s Law is equivalent to Coulomb’s.

EXAMPLE 1 Obtain Gauss’s Law for Electricity (I) from Coulomb’s Law
(I’).
SOLUTION Let V be the solid region whose boundary is S. Then
R R
S
E · n dS = RV ∇ · E dV Divergence Theorem
= V q0 dV Coulomb’s Law
= 10 V q dV = Q0 .
R

R
Recall that the total charge in V is Q = V q dV . 
Does Gauss’s law imply Coulomb’s law? Example 2 shows that the answer
is yes.

EXAMPLE 2 Deduce Coulomb’s law (I’) from Gauss’s law for electricity
(I).
SOLUTION Let V be any spatial region and let S be its surface. Let Q be
the total charge in V. Then
Z
Q
= E · n dS Gauss’s law
0
S
Z
= ∇ · E dV Divergence Theorem.
V

On the other hand, Z

Q= q dV,
V

where q is the charge density. Thus

Z Z Z  
q q
dV = ∇ · E dV, or −∇·E dV = 0,
0 0
V V V

for all spatial regions. Since the integrand is assumed to be continuous, the
“zero-integral principle” tells us that it must be identically 0. That is,
q
− ∇ · E = 0,
0
which give us Coulomb’s law. 
H
EXAMPLE 3 Show that II implies II’. That is, C
E · dr = 0 for closed
curves implies curl E = 0.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1380 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

SOLUTION By Stokes’ theorem, for any orientable surface S bounded by a

closed curve, Z
(curl E) · n dS = 0
S
The zero-integral principle implies that (curl E) · n = 0 at each point on the
surface. Choosing S such that n is parallel to curl E (if curl E is not 0),
implies that the magnitude of curl E is 0, hence curl E is 0. 
Maxwell, by studying the four equations, I’, II’, III’, IV’, deduced that
electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, and therefore light is an
electromagnetic phenomenon. In CIE 23 at the end of this chapter we show
how he accomplished this, in one of the greatest creative insights in the history
of science.
The exercises present the analogy of the four equations in integral form
for the general case where B and E vary with time. It is here that B and E
became tangled with each other; both appearing in the same equation. In this
generality they are known as Maxwell’s equations, in honor of James Clerk
Maxwell (1831-1879), who put them in their final form in 1865.

Mathematics and Electricity

Benjamin Franklin, in his book Experiments and Observations Made in
Philadelphia, published in 1751, made electricity into a science. For his ac-
complishments, he was elected a Foreign Associate of the French Academy of
Sciences, an honor bestowed on no other American for over a century. In 1865,
Maxwell completed the theory that Franklin had begun.
At the time that Newton Published his Principia on the gravitational field
(1687), electricity and magnetism were the subjects of little scientific study.
But the experiments of Franklin, Oersted, Henry, Ampère, Faraday, and oth-
ers in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries gradually built up a mass
of information subject to mathematical analysis. All the phenomena could be
summarized in four equations, which in their final form appeared in Maxwell’s
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, published in 1873. For a fuller treat-
ment, see The Feynman Lectures on Physics, vol. 2, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass., 1964.

Summary
We stated the four equations that describe electrostatic and magnetic fields
that do not vary with time. Then we showed how to use the divergence theorem
or Stokes’ theorem to translate between their global and local forms. The
exercises include the four equations in their general form, where E and B vary
with time.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 1381

EXERCISES for Section 18.9 Key: R–routine, 1. ∇ · E = q/0

M–moderate, C–challenging
2. ∇ × E = −∂B/∂t
1.[R] Obtain II from II’. 3. ∇ · B = 0

2.[R] Obtain III’ from III. 4. ∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 dE

dt

(Here J is the current.)

3.[R] Obtain III from III’.
12.[R] Which equation implies that a changing mag-
netic field creates an electric field?
4.[R] Obtain IV’ from IV.

13.[R] Which equation implies that a changing elec-

5.[R] Obtain IV from IV’.
trostatic field creates a magnetic field?
In Exercises 6 to 9 use terms such as “circulation,”
“flux,” “current,” and “charge density” to express the 14.[R] Show that 2. is equivalent to
given equation in words. I Z
∂
E · dt = − B · n dS
6.[R] I 8.[R] III ∂t
C S
7.[R] II 9.[R] IV
Here, C bounds S. R Hint: You may assume that
10.[R] Which of the four laws tell us that an electric ∂ R
current produces a magnetic field? ∂t S B · n dS equals S (∂B/∂t) · n dS.

15.[R] Show that 4. is equivalent to

11.[R] Which of the four laws tells us that a magnetic
field produces an electric current? I Z
∂
Z
B · dr = µ0 J · n dS + µ0 0 E · n dS
∂t
In this section we assumed that the fields E and B do C S S
not vary in time, that is, ∂E/∂t = 0 and ∂B/∂t = 0.
(The circulation of B is related to the total current
The general case, in empty space, where E and B
depend on time, is also described by four equations, through the surface S that C bounds and to the rate
which we call 1, 2, 3, 4. Numbers 1 and 3, do not in- at which the flux of E through S changes.)
volve time; they are similar to I 0 and III 0 .

Calculus October 22, 2010

1382 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

18.S Chapter Summary

The first six sections developed three theorems: Green’s Theorem, Gauss’
Theorem (also called the Divergence Theorem), and Stokes’ Theorem. The
final four sections applied them to geometry and to physics and to expressing
various functions in terms of non-rectangular coordinate systems. These four
sections offer a way to deepen your understanding of the first six.

Name H Mathematical
R Expression Physical D
Green’s Theorem F · n ds = R
∇ · F dA flux of F
HC R  ∂P ∂Q

(−Qdx + P dy) = R ∂x + ∂y dA differen
HC H R
F · T ds = C F · dr = R (∇× F) · k dA circulation o
HC ∂Q
(P dx + Qdy) = R ∂x − ∂P
R
∂y
dA
RC R
Gauss’ Theorem S F · N dS = R ∇ · F dV
(Divergence The-
orem) H R
Stokes’ Theorem C
F · T ds = S (∇ × F) · n dS
(S is a surface bounded by C with n compat-
ible by orientation of C)

Green’s Theorem can be viewed as the planar version of either the Diver-
gence Theorem or Stokes’ Theorem.
Though div F and curl F were defined in terms of rectangular coordinates,
they also have a meaning that is independent of any coordinates. For instance,
if F is a vector field in space, the divergence of F at a point multiplied by the
volume of a small region containing that point approximates the flux of F
across the surface of that small region. More precisely,
R
F · n ds
div F at P equals the limit of S as the diameter of R approaches 0
volume of R
The curl of F at P is a vector, so it’s a bit harder to describe physically.
Let n be a unit vector and C a small curve that lies in a plane through P , is
perpendicular to n, and surrounds P . Then the scalar component of curl F at
P is the direction n multiplied by the area of the surface bounded by C gives
the circulation of F along C.
A field whose curl is 0 is called irrotational. A field whose divergence is 0
is called incompressible (or divergence-free).
Of particular interest are conservative fields. A field F is conservative if
its circulation on a curve depends only on the endpoints of the curve. If the
domain of F is simply connected, F is conservative if and only if its curl is 0.
A conservative field is expressible as the gradient of a scalar function.

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.S CHAPTER SUMMARY

Among the conservative fields are the symmetric central fields. If, in addi-
tion, they are divergence-free, they take a very special form that depends on
the dimension of the problem.

General Form of Divergence-Free

Geometry Symmetric Central Fields Description
R2 (plane) c brr inverse radial
R3 (space) c rbr2 inverse square radial
r
Rn c rn−1
b

RB
In the case where curl F = 0 one can replace an integral A F · dr by an
integral over another curve joining A and B. This is most beneficial when the
new line integral is easier to evaluate than the originalR one. Similarly, in a
region where ∇ · F = 0 we can replace an integral S F · n dSover the surface
S with a more convenient integral over a different surface.
In applications in space the most important field is the inverse square
central field, F = rbr2 . The flux of this field over a closed surface that does not
enclose the origin is 0, but its flux over a surface that encloses the origin is
4π. If one thinks in terms of steradians, it is clear why the second integral
is 4π: the flux of br/r2 also measures the solid angle subtended by a surface.
Also, the first case becomes clear when one distinguishes the two parts of the
surface where n · r is positive and where it is negative.

EXERCISES for 18.S Key: R–routine, M–moderate, C–challenging

H
1.[R] Match the vector fields given in mathematical (a) If C F · dr = −2, estimate ∇ × F at points in R.
symbols (a.-e.) with the written description (1.-5.)
(b) Would you use  or ⊕ to indicate the curl?

a. F(r) 1. an inverse cube central field

b. f (r)br 2. a central field (center at origin)
c. f (r)br 3. an arbitrary vector field 4.[R] A curve C bounds a region R of area A.
d. r/r 2 4. a symmetric central field (center at origin) H
b (a) If C F · n ds = −2, estimate ∇ · F at points in
e. r/r3 5. an inverse square central field R.
Note: There is not a one-to-one relation between the
(b) How did you decide whether ∇ · F is positive or
two columns.
negative?
H
2.[R] Use Green’s theorem to evaluate C (xy dx +
ex dy), where C is the curve that goes from (0, 0) to
(2, 0) on the x-axis and returns from (2, 0) to (0, 0) on 5.[R] A field F is called uniform if all its vectors are
the parabola y = 2x − x2 . the same. Let F(x, y, z) = 3i.
(a) Find the flux of F across each of the six faces of
3.[R] A curve C bounds a region R of area A. the cube in Figure 18.S.1 of side 3.

Calculus October 22, 2010

 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

(b) Find the total flux of F across the surface of the In Exercises 8 to 11, F is defined on the whole plane
box. but indicated only at points on a curve
R C bounding a
region R. What can be said about R ∇ · F dA in each
case?

(c) Verify the divergence theorem for this F.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 18.S.2:

8.[R] See Fig- ure 18.S.2(c).

ure 18.S.2(a).
Figure 18.S.1: 11.[R] See Fig-
9.[R] See Fig-
ure 18.S.2(d).
6.[R] Let F be the uniform field F(x, y, z) = ure 18.S.2(b).
2i + 3j + 0k. Repeat Exercise 5 Carry out the pre- 10.[R] See Fig-
ceding exercise for this field.
Exercises 12 to 15, F concern the sameR F as in Exer-
cises 8 to 11. What can be said about S ∇ × F dA in
each case?
7.[R] See Exercise 8. Suppose you placed the point at
which E is evaluated at (a, 0, 0) instead of at (0, 0, a).
12.[R] See Fig- ure 18.S.2(c).
ure 18.S.2(a).
15.[R] See Fig-
13.[R] See Fig-
ure 18.S.2(d).
(a) What integral in spherical coordinates arises? ure 18.S.2(b).
14.[R] See Fig-

16.[R] Let C be the circle of radius 1 with center

(0, 0).
(b) Would you like to evaluate it?
(a) What does Green’s theorem say about the line
integral
I
(x2 − y 3 ) dx + (y 2 + x3 ) dy ?

October 22, 2010 Calculus

§ 18.S CHAPTER SUMMARY 1385

(b) Use Green’s theorem to evaluate the integral in (a) If b were replaced by ∞, what is the solid angle
(a). S subtends at the origin? Hint: No integration
is needed.
(c) Evaluate the integral in (a) directly.
(b) Find the solid angle subtended by S when b is
finite. Hint: See Exercise 94.
17.[M] Let F(x, y) = (x + y)i + x2 j and let C be
the counterclockwise path around the triangle whose (c) Is the limit of your answer in (b) as b → ∞ the
vertices are (0, 0), (1, 1), and (−1, 1). same as your answer in (a)? Hint: It should be!
(a) RUse the planar divergence theorem to evaluate
C F · nds, where n is the outward unit normal.

(b) Evaluate the line integral in (a) directly. 19.[M] Look back at the Fundamental Theorem
of Calculus (Section 6.4), Green’s Theorem (Sec-
tion 18.2), the Divergence Theorem (Section 18.6), and
18.[M] Let b and c be positive numbers and S the Stokes’ Theorem (Section 18.4). What single theme
“infinite rectangle” parallel to the xy-plane, consisting runs through all of them?
of the points (x, y, c) such that 0 ≤ x ≤ b and b ≥ 0.

Calculus October 22, 2010

1386 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Calculus is Everywhere # 23
How Maxwell Did It

In a letter to his cousin, Charles Cay, dated January 5, 1965, Maxwell wrote:

I have also a paper afloat containing an electromagnetic the-

ory of light, which, till I am convinced to the contrary, I hold to
be great guns. [Everitt, F., James Clerk Maxwell: a force for
physics, Physics World, Dec 2006, http://physicsworld.com/
cws/article/print/26527]

It indeed was “great guns,” for out of his theory has come countless in-
ventions, such as television, cell phones, and remote garage door openers. In
a dazzling feat of imagination, Maxwell predicted that electrical phenomena
create waves, that light is one such phenomenon, and that the waves travel at
the speed of light, in a vacuum.
In this section we will see how those predictions came out of the four
equations (I’), (II’), (III’), and (IV’) in Section 18.9.
First, we take a closer look at the dimensions of the constants ε0 and µ0
that appear in (IV’),
1 J
∇×B= .
µ 0 ε0 ε0
The constant ε0 makes its appearance in the equation
1 qq0
Force = F = . (C.23.1)
4πε0 r2
Since the force F is “mass times acceleration” its dimensions are
length
mass · ,
time2
or, in symbols
L
m .
T2
The number 4π is a pure number, without any physical dimension.
The quantity qq0 has the dimensions of “charge squared,” q 2 , and R2 has
dimensions L2 , where L denotes length.
Solving (C.23.1) for ε0 , we find the dimensions of ε0 . Since

q2
ε0 = ,
4πF r2
October 22, 2010 Calculus
C.23– How Maxwell Did It 1387

its dimensions are

T2
 2 
T 2q2

q
= .
mL L2 mL3
To figure out the dimensions of µ0 , we will use its appearance in calculating
the force between two wires of length L each carrying a current I in the same
direction and separated by a distance R. (Each generates a magnetic field that
draws the other towards it.) The equation that describes that force is
2πRF
µ0 = .
I 2L
Since R has the dimensions of length L and F has dimensions mL/T 2 , the
numerator has dimensions mL2 /T 2 . The current I is “charge q per second,”
so I 2 has dimensions q 2 /T 2 . The dimension of the denominator is, therefore,
q2L
.
T2
Hence µ0 has the dimension
mL2 T 2 mL
2
· 2 = 2 .
T q L q
The dimension of the product µ0 ε0 is therefore
mL T 2 q 2 T2
· = .
q 2 mL3 L2
The dimension of 1/µ0 ε0 , the same as the square of speed. In short,
√
1/ µ0 ε0 has the dimension of speed, “length divided by time.”
Now we are ready to do the calculations leading to the prediction of waves
traveling at the speed of light. We will use the equations (I’), (II’), (III’),
and (IV’), as stated on page 1378, where the fields B and E vary with time.
However, we assume there is no current, so J = 0. We also assume that there
is no charge q.
Recall the equation (IV’)
∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 ε0 .
∂t
Differentiating this equation with respect to time t we obtain
∂ ∂ 2E
(∇ × B) = µ0 ε0 2 . (C.23.2)
∂t ∂t
∂
As is easy to check, the operator ∂t can be moved past the ∇× to operate
directly on B. Thus (C.23.2) becomes
∂B ∂ 2E
∇× = µ 0 ε0 2 . (C.23.3)
∂t ∂t
Calculus October 22, 2010
1388 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Recall the equation (II’)

∂B
∇×E=− .
∂t
Taking the curl of both sides of this equation leads to
∂B
∇ (−∇ × E) = ∇ × . (C.23.4)
∂t
Combining (C.23.3) and (C.23.4) gives us an equation that involves E alone:

∂ 2E
∇ × (−∇ × E) = µ0 ε0 . (C.23.5)
∂t2
An identity concerning “the curl of the curl,” which tells us that

∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇ (∇ · E) − (∇ · ∇) E. (C.23.6)

But ∇·E = 0 is one of the four assumptions, namely (I), on the electromagnetic
fields. By (C.23.5) and (C.23.6), we arrive at

∂ 2E
(∇ · ∇) E = µ0 ε0
∂t2
∂ 2E 1
or 2
− ∇2 E = 0. (C.23.7)
∂t µ 0 ε0

The expression ∇2 in (C.23.7) is short for

   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇·∇ = i+ j+ k · i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2
∂ ∂ ∂
= + + (C.23.8)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

In (∇ · ∇)E we apply (C.23.8) to each of the three components of E. Thus

∇2 E is a vector. So is ∂ 2 E/∂t2 and (C.23.8) makes sense.
For the sake of simplicity, consider the case in which E has only an x-
component, which depends only on x and t, E(x, y, z, t) = E(x, t)i, where E
is a scalar function. Then (C.23.8) becomes

∂2
 2
∂ E ∂ 2E ∂ 2E

1
E(x, t)i − + + i = 0,
∂t2 µ0 ε0 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

from which it follows

∂2 1 ∂ 2E
E(x, t) − = 0. (C.23.9)
∂t2 µ0 ε0 ∂x2

October 22, 2010 Calculus

C.23– How Maxwell Did It 1389

Multiply (C.23.9) by −µ0 ε0 to obtain

∂ 2E ∂ 2E
− µ ε
0 0 = 0.
∂x2 ∂t2
This looks like the wave equation (see (16.3.11) on page 1101). The solutions
√
are waves traveling with speed 1/ µ0 ε0 .
√
Maxwell then compares µ0 ε0 with the velocity of light:
In the following table, the principal results of direct observation
of the velocity of light, are compared with the principal results of
√
the comparison of electrical units (1/ µ0 v0 ).

Velocity of light (meters per second) Ratio of electrical units

Fizeau 314,000,000 Weber 310,740,000
Sun’s Parallax 308,000,000 Maxwell 288,000,000
Foucault 298,360,000 Thomson 282,000,000
Table C.23.1:
It is magnificent that the velocity of light and the ratio of the
units are quantities of the same order of magnitude. Neither of
them can be said to be determined as yet with such a degree of
accuracy as to enable us to assert that the one is greater or less
than the other. It is to be hoped that, by further experiment, the
relation between the magnitude of the two quantities may be more
accurately determined.
In the meantime our theory, which asserts that these two quan-
tities are equal, and assigns a physical reason for this equality, is
certainly not contradicted by the comparison of these results such
as they are. [reference?]
On this basis Maxwell concluded that light is an “electromagnetic dis-
turbance” and predicted the existence of other electromagnetic waves. In
1887, eight years after Maxwell’s death, Heinrich Hertz produced the predicted
waves, whose frequency placed them outside what the eye can see.
By 1890 experiments had confirmed Maxwell’s conjecture. First of all,
experiments
p gave the velocity of light as 299,766,000 meters per second and
1/µ0 ε0 as 299,550,000 meters per second.
Newton, in his Principia of 1687 related gravity on earth with gravity in the
heavens. Benjamin Franklin, with his kite experiments showed that lightning
was simply an electric phenomenon. From then through the early nineteenth
century, Faraday, ???, . . . showed that electricity and magnetism were insepa-
rable. Then Maxwell joined them both to light. Einstein, in 1905(?), also by a
mathematical argument, hypothesized that mass and energy were related, by
his equation E = mc2 .

Calculus October 22, 2010

1390 CHAPTER 18 THE THEOREMS OF GREEN, STOKES, AND GAUSS

Calculus is Everywhere # 24
Heating and Cooling

Engineers who design a car radiator or a home air conditioner are interested in
the distribution of temperature of a fin attached to a tube. We present one of
the mathematical tools they use. Incidentally, the example shows how Green’s
Theorem is applied in practice.
A plane region A with boundary curve C is occupied by a sheet of metal. By
various heating and cooling devices, the temperature along the border is held
constant, independent of time. Assume that the temperature in A eventually
stabilizes. This steady-state temperature at point P in A is denoted T (P ).
What does that imply about the function T (x, y)?
First of all, heat tends to flow “from high to low temperatures,” that is, in
the direction of −∇T . According to Fourier’s law, flow is proportional to the
conductivity of the material k (a positive constant) and the magnitude of the
gradient k∇T k. Thus I
(−k∇T ) · nds
C

measures the rate of heat loss across C.

Since the temperature in the metal is at a steady state, the heat in the
region bounded by C remains constant. Thus
I
(−k∇T ) · nds = 0.
C

Now, Green’s theorem then tells us that

Z
∇ · (−k∇T )dA = 0
A

for any region A in the metal plate. Since ∇ · ∇T is the Laplacian of T and k
is not 0, we conclude that
Z  2
∂ 2T

∂ T
+ dA = 0. (C.24.1)
∂x2 ∂y 2
A

By the “zero integrals” theorem, the integrand must be 0 throughout A,

∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2

October 22, 2010 Calculus

C.24– Heating and Cooling 1391

This is an important step, since it reduces the study of the temperature dis-
tribution to solving a partial differential equation.
The expression
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ ,
∂x2 ∂y 2
which is ∇·∇T , the divergence of the gradient of T , is called the Laplacian of
T . If T is a function of x, y, and z, then its Laplacian has one more summand,
∂ 2 T /∂z 2 . However, the vector notation remains the same, ∇ · ∇T . Even
more compactly, it is often reduced to ∇2 T . Note that in spite of the vector
notation, the Laplacian of a scalar field is again a scalar field. A function
whose Laplacian is 0 is called “harmonic.”

EXERCISES

Calculus October 22, 2010

1392 SUMMARY OF CALCULUS III

Summary of Calculus III

October 22, 2010 Calculus