Transmission Line Protection – PROT 407

Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Transmission Line
Protection

Using Directional Overcurrent

Elements
Part I: Traditional Approach

Copyright © SEL 2004

Technical papers supporting this section:

6009.pdf, Directional Element Design and Evaluation, Jeff Roberts, Armando

Guzman

Revision Table
Editor Tech Review TDS Review Date Rev # Comments

LGP CLS 1-19-04 1,2 Adapted from “Directional element design and
evaluation”
CRT MF, LGP 1-22-04 3 CRT and LGP corrections

CLS 7-23-04 4 Corrections from April course, Mike Bryson

markups

CLS 11-5-04 5 Markups topg 30

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Objectives
z Explain why directional elements are
necessary.
z Describe the connections of traditional
phase and ground directional relays.
z Describe the traditional methods for
directional overcurrent relay application and
coordination.
z Determine graphically and algebraically the
operation of directional elements for a given
fault condition.

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Single Overcurrent Relay

IS
Overcurrent Element
IS (50 and/or 51) Trip

CT CB IP Line
IS
Trip

The overcurrent relay is most commonly used protection element. A simple

overcurrent relay is a device that operates when the applied current surpasses a
threshold. This threshold is a parameter that can be adjusted (or set) by the user.
This setting is commonly called pickup current.

The overcurrent relay receives its input current from the secondary circuit of a
current transformer. The current transformer’s characteristics are set so that the
relay receives an accurate replica of the primary current. This must be
accomplished for a range of fault current magnitudes. If the CT is well designed,
the secondary current “seen” by the relay can be calculated as:

IS = IP/CTR

where IP = the primary current

CTR = CT current transformation ratio.

Once the current overcomes the pickup, the relay order to trip the circuit breaker,
CB, can take place immediately or with some time delay, depending on the relay
design and application.

It is important to note that simple overcurrent relays operate on the magnitude of

the applied current. These devices do not have the capability to determine if the
current goes in one direction or the other, or non-directional.

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Overcurrent Relay Connections

a
b
c
Bus 51 51 51
Ia

Ic 51N
Ib

52

Line

Overcurrent relays are typically used to protect radial three-phase lines.

To cover all types of short circuits within lines, four relays are commonly used in
the traditional scheme with electromechanical technology. Three of these relays
are set to cover phase faults and one relay to detect ground faults.

As shown in the figure, the CTs connect with the relays so each of the phase fault
relays measures the line currents. The pick-up current of these relays must be set
to a relatively high value, to avoid relay operation during high load conditions.

The ground relay measures the residual current:

Ires = Ia+Ib+Ic = 3 I0.

The residual current in the case of a perfectly balanced system is zero. Thus the
ground relay pickup can be set to relatively low values, to avoid relay operation
due to the existence of some residual current during normal operation conditions.

During ground faults, even with high fault resistances, the zero-sequence current
appears and the ground relay detects the fault. Of course, for extremely high fault
impedance, even the zero-sequence current is close to zero, so the fault might
remain undetectable.

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Overcurrent Relay Operation Time

Instantaneous Definite Time
t t

tDT

Ii I IDT I

Inverse Time Combined

t t

IIT I IIT Ii I

The symbol means “settable”

The operation time of the overcurrent relay depends on the design and application. How the
operating time of the relay changes with the magnitude of the applied current is the primary
consideration. Three types of relay elements can be identified according to their time vs. current
characteristic curve:

Instantaneous overcurrent element operates in a very short time when the applied current
surpasses the threshold. A relay is instantaneous when it is designed with no intentional delay.
Operating times for these relays is from 0.5 to 2 cycles. In these elements only the pickup
current is settable.

Definite time element operates with a constant, or definite time delay for any current over the
pickup current. In these elements the operating time can be set as well as the pickup current.

Inverse time elements have a time-vs-current curve requiring faster operation as the applied
current is larger. These elements are very popular due to their predictable behavior, similar to
the behavior of fuses. The level of the curve can be adjusted by the user.

It is common to find relays which contain several types of elements. The resulting combined
characteristic is very effective since the instantaneous element produces very fast operation for
high current faults, and the long time delay inverse element provides the desired security and
facilitates selectivity in the low current range.

Relay elements typically have easy to use setting systems. For example, the pickup current of
traditional electromechanical inverse time relays can be changed by changing the position of an
accessible screw. The curve level is adjusted by changing the position of the time dial setting
(TD).

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Family of IEEE Inverse Characteristics

z U.S. Inverse Curve

⎡ 5.95 ⎤
t = TD ⋅ ⎢ 2 + 0.18⎥
⎣ M −1 ⎦
I
M=
I pu

This figure shows a family of IEEE Inverse (U2) Characteristics. The numbers on
the curves are the corresponding time dial setting values.

By increasing the TD you also increase the operating time. Depending on the relay
design, this dependency may be directly proportional or not.

In this example, for the element shown, changing the TD from three to nine makes
the operating time three times longer.

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Overcurrent Relay Coordination

1
Radial
2 F1

Radial
3 ~0

z Selectivity Condition:
 t2 > t1 for faults at F1
z No Need to Check Coordination Between
3 and 1

The application of directional overcurrent relays is typically unnecessary in radial

systems due to the fact that the load contribution from one feeder to its neighbor is
generally negligible.

For the case shown, there is no need to calculate the setting of Relay 3 to
coordinate with Relay 1 for faults at F1, since the current measured by Relay 3 is
considerably less than Relay 3’s pick-up.

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Overcurrent Relay Coordination

1 ~0
Radial
2

Radial
3 F2
z Selectivity Condition:
 t2 > t3 for faults at F2
z No Need to Check Coordination Between
1 and 3

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Need For Directional Elements

2 1

F1

4 3 F2

z Selectivity Conditions:
t3 > t1 for F1
Contradictory
t1 > t3 for F2

Non-directional overcurrent relays applied to a non-radial system generally result

in coordination problems.

As shown in the figure, there are two selectivity conditions which are often
contradictory. Finding relay settings that can achieve both conditions will be
difficult.

We do not want Relay 1 to detect faults at F2, nor do we want Relay 3 to detect
faults at F1. The condition can be met if the relay is modified to operate only when
a fault occurs on its line. In other words, the overcurrent relay needs to be
directionally sensitive.

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Need For Directional Elements

2 1

F1

4 3 F2

z Selectivity Conditions:
No Need to Verify if
t3 > t1 for F1
1 and 3 are Directional
t1 > t3 for F2
Overcurrent Relays

If the directional element is designed to operate when the fault is on its protected
line, by detecting the direction of the current, there is no need to verify the
coordination constraints that could cause a contradiction.

An overcurrent relay with this ability is called a directional overcurrent relay.

Directionality allows for the overcurrent relays to be applied in looped systems. In

these systems, non-directional relays cannot be coordinated. In other cases the use
of directional relays can help to obtain shorter time delays.

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Why Use Directional Elements?

z Determine fault direction and

improve overcurrent element
coordination. 9
z Supervise distance elements.
z Form quadrilateral ground
distance characteristics.

Why use directional elements?

Directional elements are used to:

• Determine fault direction to control overcurrent elements

• Supervise distance elements to increase element security

• Form quadrilateral distance characteristics

Directional overcurrent elements will be the focus of this section; the other
applications will be explained later on the course.

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Basic Scheme of a
Directional Overcurrent Relay (67)

V Directional Element
(32)
I
Permissive,
blocking or restrain

I Overcurrent Element
(50 or 51) Trip

A directional overcurrent relay has two elements: a directional element and an

overcurrent element. The overcurrent element will operate as expected, except that
it requires permission from the directional element. The final output to the circuit
breaker is issued by the overcurrent element, provided that the directional element
indicates the correct direction of the fault.

A directional element requires a reference, or polarizing, quantity and an operating

quantity. The figure shows the example of a directional element with a polarizing
voltage and an operating current. As shown in the figure, in the traditional design
the current used by the overcurrent element is the same current used by the
directional element.

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Directional Overcurrent Protection

Basic Applications

The addition of a directional element eliminates the restriction of applying

overcurrent protection only to radial lines. Directional overcurrent protection can be
applied to systems having several generation sources or looped systems.

The arrows shown in the figure are used to represent the protection tripping direction.
Note that the relays are oriented towards the protected lines. This orientation divides
the system protection into two independent groups: the relays “looking” to the right
and those “looking” to the left. The directionality divides the coordination process
into two independent processes. A relay only needs to be coordinated with the other
relays in its group.

The system shown in the lower figure is a single ring with only one source. In this
case, all the relays are directional except the relays adjacent to the generation bus.
For line faults close to the generation bus, the system is inherently directional. That
is, fault current can only flow out of the bus and into the lines. Thus, there is no need
for a directional relay.

Note: the time dial settings of the relays at locations K and L should be set to the
minimum value. Can you explain why?

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Directional Overcurrent Protection

Basic Applications

I III

II IV

A radial system with two parallel lines is a unique case. In such a case, directional
overcurrent protection is needed at the line ends connected to the load bus. The
addition of a parallel line in a radial system creates the necessity for directional
protection.

There are two interesting practical observations about this situation:

1) The relay settings at either terminal are the same. Thus, the settings of I =
settings of II, and settings of III = settings of IV.

2) The time dial setting of relays at III and IV can be set at their minimum.

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Directional Overcurrent Relay Coordination

3 6
11
4
1 2 5 8 9 10

12 15
17
13
21 20 18

14 16
19

Radial circuit
Legend: Directional OC relay (67)
Non-directional OC relay (51)

The calculation of overcurrent element settings in a system protected with

directional overcurrent relays is an important issue. The goal is to determine relay
settings that simultaneously coordinate the requirements of maximum sensitivity,
speed, security and selectivity.

One of the first activities to carry out when performing these calculations consists
of establishing the set of coordination pairs. A coordination pair is a group of two
relays, a main relay and a back-up relay. The back-up relay is set to operate in case
the main relay, or its circuit breaker, fails to operate for faults in its zone.

Generally, for directional overcurrent relay coordination, each pair follows the
remote back-up rules described in a previous section. The following table shows
some of the coordination pairs for the system shown in the figure. Review and
complete the table:

Main Back-Up
2 6
2 13
2 17
3 1
3 13
3 17
: :
: :

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Directional Elements
Basic Principle
V I

F2 F1

Relay

Reverse Fault (F2) Forward Fault (F1)

I
V

V I

Now that is has been determined that directional relays are needed, how are they
implemented?

A classical directional element responds to the phase shift between the relay
voltage and current. For faults on the protected line (forward faults), the current
lags the voltage. The angle between voltage and current corresponds to the angle
of the fault-loop impedance.

For faults on the adjacent line, the voltage angle remains almost unchanged and
the current angle changes by approximately 180°. The directional element uses
this information to discriminate between forward and reverse faults.

Observe that the voltage input signal acts as an angular reference. This signal is
referred to as the relay polarizing quantity. The current input signal contains
information about the fault location and is referred to as the relay operating
quantity.

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Electromechanical Directional Relay

OP
POL
β

POL

Torque Applied to Cylinder:

T = k • |OP| • |POL| • sin β
OP = k • |OP| • |POL| • cos (β−90ο)
Operates When T>0

Early directional relays consisted of induction cylinder units. The relay’s operation
is based on the movement of a cylinder. The torque to move the cylinder is the
magnetic flux produced by the interaction of the two input quantities.

This torque equation is very well-known, and modern digital relays still use the
term “torque” to reference the quantity which determines the relay operation.

Solid state analog directional elements were designed and built in the 1960’s and
1970’s. These essentially were based on the angle comparator principle. In
general, the design of these elements followed similar rules to the ones used to
implement directionality in electromechanical relays.

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Traditional Directional Relay Operation

Characteristic with a Leading
Maximum Torque Angle
k V I cos(θ −θMT ) ≥ 0 θ = ∠I − ∠V
Maximum
Operation Torque Line
(MTL)
No I (Operating
θ MT Quantity)
Operation
θ
V (Polarizing
Quantity)

ZTL

When Current Leads Voltage

In this example the operating equation of a traditional directional element has a voltage V and a
current I as input signals. A phasor diagram is used to represent the relay operating condition.
Using the voltage as a reference, the relay maximum torque line (dotted black line) is drawn with a
ϕMT angular displacement leading the voltage reference. When θ = θMT, the current phasor
coincides with the maximum torque line and the relay produces the maximum operating torque.
Angle θMT is the characteristic angle of the E/M relay. Angle θMT is a relay setting in digital relays.
Perpendicular to the maximum torque line is the relay zero torque line, ZTL, (solid black line),
which defines the relay’s operating characteristic. All current phasors beyond this line will result in
a relay operation. Current phasors below the minimum torque line result in no operation,
representing a restraint condition. For proper application of the directional element, the value of
θMT is selected and the relay is connected in such a way that, for forward faults, the current phasor
lies within the operating region. For reverse faults, the current should lie within the restraint region.
As the operating quantity moves away from the maxium torque line, the amount of torque
produced decreases to magnitude zero at the no-operation line. If the operating quantity lies within
the no operation region, a negative torque is produced. That is, the torque will attempt to rotate the
cylinder in the reverse direction. If the operating quantity coincides with the maximum torque line
in the no-operation region, the relay will produce the maximum restraint torque. An easy
visualization is to consider the cosine function. The positive half cycle of the cosine function is
centered at zero degrees. As you move away from zero degrees, in either direction, the function
decreases in magnitude to zero and then becomes negative, moving into the restraint region.

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Traditional Directional Relay Operation

Characteristic with a Lagging
Maximum Torque Angle

k V I cos(θ −θMT ) ≥ 0 θ = ∠V − ∠I
No
Operation
Operation

θ V (Polarizing
θ MT Quantity)
ZTL Maximum I (Operating
Torque Line Quantity)
(MTL)

With some modifications in the design, the electromechanical relay characteristic

can be changed to the one shown here. In this case, the relay’s maximum torque
occurs when the current lags the reference voltage.

In the traditional electromechanical relay this was done by connecting a capacitive

impedance in series with the voltage coil and reversing the current connection.

This type of relay is called a directional relay with a lagging maximum torque
angle.

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Directional Relay Polarization

Ia, Ib, Ic

Va, Vb, Vc

Relay

The angle among the phase voltages

and currents measured by the relay
will depend on the type of faults.

It has been established that a directional relay needs two input quantities to
determine direction. The angular relationship between currents and voltages is
dependent on the type of fault.

The question now becomes, “What quantities do I use?”

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90o Phase Directional Element

Example: Voltage Current
θMT = 30° or 45° (Leading)
Vbc Ia
Ia
Vca Ib
Va
A
MT Vab Ic
ϕMT

Vbc Ta = k Vbc Ia cos(θa,bc −θMT )

Vc Vb Tb = k Vca Ib cos(θb,ca −θMT )
Tc = k Vab Ic cos(θc,ab −θMT )

First, let us consider the phase fault relays. The figure illustrates the most widely
used traditional phase directional element. Each of the phase elements receives a
line voltage and the current of the third line as input signals. The phase shift between
relay voltage and current for a unity-power-factor condition is 90°. Thus, the name
of the connection is the 90° or Quadrature connection.

A value of 30° or 45° is selected for the maximum torque angle θMT with current
leading the voltage. For forward fault conditions, the fault current lags the phase
voltage and the unity-power-factor current and tends toward the maximum torque
line, MTA, as shown in the figure. If θMT is 30°, the fault current for a bolted fault
will coincide with the MTA if the characteristic line angle is 60°.

It can be shown that this is valid for three-phase and phase-phase faults. For forward
three-phase faults, all three directional elements will be in close proximity to the
maximum torque condition, and will operate. For forward line faults, there are only
two elements with positive operating torque. The directional element connected to
the voltage between the faulted lines will see no fault current and will likely have a
low polarizing voltage, and will not operate.

For reverse three-phase or line-to-line faults, the relay current will be shifted by
180°, placing it in the restraint region of the directional element.

The operating torque for each of the three electromechanical elements is shown
above. Each relay operates when its corresponding torque is larger than a given
quantity, generally zero.

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90o Phase Directional Element

a
b
c
Bus

a
b
c
67+ 67+ 67+
Ia + + +

Ic
Ib

52
Line

The figure shows the typical connection diagram for directional elements using the
90° connection. The manufacturers literature should always be consulted to verify
the proper connections to achieve the desired directionality.

Note that in the connection the polarity markings of the relays, CTs, and VTs are
selected in order to provide the desired tripping direction. For currents flowing out
of the bus and into the line, the relay currents flow into the relay polarity markings.
Accordingly, the voltage drops in the secondary side of the VTs are oriented from
polarity to nonpolarity marking in the relay. The result is positive relay torque for
faults on the protected line for forward faults.

Note that the secondary connections of CTs and VTs are grounded at only one
point. If more than one ground exists, there could be circulating currents during
ground faults that would create a potential difference between the two grounding
points. For example, if there is a ground at the relay panel and the substation
switchyard, the circulating current can cause a relay misoperation.

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Traditional Ground Directional

Elements

Polarizing Operating
Quantity Quantity

3V0 3I0
3I0 3I0
Non- V2 I2
Traditional

Zero-sequence directional elements have been used to properly detect ground fault
in power systems. These elements are very sensitive and generally secure.

Zero-sequence directional elements can misoperate for some faults in an adjacent,

mutually-coupled line. The use of negative-sequence directional elements solves the
problem.

Negative-sequence elements are not “traditional” directional elements. However,

they have several advantages. They are applicable at stations where only open-delta
VTs exist or where VTs are available only on the opposite side of wye-delta power
transformers. Negative-sequence elements are also easy to check in the field for
correct connections and operation.

An important point in ground directional element application is the availability and

reliability of the polarizing quantity. Zero-sequence voltage or current is not always
available; the negative-sequence voltage is always available. There are cases, such
as line-end faults, where 3V0 is higher than 3V2. In other cases the opposite is true,
depending on system topology and parameters. A careful choice of the polarizing
quantity is very important for proper directional element application.

Whatever the directional element type and connection might be, the overcurrent
element always responds to the residual current 3I0.

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Connection for 3V0 Polarized

Ground Directional Element

V0
I0
+

3I0
I0 V0
+
ZT0 ZL0
3V0

When zero-sequence voltage is available at the relay location, it can be used as a

polarizing signal. The figure shows the sequence network interconnection and the
phasor diagram for a forward ground fault.

Observe that current 3I0 leads voltage 3V0 by more than 90°. In traditional
directional elements, it is difficult to obtain a value of θMT greater than 90°.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Connection for 3V0 Polarized

Ground Directional Element

Options
3I0
Voltage Current
3V0 -3I0
-3V0 3V0 -3V0 3I0

-3I0
Example:
θMT = 60° (Lagging)

There are two possible relay connections to keep θMT less than 90°. One solution
uses 3V0 and -3I0 as input signals, and the other connection uses -3V0 and 3I0.

In both alternatives, the operating current lags the polarizing voltage by the angle
of the zero-sequence network impedance. Because of the lagging operating
current, a value of 60° is commonly used for the maximum torque angle θMT, with
the current lagging the voltage.

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3V0 Polarized Directional Element

a
b
c
Bus

a
b
c

3I0
3V0

+
+ 67N

52
Line

The figure shows a connection for the 3V0 polarized ground directional element.
According to the polarity markings, the relay receives -3V0 and 3I0 as input signals
in this connection. In actual practice, the manufacturer will likely require the
polarity of the CTs and VTs to be connected to the polarity of the relay. The
manufacturer will then reverse the polarity of one of the inputs to obtain the
desired functionality. As always, you should consult the manufacturer’s literature
before making any connections.

Observe that the residual connection of the CTs is used as a zero-sequence current
filter. In order to get 3V0, a set of auxiliary VTs are connected grounded wye-
broken delta. This is a traditional zero-sequence voltage filter.

Note that the use of auxiliary VTs is not a requirement. The primary VTs can be
connected grounded wye-broken delta to provide 3V0 to the relay, if secondary
phase voltages are not needed. Additionally, many VTs are supplied with dual
secondaries. In such a case, one set of secondaries can be connected as wye to
supply phase voltages and the other set of secondaries can be connected broken
delta to supply 3V0.

The torque will be:

TN = k Vres Ires cos(θ(−v0),i −θMT )

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Summary For Traditional

Directional Elements
Phase Elements (Leading MTA) and 90o:
Ta = k Vbc Ia cos(θa,bc − θMT ) = k Vbc Ia cos(∠Ia − ∠Vbc − θMT )
Tb = k Vca Ib cos(θb,ca − θMT ) = k Vca Ib cos(∠Ib − ∠Vca − θMT )
Tc = k Vab Ic cos(θc,ab − θMT ) = k Vab Ic cos(∠Ic − ∠Vab − θMT )

Ground Element (Lagging MTA):

TN = k' Vres Ires cos(θ( −v0 ),i0 − θ'MT ) = k' Vres Ires cos(∠( −Vres ) − ∠Ires − θ'MT )

These equations summarize the torques for the four electromechanical relays. The
phase relays are in the so-called 90 degrees connection. The formulas can be used
to check the operation of these directional elements for a given fault with known
phase voltage and current values.

If a given relay has a positive torque, the directional relay indicates forward
direction.

If the torque is negative, it indicates a reverse direction. If the torque is zero,

nothing can be concluded.

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Three Ways of Obtaining 3I0

I0
a

Flux-
Summing
CT
I0
b

c
I0
3I0 3I0
3I0
3I0

Previously, it was indicated that zero-sequence current could be used for the
polarizing and the operating quantities of a ground fault directional element. The
question is, “How to use the ‘same’ quantity for both inputs of a directional
element?”

The figure shows three sources for obtaining 3I0. Starting from left to right, 3I0 can
be obtained from a CT in the grounded neutral of a wye-connected winding of a
power transformer. Next is the residual current of wye-connected CTs. Last, 3I0
can be obtained through the use of a flux-summing CT.

The CT connected to the transformer neutral and the flux-summing CT can

provide higher sensitivity by using lower ratio CTs. In the residual connection, the
ratio is determined by maximum load currents. If using lower ratio CTs, care
should be exercised in selecting the proper CTs such that saturation will not be a
concern.

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Zero-Sequence Current Polarization

S
138kV 67N

S 69kV

S
67N

Selecting a source of polarizing current requires several considerations:

• All paths for ground current to flow are not necessarily ground sources.

• If they merely pass ground current from another source, they cannot be used for
polarization.

• The addition of a delta connected tertiary winding in an auto or wye/wye

transformer means that it contributes ground current in addition to the ground
current that it passes from the other source, and therefore it can be used.

• The H0X0 bushing current of auto banks can only be used with caution. The tertiary
delta current is a better source.

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3I0 Polarized Ground Directional Element

a
b
c
Bus
3I0T

3I0L 3I0T

+ 67N
+

52 3I0L
Line

The figure shows one alternative for 3I0 directional element connection. The
current flow directions are shown for a ground fault on the protected line. The
primary zero-sequence current flows up the transformer neutral and out the line.
The secondary zero-sequence current flows into the relay polarity markings.

For a ground fault on another line connected to the same bus, the primary currents
will flow up the transformer neutral, and into the bus from the protected line. For
such a case, the phase angle for polarizing current 3I0T remains unchanged and the
operating current 3I0L undergoes a 180° phase shift.

Choosing the best polarizing current for current-polarized ground directional

elements must be done with caution. Power transformer connections, among other
things, must be carefully considered when deciding the zero-sequence source.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Example of Obtaining IPOL, Auto-TX

138kV 69kV

1I0TTR

IPol=1I0TTR

IPol=(3I0SR+3I0TTR)@138kV-3I0SR@69KV
3I0SR+3I0TTR 3I0SR

In the case of an auto-transformer, the current flowing in the H0X0 bushing is a

mix of currents on two different voltage bases. Thus, the current can only be used
for polarization with great caution. All possible zero-sequence source conditions,
for all possible faults on the systems, must be studied to ensure that the
polarization signal will be correct for all possible configurations.

An easier alternative is to use the current circulating in the delta for polarization. It
will be a reliable source of polarization in all cases.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Directional Relay Sensitivity Limits

1. Minimum Volt-Amps (VA)

2. Minimum Voltage (Volts)
3. Minimum current (Amps)
4. A Combination of 1, 2, and 3

Electromechanical devices need a minimum amount of electromagnetic force for

the moving parts to overcome the restraining action of springs, friction, and other
forces of the system.

This minimum magnetic force defines a minimum current, a minimum voltage, a

minimum torque, or a combination of those minimum quantities to produce a relay
operation.

For example, it is known that a certain ground directional relay requires a

minimum of 3.6 VA to make the relay operate. Suppose that the secondary voltage
and current are as follows:

If V= 3 V

I = 0.6 A

Then VA = 3 x 0.6 = 1.8 < 3.6 VA.

In this case the relay will not operate, regardless of the angle between the current
and the polarizing voltage.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Directional Element
Issues and Solutions

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

90° Connected, Traditional Phase-

Directional Element
T > 0 for Forward Three-Phase Faults

Bus S Three-Phase Bus R

Fault

Relay 1

For forward three-phase faults, the torque calculations of the three

90°-connected, phase-directional elements are positive. Balanced fault conditions
generally cause no problem.

However, for close-in faults, the voltage may be so low that the minimum operating
torque cannot be overcome. To offset the low voltage, there is an increase in
current magnitude.

The most obvious problem is for a fault at the breaker, where the voltage is virtually
zero.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Reverse SLG Fault With Strong

Remote Zero-Sequence Infeed

I Fault
Open
Relay 1 Relay 2

Bus S Bus R

A-Phase
Fault

Mr. Warrington identified a system-dependent fault condition that produces a

misoperation for 90° connected phase-directional elements. This condition is a
reverse A-phase-to-ground fault, where the remote infeed current is zero-sequence.

Relay 1 should see the fault in the forward direction, while Relay 2 should see the
fault in the reverse direction.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Reverse SLG Fault

May Cause Relay Misoperation
Relay 1 Relay 2
VPOLB=VCA VPOLC=VAB VPOLB VPOLC
IA, IB, IC

44.3° 44.3°

180°
136° 136°
IA , IB , IC

VPOLA=VBC VPOLA

Relay 1 A-phase element sees the fault in the forward direction, as expected. Relay 2
B-phase and C-phase elements see the fault in the forward direction, instead of the
expected reverse direction.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Possible Phase Directional

Element Solutions

z Require Agreement of all Directional

Elements
z Supervise With Phase-to-Phase
Overcurrent Element
z Block Directional-Element Decision
Based on 3I0 Level
z Use Positive-Sequence Polarization

The following are possible solutions to this problem:

• Require agreement of all directional elements before declaring phase-fault direction

• Supervise each phase directional decision with a phase-to-phase overcurrent element

• Block phase directional element decision based on zero-sequence current level

• Use a positive-sequence directional element

These are solutions that are easy to implement in a digital relay.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Positive-Sequence Element Performance

for Out-of-Section Phase-to-Phase Faults

Bus S Bus R
Line 2
Source S Source R
ES ∠ 30° ER ∠ 0°

Line 1

Relay 1 Relay 2

Z S1 = Z R1 = j0.8 Ω Z L1 = j4 Ω

Let’s look at the performance of the positive-sequence directional element for a B-

phase-to-C-phase fault in the parallel line. Relay 1 should see the fault in the
forward direction, while Relay 2 should see the fault in the reverse direction.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Positive-Seq. Element of Relay 2

Misoperates for Out-of-Section BC Fault

Relay 1 Relay 2
I1 ⋅ 1∠ ZL1

V1
θ = 74°
I1 V1

I1 θ = 86 °

I1 ⋅1∠ ZL1

For Relay 2, the angle between the polarizing quantity and the operating quantity is
less than 90°. Relay 2 incorrectly declares the fault as forward.

How can we avoid this incorrect directional declaration?

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Positive-Sequence Element Issues

z Zero-Voltage Three-Phase Faults

 Memory Voltage

z Only Valid for Three-Phase Faults

The positive-sequence directional element cannot operate for three-phase faults

where the magnitudes of all three phase voltages are near zero.

The amount of torque is directly related to the magnitude of the voltage. Hence,
zero volts results in zero torque.

The close-in zero voltage fault issue can be overcome by using positive-sequence
memory voltage.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Zero-Sequence Polarization
Parallel Lines w/ Common Terminals

Line 2

ZOM
Line 1

Source 1 Source 2
SLG Fault

Zero-sequence polarized directional elements are reliable for use in parallel lines with
common terminals.

The figure shows the direction of zero-sequence currents for a single-line-to-ground

fault on Line 1. The direction of zero-sequence current in both sources is always the
same for ground faults anywhere on Line 1 and Line 2. The element performs
correctly in this application.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Zero-Sequence Polarization
Parallel Lines w/ Isolated Zero-Seq. Sources

Relay 3 Relay 4

Line 2

Source 3 Source 4

ZOM
Relay 1 Relay 2

Line 1

Source 1 Source 2
SLG Fault

Zero-sequence polarized directional elements can misoperate in parallel lines with high zero-
sequence mutual coupling and isolated zero-sequence sources.

The figure shows parallel lines with isolated zero-sequence sources and a SLG fault on Line
1. Note that the zero-sequence current in each source is in phase with the zero-sequence
current of the corresponding relay. An undesired trip may occur in the unfaulted line.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Zero-Sequence Polarization
One Common Bus

Relay 3 Relay 4

Line 2

Source 3

ZOM
Relay 1 Relay 2 Source 2

Line 1

Source 1
SLG Fault

In this case, polarization is correct.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Zero-Sequence Source Isolation in

Parallel Lines With One Common Bus

Relay 3 Relay 4

Line 2

Source 3

ZOM
Relay 1 Relay 2 Source 2

Line 1

Source 1 Open

SLG Fault

Zero-sequence source isolation also occurs in parallel lines with a single common bus after
the breaker closest to the common bus opens.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Summary
z Directional elements ensure the speed,
security and selectivity of non-unit
protection schemes in looped systems.
z The most common scheme for traditional
directional elements includes three phase
fault relays in 90° and one ground relay.
z Directional overcurrent relays’ settings
must be calculated to achieve
coordination.

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Section 3 - Traditional Line Protection - Directional OC Elements Part 1

Summary

z The operation of traditional directional

relays can be evaluated using the torque
equations or using graphical methods.
z Zero-sequence source isolation affects
zero-sequence polarized directional
elements.

Using Directional Overcurrent Elements - Traditional_r5 46