ELEC425/1-2012 1

Assignment 3

Assignment 3.

1.15 (1.0%), 4.4 (0.5%), 4.8 (0.5%), 4.9 (0.5%), 4.10 (0.5%), 4.11 (0.5%),
4.12 (0.5%), 4.15 (0.5%), 4.16 (0.5%)

1.15. Spectral widths

a) Suppose that the frequency spectrum of a radiation emitted from a source has a
central frequency ν₀ and a spectral width ∆ν. The spectrum of this radiation in
terms of wavelength will have a central wavelength λ₀ and a spectral width ∆λ.
Clearly, λ₀ = c/ν₀. Since ∆λ ≪ λ₀ and ∆ν ≪ ν₀, using λ = c/ν, show that the line
width ∆λ and hence the coherence length lc are
λ0 λ2
∆λ = ∆ν = ∆ν 0
ν0 c
and
λ20
l c = c∆ t =
∆λ
b) Calculate ∆λ for a lasing emission from a He-Ne laser that has λ₀ = 632.8 nm
and ∆ν ≈ 1.5 GHz.

Solution.

a)
dλ c
=− 2
dν ν
c = λν
dλ λν λ
=− 2 =−
dν ν ν
The negative sign means that if λ increases by dλ then ν decreases by dν. The
spectral width, ∆λ or ∆ν are much smaller than the emission wavelength (or the
central wavelength, λ₀) or the emission frequency (or the central frequency),
respectively. The negative sign is omitted since ∆λ and ∆ν the intervals centered
on λ₀ and ν₀, respectively. ∆λ and ∆ν are positive quantities.
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Assignment 3

λ0 λ2
∆λ = ∆ν = ∆ν 0
ν0 c
The coherent length lc is determined by the temporal coherent time ∆t which is
determined by the frequency width ∆ν and hence by ∆λ
1  λ2  λ2
lc = c∆t = c = c 0  = 0
∆ν  c∆λ  ∆λ
b) λ₀ = 632.8 nm and ∆ν ≈ 1.5 GHz
λ20
∆λ = ∆ν
c
(632.8 × 10 −9 ) 2
∆λ = 1.5 × 10 9 ≈ 2.00 pm
3 × 10 8

4.4. Einstein coefficients and critical photon concentration.

ρ(hν) is the energy of the electromagnetic radiation per unit volume per unit
frequency due to photons with energy hν = E₂-E₁. Suppose that there are nph
photons per unit volume. Each has an energy hν. The frequency range of emission
is ∆ν. Then,
n ph hν
ρ (hν ) =
∆ν
Consider the Ar ion laser system. Given that the emission wavelength is at 488 nm
and the linewidth in the output spectrum is about 5·10⁹ Hz between half intensity
points, estimate the photon concentration necessary to achieve more stimulated
emission than spontaneous emission.

Solution.

For stimulated photon emission to exceed photon absorption the population

inversion should be reached, N₂ > N₁.
R21 (stim ) c3 N
= ρ (hν ) = 2 > 1
R21 (spon) 8πhν 3
N1
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Assignment 3

c3
ρ (hν ) > 1
8πhν 3
8πhν 3 8πh
ρ (hν ) > = 3
c3 λ
8π × 6.626 × 10 −34
ρ (hν ) > = 1.43 × 10 −13 J s m −3
(
488 × 10 −9 3
)
N ph hν
ρ (hν ) ≈
∆ν
ρ (hν )∆ν
n ph = N ph =
hν
1.43 × 10 −13 × 2 × 5 × 109 × 488 × 10 −9
n ph = −34 8
= 3.5 × 1015 photons/m 3
6.626 × 10 × 3 × 10
The obtained critical photon concentration for stimulated emission just exceeds
spontaneous emission in the absence of any photon losses. It does not represent the
photon concentration for laser operation. In practice, the photon concentration is
much greater during laser operation.

4.8. Fabry-Perot optical resonator.

a) Consider an idealized He-Ne laser optical cavity. Taking L = 0.5 m, R = 0.99,
calculate the separation of the modes and the spectral width following Example
1.7.1.
b) Consider a semiconductor Fabry-Perot optical cavity of length 200 micron with
end-mirrors that have a reflectance of 0.8. If the semiconductor refractive index is
3.7, calculate the cavity mode nearest to the free space wavelength of 1300 nm.
Calculate the separation of the modes and the spectral width following Example
1.7.1.

Solution.

a) separation of the modes is ,

∆υ m = υ f =
c
=
(3 ×108 ) = 3 ×108 Hz
2L 2 × 0 .5
The finesse is
πR1 / 2 π 0.991 / 2
F= = = 312.6
1− R 1 − 0.99
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Assignment 3

and each mode width, spectral width, is

υf
3 × 108
δυ m = = = 9.6 × 105 Hz
F 312.6
b) the cavity mode nearest to the emission wavelength 1300 nm is
m=
2L
=
(
2 200 × 10 −6
= 1138.46
)
λ / n 1.3 × 10 −6 / 3.7
m=1138
the separation of the modes is
∆υ m = υ f =
c/n
=
(
3 × 108 / 3.7 )
= 2.03 × 1011 Hz
2 L 2 × 200 × 10 −6 ( )
The finesse is
πR 1 / 2 π 0.81 / 2
F= = = 14.05
1− R 1 − 0 .8
Each mode width or the mode spectral width is
υf
2.03 × 1011
δυ m = = = 1.44 × 1010 Hz
F 14.05

4.9. Population inversion in a GaAs laser diode

Consider the energy diagram of a forward biased GaAs laser diode as in Figure
4.38 which results in EFn-EFp=Eg.
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Assignment 3

p+ n+
Ec e− EFn
A Ec
Eg

Ev B
EFp Ev
h+

The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped p-n with with a sufficiently
large forward bias to just cause population inversion where A and B overlap.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Figure 4.38. GaAs laser diode, energy diagram.

Estimate the minimum carrier concentration n = p for population inversion in

GaAs at 300 K. The intrinsic carrier concentration in GaAs is of the order of 10⁷
cm⁻³. Assume for simplicity that
n = ni exp[(EFn − EFi ) / (k BT )] and p = ni exp[(EFi − EFn ) / (k BT )]
(Note: The analysis will only be an order of magnitude as the above equations do
not hold in degenerate semiconductors. A better approach is to use the Joyce-
Dixon equations as can be found in advanced textbooks, applied for degeneracies
of EF-EC ≈ 8kT).

Solution.

The potential barrier from Ec (n-side) to Ec (p-side) is ∆Ec and in valence band
∆Ec=Ev(p-side)-Ev(n-side).
To reach population inversion, the Fermi level EFp must be at least 1/2∆Ec below
Ev(p-side) or 1/2∆Ec above Ev (n-side) and EFn must be at least 1/2∆Ec above Ec (n-
side), Figure 4.38.
Thus population inversion occurs when,
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Assignment 3

EFn-EFp=[Ec(n-side)+1/2∆Ec]-[Ev(n-side)+1/2∆Ec]=Eg
If EFi is Fermi level in intrinsic material, then for n=p EFn-EFi= EFi-EFp
Substituting for EFp=EFn-Eg
EFn-EFi= EFi-(EFn-Eg)
2EFn-2EFi=Eg
Assuming that EFn-EFi=Eg/2=1.43/2=0.715 eV
Minimum carrier concentration is
n = ni exp[(E Fn − E Fi ) / (k B T )] = 10 7 exp[0.715 / 0.0259] = 1019 cm -3
n >> ni this is a degenerate doping.

4.10. Threshold current and power output from a laser diode.

a) Consider the rate equations and their results in Section 4.10. It takes ∆t = nL/c
second for photons to cross the laser cavity length L, where n is the refractive
index. If Nph is the coherent radiation photon concentration, then only half of the
photons, (1/2)Nph, in the cavity would be moving towards the output face of the
crystal at any instant. Given that the active layer has a length L, width W and
thickness d, show that the coherent optical output power and intensity are
 hc 2 N ph dW   hc 2 N ph 
P0 =   (1 − R ) and I =   (1 − R )
 2 nλ   2nλ 
where R is the reflectance of the semiconductor crystal face.
b) If α is the attenuation coefficient for the coherent radiation within the
semiconductor active layer due to various loss processes such as scattering and R is
the reflectance of the crystal ends then the total attenuation coefficient αt is,
1  1 
αt = α + ln 
2L  R 2 
Consider a double heterostructure InGaAsP semiconductor laser operating at 1310
nm. The cavity length L ≈ 60 µm, width W ≈ 10 µm, and d ≈ 0.25 µm. The
refractive index n ≈ 3.5. The loss coefficient α ≈ 10 cm⁻¹. Find αt, τph.
c) For the above device, threshold current density Jth ≈ 500 A cm⁻² and τsp ≈ 10 ps.
What is the threshold electron concentration? Calculate the lasing optical power
and intensity when the current is 5 mA.

Solution.
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Assignment 3

a) P₀=Energy flow per unit time in cavity towards face × Transmittance

  hc  1     hc  1  
  λ  2 N ph (dWL )    λ  2 N ph (dWL ) 
P0 =      Transmittance =      (1 − R )
 ∆t   nL / c 
   
 hc 2 N ph dW 
P0 =   (1 − R )
 2λn 
I=(Optical power)/Area
P0  hc N ph 
2

I= =  (1 − R )
Wd  2nλ 
where R is the reflectance of the crystal face.

b) Consider one round trip through the cavity. The length L is traversed twice and
there is one reflectance at each end. The overall attenuation of the coherent
radiation after one-round trip is
R·Rexp[-α(2L)]
where R is the reflectance of the crystal end.
Equivalently, this reduction can be represented as an effective or a total loss
coefficient αt such that after one round trip, the reduction factor is exp[-αt(2L)]
Equating these two expressions R·Rexp[-α(2L)] = exp[-αt(2L)] and rearranging,
αt = α+1/(2L)ln(1/R²)
The reflectance is
2 2
 n − 1   3.5 − 1 
R=  =  = 0.309
 n + 1   3.5 + 1 
The total loss coefficient is
1  1  1  1 
αt = α + ln 2  = 1000m −1 + −6
ln 2 
= 2.0574 ⋅104 m -1
2L  R  2 × 60 × 10  0.309 
The average time for a photon to be lost from the cavity due to transmission
through the end-faces, scattering and absorption in the semiconductor is
n 3.5
τ ph = = = 0.567 ps
cα t (3 ×10 )(2.0574 ⋅104 )
8

Coherent radiation is lost from the cavity after, on average, 0.567 ps.

c) From
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Assignment 3

nth ed
J th =
τ sp

threshold concentration is
nth =
J thτ sp
=
(500 ×10 )(10 ×10 )
4 −12
≈ 1.25 ×1021 m -3 or 1.25 ×1015 cm-3
ed (1.6 ×10−19 )(0.25 ×10−6 )
from given current of 5 mA the current density is
J=I/(WL)
0.005
J= = 8.33 ×106 A m -2
(10 ×10−6 )(60 ×10−6 )

The coherent radiation photon concentration is

τ ph 0.567 ×10−12
N ph ≈ (J − J th ) ≈ −19 −6
× (833 − 500)×104 ≈ 472.03 ×1017 ≈ 4.72 ×1019 photons m -3
ed (1.6 ×10 )(0.25 ×10 )

The optical power is

 hc 2 N ph dW 
P0 =  (1 − R )
 2nλ 

P0 =
( )
2
6.626 × 10−34 3 × 108 × 4.72 × 1019 × 0.25 × 10−6 × 10 × 10−6
× (1 − 0.309) ≈ 5.3 ⋅10-4 W or 0.53 mW
−9
2 × 3.5 × 1310 × 10

Intensity= Optical power/area

0.53 ×10 −3
I= −6 −6
= 212 ×106 W/m 2 or 212 W/mm2
(0.25 ×10 )(10 × 10 )
This intensity is right at the crystal face over the optical cavity cross section. As
the beam diverges, the intensity decreases away from the laser diode.

4.11. InGaAsP-InP Laser

Consider an InGaAsP-InP laser diode which has an optical cavity of length 250
microns. The peak radiation is at 1550 nm and the refractive index of InGaAsP is
4. The optical gain bandwidth (as measured between half intensity points) will
normally depend on the pumping current (diode current) but for this problem
assume that it is 2 nm.
a) What is the mode integer m of the peak radiation?
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Assignment 3

b) What is the separation between the modes of the cavity?

c) How many modes are there in the cavity?
d) What is the reflection coefficient and reflectance at the ends of the optical
cavity (faces of the InGaAsP crystal)?
e) What determines the angular divergence of the laser beam emerging from
the optical cavity?

Solution.

a) The wavelength λ of a cavity mode and length L are related as

λ
m =L
2n
2nL 2 × 4 × 250 × 10 −6
m= = = 1290.3 or m = 1290
λ 1550 × 10 −9
when m=1290, λ=2nL/m=1550.39 nm so that the peak radiation has m=1290.
b) Mode separation is given by

∆λ m = =
(1550 × 10 ) = 1.20 nm
λ2 −9 2

2nL 2(4 )(250 × 10 ) −6

The given linewidth is 2 nm

c) Let the optical linewidth ∆λ be between λ₁ and λ₂. Then λ₁ = λ-0.5∆λ =
1549 nm and λ₂=λ+0.5∆λ=1551 nm and the mode numbers corresponding to
these are
2nL 2 × 4 × 250 × 10 −6
m= = = 1291.16
λ1 1.549 × 10 −6
2nL 2 × 4 × 250 × 10 −6
m= = = 1289.49
λ2 1.551× 10 −6
m is the integer and corresponding wavelength must fit into the optical gain curve
Taking m=1290 gives λ=2nL/m=1550.39 nm, within optical gain 1549-1551 nm
Taking m=1291, gives λ=2nL/m=1549.19 nm, within optical gain 1549-1551 nm
Taking m=1289, gives λ=2nL/m=1551.59 nm, just outside optical gain 1549-1551
nm
There are two modes.
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Assignment 3

d) Reflection coefficient is given as

r=(n-1)/(n+1)=3/5=0.6
R=r²=0.36 or 36%
e) Diffraction at the active region cavity end.

4.12. Laser diode efficiency.

a) There are several laser diode efficiency definitions as followed:
The external quantum efficiency, ηEQE, of a laser diode is defined as
Number of output photons from the diode (per unit second)
η EQE =
Number of injected electrons into diode (per unit second)
The external differential quantum efficiency, ηEDQE, of a laser diode is defined as
Increase in the number of output photons from the diode (per unit second)
η EDQE =
Increase of the number of injected electrons into diode (per unit second)
The external power efficiency, ηEPE, of the laser diode is defined by
Optical output power
η EPE =
Electrical input power
If P₀ is the emitted optical power, show that
eP0
η EQE =
Eg I
 e dP 
η EDQE =   0
 E g  dI
 Eg 
η EPE = η EQE  
 eV 
b) A commercial laser diode with an emission wavelength of 670 nm (red) has the
following characteristics. The threshold current at 25°C is 76 mA. At I=80 mA, the
output optical power is 2 mW and the voltage across the diode is 2.3 V. If the
diode current is increased to 82 mA, the optical output power increases to 3 mW.
Calculate the external QE, external differential QE and the external power
efficiency of the laser diode.
c) Consider an InGaAsP laser diode operating at λ=1310 nm for optical
communications. The laser diode has an optical cavity of length 200 microns. The
refractive index, n=3.5. The threshold current at 25°C is 30 mA. At i=40mA, the
output optical power is 3 mW and the voltage across the diode is 1.4 V. If the
diode current is increased to 45 mA, the optical output power increases to 4 mW.
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Assignment 3

Calculate external quatum efficiency (QE), external differential QE, external

power efficiency of the laser diode.

Solution.

a) the external quantum efficiency ηEQE of a laser diode is

Optical Power/hν P0 / E g eP0
η EQE = = =
Diode Current/e I /e IE g
The external differential quantum efficiency is defined as
Increase in the number of output photons from the diode (per unit second)
η EDQE =
Increase of the number of injected electrons into diode (per unit second)
(Change in Optical power ) / hν = ∆P0 / E g = e  dP0 
η EDQE =  
( Change in diode current ) / e ∆I / e E g  dI 
The external power efficiency is defined by
Optical output power
η EPE =
Electrical input power
P0 P eE g  eP0  E g  E 
η EPE = = 0 =   = η EQE  g 
IV IV eE g  IE g  eV   eV 
b) 670 nm laser diode
Eg≈hc/λ=1.85 eV
eP0
η EQE =
Eg I
η EQE = 0.0135 or 1.35%
 e dP 
η EDQE =   0
 E g  dI
1.6 × 10 −19 3 × 10 −3 − 2 × 10 −3
η EDQE = = 0.27 or 27%
1.85 82 × 10 −3 − 80 × 10 −3
P 2 × 10 −3
η EPE = 0 = = 0.0109 or 1.09%
IV 80 × 10 −3 × 2.3
c) 1310 nm laser diode
Eg=hc/λ=0.9464 eV
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Assignment 3

1.6 × 10 −19 × 3 × 10 −3
η EQE = = 0.079 or 7.9%
40 × 10 −3 × 0.9464 × 1.6 × 10 −19
e  dP0  1.6 × 10 −19  (4 − 3)10 −3 
η EDQE =  =   = 0.211 or 21.1%
E g  dI  0.9464 × 1.6 × 10 −19  (45 − 40 )10 −3 
P0 3 × 10 −3
η EPE = = = 0.0535 or 5.35%
IV 40 × 10 −3 × 1.4

4.15. The SQW laser.

Consider a DFB laser operating at 1550 nm. Suppose that the refractive index
n=3.4 (InGaAsP). What should be the corrugation period Λ for a first order grating
q=1. What is Λ for a second order grating, q=2. How many corrugations are
needed for a first order grating if the cavity length is 20 µm? How many
corrugations are there for q=2? Which is easier to fabricate?

Solution.

The lowest energy levels with respect to the CB edge Ec in InGaAs are determined
by the energy of an electron in a one-dimensional potential energy well
h2n2
εn = ∗ 2
8me d
where n is a quantum number 1, 2, 3, …, εn is the electron energy with respect to
Ec, in InGaAs, or εn=En-Ec
using d=10x10⁻⁹ m, me*=0.04me and n = 1 and 2, we find the following electron
energy levels
n=1
h2n2 (6.626 ⋅ 10 −34 ) 2 12
εn = * 2 = = 1.51 × 10 − 20 J = 0.094 eV
8me d (
8 × 0.04 × 9.11 × 10 −31 10 × 10 −9 )2

ε₁=0.094 eV
n=2
ε₂=ε₁·2²=0.376 eV
for holes using d=10x10⁻⁹ m, mh*=0.44me and n = 1, the hole energy levels below
Ev is
n=1
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Assignment 3

h2n2 (6.626 ⋅ 10 −34 ) 2 12

ε n' = = = 1.37 × 10 − 21 J = 0.00855 eV
(
8mh* d 2 8 × 0.44 × 9.11 × 10 −31 10 × 10 −9 ) 2

The wavelength light emission from the QW laser with Eg (InGaAs) = 0.7 eV is
hc 6.626 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108
λQW = = = 1548 × 10 −9 m or 1548 nm
(
E g + ε 1 + ε 1 (0.70 + 0.094 + 0.00855) 1.6 × 10
' −19
)
The wavelength of emission from bulk InGaAs with Eg = 0.70 eV is
hc 6.626 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108
λg = = = 1771× 10 −9 m or 1771 nm
Eg (
(0.70) 1.6 × 10 −19 )
The difference is
λg – λQW = 1771 – 1548 = 223 nm.

4.16. A GaAs quantum well.

Effective mass of conduction electrons in GaAs is 0.07 me where me is the electron
mass in vacuum. Calculate the first three electron energy levels for a quantum well
of thickness 8 nm. What is the hole energy below Ev if the effective mass of the
hole is 0.47me? What is the change in the emission wavelength with respect to bulk
GaAs which has an energy bandgap of 1.42 eV.

Solution.

The lowest energy levels with respect to the conduction band edge Ec in GaAs are
determined by the energy of an electron in a one-dimensional potential energy well
h2n2
εn =
8me∗ d 2
where n is a quantum number 1, 2, 3, …, εn is the electron energy with respect to
Ec, in GaAs, or εn=En-Ec.
using d=8x10⁻⁹ m, me*=0.07me and n = 1, 2, and 3, we find the following electron
energy levels
n=1
h2n2 (6.626 ⋅ 10 −34 ) 2 12
εn = = = 0.1345 × 10 −19 J = 0.084 eV
(
8me* d 2 8 × 0.07 × 9.11 × 10 −31 8 × 10 −9 )
2

ε₁ = 0.084 eV
n=2
ε₂ = ε₁·2² = 0.336 eV
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Assignment 3

n=3
ε₃ = ε₁·3² = 0.756 eV
Note: Whether ε₃ is allowed depends on the depth of the quantum well (QW) and
hence on the bandgap of the sandwiching semiconductor.
The hole energy below Ev is
h2n2 (6.626 ⋅10 −34 ) 2 12
ε n' = = = 0.02003 × 10 −19 J = 0.0125eV
(
8mh* d 2 8 × 0.47 × 9.11 × 10 −31 8 × 10 −9 )
2

The wavelength of emission from bulk GaAs with Eg = 1.42 eV is

hc 6.626 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108

λg = = = 874.9 × 10 −9 m or 875 nm
Eg (
(1.42) 1.6 × 10 −19
)
The wavelength of emission from GaAs QW is
hc 6.626 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8
λQW = = = 819 × 10 −9 m or 819 nm
(
E g + ε 1 + ε 1' (1.42 + 0.084 + 0.0125) 1.6 × 10 −19 )

The change in the emission wavelength with respect to bulk GaAs is

λg – λQW = 875 – 819 = 56 nm