Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

MODULE 2.2: PERSONALITY

Personality represents the sum total of several attributes (qualities) which manifest themselves
in an individual, the ability of the individual to organize and integrate all the qualities so as to
give meaning to life and the uniqueness of the situation which influences behavior of an
individual.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY/FACTORS AFFECTING PEROSNALTY:

Now that we have understood the meaning of personality, the next question is what
determinants go into the development of personality? Was the individual born with that
personality or was it developed afterwards as a result of his interaction with his environment?
Generally, the consensus is that heredity and environment jointly affect the individual's
personality development. The factors affecting personality develo pment are illustrated as
follows:
(I) Heredity
The concept that heredity is a determinant of personality is embedded in our minds. In our day
to day life, so many times we use the term "Like father like son " as "Like mother like daughter."
When we use these terms we generally refer to the traits like physique, eye color, hair color,
height, temperament, energy level, intelligence, reflexes etc. However, the importance of
heredity varies from one personality trait to another. For example, heredity is generally more
important in determining a person 's temperament than his and ideals.

(II) Environment
If all personality traits are determined by heredity, they would be fixed at birth and would not
be changed throughout the life. But this is not so. The personality traits are not completely
dictated by heredity, environment also plays a very important role in the development of
personality of a person. Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational
factors.
(a)Culture: According to Hoebel, "Culture is the sum totalof learned behavior traits which are
manifested and shared by the members of the society." Culture establishes norms, attitudes and
values that are along from generation to generation and create consistencies over time. Every
culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group.
Persons belonging to different cultural groups generally have different attitudes towards
independence, aggression, competition,cooperation, artistic talent etc. While growing, the child
learns to behave in ways expected by the culture of the family in which he was born. Most
cultures -expect different roles from males than from females. Similarly, every culture has its
own sub cultures with different views about such qualities as moral values, style of dress, etc.
Although culture has significant influence on personality development, a linear cannot be
established culture and personality due to the following reasons:
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

I. Individuals within the same culture can differ in their behavior and personality formats
because of the existence of several sub systems within the same culture.
II. The workers are not influenced by the same culture as managers are. Moreover, skilled
workers have different behavior patterns than unskilled workers.

Management recognizes and understands these differences while dealing with the people in the
organization.

(b)Family: One of the very important determinants of the personality of a person is his
immediate family. Families influence the behaviour of a person especially in the early stages.
The nature of such influence will depend upon the following factors;

 Socio-Economic level of the family

 family size
 Birth order
 Race
 Religion
 Parent's educational level
 Geographic location.

To elaborate, a person brought up in rich and prestigious family has a different personality as
compared to the people who belong to a poor family. The family size will also affect the
behavior of a child. The personality of a single child is different from the personality of a
person who is brought up in a family of more than two siblings. Similarly, the personality of a
person brought up in a nuclear family is different from that of a person brought up in a joint
family. Studies have also shown that first born children are more responsible, rational,
independent, ambitious and m o r e s e n s i t i v e t o social acceptance. Empirical evidence also
suggests that the home and family environment created by the mother and the father as well as
their own behavior is highly influential on personality development of the child.

Behaviour is highly influential on personality development of the child.

Every child tries to identify himself with some person whom he feels ideal in the family.
Generally, a child in the family tries to behave like his father or mother. This process can be
examined from three different perspectives:

 Firstly, identification can be viewed as the similarity of behavior (including feelings

and attitudes) between child and model.
 Secondly, identification can be looked upon as the child's motives or desires to be like
the model.
 Lastly, identification can be viewed" as the process through which the child actually
takes on the attributes of the model.

This identification process is fundamental to the understanding of personality development.

 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

(c)Social. Socialization is a process by which an infant acquires from the enormously wide
range of behavioral potentialities that are open to him at birth, those behavior patterns that are
customary and acceptable to the family and social groups. Initially socialization starts with the
contact of the infant with the mother when he grows up. Contacts with the other members of
the family and social groups influence his socialization process. These social groups include
school, mates, friends, then friends or colleagues at work place, groups to which an individual
belongs.

Because "A man is known by the company he keeps," all these social groups influence the
behaviour of the individuals. A lot of evidence has been accumulated which suggests that
socialisation may be one of the best explanations of why employees behave the way they do in
today's organisations. There are some norms and laws of every society in which the individual
exists. Much of the behaviour arises out of the respect for these norms and laws. Thus, we can
say that social life has a considerable impact on the individual's behaviour.

(d) Situational. Apart from the above factors, situational factors also play a very important
role in determining the personality of a person. Migram's research study indicates very
powerful role the situation may play in human personality. On the basis of his research study
he states that "A situation exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and
may provide push. In certain circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is. as the
kind of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions."

That is why it is often said that life is a collection of experiences. Every individual goes
through different type of experiences and events in his life. Some of the events and experiences
can serve as important determinants of his personality. A trauma suffered by a person in the
childhood- can sometime change the structure of his own personality. In addition to this,
certain incidents or situations reveal a specific aspect of the personality of a person that was so
far bidden. For example, a very weak and coward person may spontaneously perform heroic
action in saving some one's life without regard to his own safety. The role of psychiatrists in
personality shaping and changing is wide known.

NATURE OF PERSONALITY:
• Personality Traits: Personality refers to the set of traits & behaviour that characterizes
an individual.
• Personality is consistent and enduring: It refers to the relatively stable pattern of
behaviour & consistent internal state & explains an individual’s behavioural tendencies.
• Personality has both internal (thoughts, values & genetic characteristics) & external
(observable behaviour) elements.
• Personality can change: Personality is both inherited as well as it can be shaped by the
environment.
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

• Personality reflects individual differences: No two individuals are exactly alike,

because the characteristics that constitute an individual’s personality are unique
combination of factors.

WHY PERSONALITY IS IMPORTANT AT WORKPLACE FOR BETTER

PERFORMANCE?

Knowing about an employee’s personality helps in:

• Motivating employees: monetary incentives and perks can help uplift an

employee’s spirits to some extent but that is also temporary. Knowing about what
types of projects and work environments can be linked to employee’s innate
drive would mean long-term motivation and happiness. Ex: service-oriented
people getting demotivated in a competitive environment.

• Reducing turnovers: An employee fit assessment can increase retention rates

because it ensures your employees are built for the job, or at least have the innate
potential to be successful. Identifying the right person for the right position.

• Decreasing conflicts and improving collaboration: Personalities clash can

cause a ripple effect of destruction in your organization. Predicting which people
might need to make more of an effort when working together and, more
specifically, which personality dimensions could be the culprits in these conflicts
so that one knows what to work on. Ex: High achievement oriented, aggressive or
dominating employee or low self esteemed employees.

• Preventing burnouts: Understanding or knowing which employees are more

susceptible to high nervous tension, episodes of low energy or are unable to
detach, for ex: Need for positive reinforcement, or holding back frustrations due
to fear of conflicts in future; can help in reducing burnouts in employees to a
large extent.

• Communicating effectively with their workforce: Sometimes a person might

give a confused or blank look when you try to explain him/her about certain
concepts. Such a person requires more visuals and concrete examples of how this
idea would be transposed into his day-to-day reality.
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

How we learn, what information we need to feel at ease making a decision, and
how much time we need to allow this information to set in can differ from one
employee to the next. So personality at work is important for making sure you
are approaching someone the best way possible, and are equipped with what this
person needs to feel comfortable.

PERSONALITY TRAITS:

The early work in the structure of personality revolved around attempts to identify and label
enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behaviour. Popular characteristics include
shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal & timid. Those characteristics, when they
are exhibited in a large number of situations, are called personality traits.

Researchers have long believed that these traits could help in employee selection, matching
people to jobs, and in guiding career development decisions.

There were a number of early efforts to identify the primary traits that govern behaviour.
However, for the most part, these efforts resulted in long lists of traits that were difficult to
generalize from and provided little practical guidance to organizational decision makers.

Two exceptions are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and the Big-Five Model. Over
the past 20 years, these two approaches have become the dominant frameworks for identifying
and classifying personality types and traits.

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI)

Initially proposed by Carl Jung (1921) and later refined by two American women - Katharine
Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myer, has become an extremely widely used
personality theory in self-help, business management, counselling and spiritual development
contexts, but it is not commonly used in academic research where, like all type theories, it is
treated sceptically.

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is an introspective self-report questionnaire with the

purpose of indicating differing psychological preferences in how people perceive the world
around them and make decisions. It is used by many organizations to select people for a
particular position.

MBTI is the most widely used personality-assessment instrument in the world. It's essentially a
100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular
situations.
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

On the basis of the answers to the questionnaire, individuals give to the test, they are classified as
extroverted or Introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or
F), and judging or perceiving (J or P). These terms determined as follows:

Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I): Extroverts is “Outgoing” or “People Person”, action-

oriented, comfortable in groups, has wide range of friends, do not think enough before acting.
Whereas, introverts are “Reflective” or “Reserved”, thought-oriented, feel comfortable to be
alone, have few friends, take time in reflecting or thinking before jumping into action.

Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N): Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. They
focus on details. Likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible, and concrete, solve
problems based on facts, pragmatic in nature. Whereas, intuitive types rely on unconscious
processes and look at the "big picture". Likely to trust information that is more abstract or
theoretical, more interested in future possibilities and hunches.

Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F): Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems.
Decide things from a more detached standpoint, Decision seems to be reasonable, logical and
matching a given set of rules. Not tactful and give direct feedback to others. Feeling types rely
on their personal values and emotions. Decide things by associating or empathizing with the
situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and considering the needs of the people involved. They
are Tactful and do not prefer saying the cold truth.

Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J): Judging types want control, and prefer their world to be
ordered. They are task-oriented, prefer making a list of things to do, prefer planning and
systematic work done before playing. The Perceivers, instead, are Loose and casual, keep plans
to minimum, mix work and play. Stimulated by an approaching deadline.

The MBTI sorts the above into four opposite pairs, or dichotomies, resulting in 16 possible
psychological types as below:

ISTJ ISTP ISFJ ISFP INFJ INFP INTJ INTP

ESTP ESTJ ESFP ESFJ ENFP ENFJ ENTP ENTJ

ISTJ: Quiet, serious, earn success by thoroughness and dependability. Practical, matter-of-fact,
realistic, and responsible. Decide logically what should be done and work toward it steadily,
regardless of distractions. Take pleasure in making everything orderly and organized - their
work, their home, their life. Value traditions and loyalty.

ISFJ: Quiet, friendly, responsible, and conscientious. Committed and steady in meeting their
obligations. Thorough, painstaking, and accurate. Loyal, considerate, notice and remember
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

specifics about people who are important to them, concerned with how others feel. Strive to
create an orderly and harmonious environment at work and at home.

INFJ: Seek meaning and connection in ideas, relationships, and material possessions. Want to
understand what motivates people and are insightful about others. Conscientious and committed
to their firm values. Develop a clear vision about how best to serve the common good. Organized
and decisive in implementing their vision.

INTJ: Have original minds and great drive for implementing their ideas and achieving their
goals. Quickly see patterns in external events and develop long-range explanatory perspectives.
When committed, organize a job and carry it through. Skeptical and independent, have high
standards of competence and performance - for themselves and others.

ISTP: Tolerant and flexible, quiet observers until a problem appears, then act quickly to find
workable solutions. Analyze what makes things work and readily get through large amounts of
data to isolate the core of practical problems. Interested in cause and effect, organize facts using
logical principles, value efficiency.

ISFP: Quiet, friendly, sensitive, and kind. Enjoy the present moment, what's going on around
them. Like to have their own space and to work within their own time frame. Loyal and
committed to their values and to people who are important to them. Dislike disagreements and
conflicts, do not force their opinions or values on others.

INFP: Idealistic, loyal to their values and to people who are important to them. Want an external
life that is congruent with their values. Curious, quick to see possibilities, can be catalysts for
implementing ideas. Seek to understand people and to help them fulfill their potential.
Adaptable, flexible, and accepting unless a value is threatened.

INTP: Seek to develop logical explanations for everything that interests them. Theoretical and
abstract, interested more in ideas than in social interaction. Quiet, contained, flexible, and
adaptable. Have unusual ability to focus in depth to solve problems in their area of interest.
Skeptical, sometimes critical, always analytical.

ESTP: Flexible and tolerant, they take a pragmatic approach focused on immediate results.
Theories and conceptual explanations bore them - they want to act energetically to solve the
problem. Focus on the here-and-now, spontaneous, enjoy each moment that they can be active
with others. Enjoy material comforts and style. Learn best through doing.

ESFP: Outgoing, friendly, and accepting. Exuberant lovers of life, people, and material
comforts. Enjoy working with others to make things happen. Bring common sense and a realistic
approach to their work, and make work fun. Flexible and spontaneous, adapt readily to new
people and environments. Learn best by trying a new skill with other people.

ENFP: Warmly enthusiastic and imaginative. See life as full of possibilities. Make connections
between events and information very quickly, and confidently proceed based on the patterns they
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

see. Want a lot of affirmation from others, and readily give appreciation and support.
Spontaneous and flexible, often rely on their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.

ENTP: Quick, ingenious, stimulating, alert, and outspoken. Resourceful in solving new and
challenging problems. Adept at generating conceptual possibilities and then analyzing them
strategically. Good at reading other people. Bored by routine, will seldom do the same thing the
same way, apt to turn to one new interest after another.

ESTJ: Practical, realistic, matter-of-fact. Decisive, quickly move to implement decisions.

Organize projects and people to get things done, focus on getting results in the most efficient
way possible. Take care of routine details. Have a clear set of logical standards, systematically
follow them and want others to also. Forceful in implementing their plans.

ESFJ: Warm hearted, conscientious, and cooperative. Want harmony in their environment,
work with determination to establish it. Like to work with others to complete tasks accurately
and on time. Loyal, follow through even in small matters. Notice what others need in their day-
by-day lives and try to provide it. Want to be appreciated for who they are and for what they
contribute.

ENFJ: Warm, empathetic, responsive, and responsible. Highly attuned to the emotions, needs,
and motivations of others. Find potential in everyone, want to help others fulfill their potential.
May act as catalysts for individual and group growth. Loyal, responsive to praise and criticism.
Sociable, facilitate others in a group, and provide inspiring leadership.

ENTJ: Frank, decisive, assume leadership readily. Quickly see illogical and inefficient
procedures and policies, develop and implement comprehensive systems to solve organizational
problems. Enjoy long-term planning and goal setting. Usually well informed, well read, enjoy
expanding their knowledge and passing it on to others. Forceful in presenting their ideas.

THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY MODEL:

Over the past couple of decades, personality has become a focal point in organizational research,
leadership development and derailment, and particularly employee selection.  This optimism is
largely the result of the development of a unified model of personality called the Big Five, or
Five Factor Model of Personality (BFFM).  The Big Five model is an empirical and
comprehensive model of personality.

The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961, but failed to
reach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five factor
model of personality, which Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization. At least four
sets of researchers have worked independently for decades on this problem and have identified
generally the same Big Five factors: Tupes & Cristal were first, followed by Goldberg at the
Oregon Research Institute, Cattell at the University of Illinois, and Costa and McCrae at the
National Institutes of Health.
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

Human resources professionals often use the Big Five personality dimensions to help place
employees. That is because these dimensions are considered to be the underlying traits that make
up an individual’s overall personality.

1. Neuroticism: This personality dimension characterizes someone as calm, self -confident,

secure (Positive) verses nervous, depressed and insecure (negative). Neuroticism is the
tendency to easily experience anger, anxiety, and other negative emotions, while
emotional stability is just the opposite. This dimension relates to one’s emotional stability
and degree of negative emotions like anxiety, depression, anger, and impulsiveness.

2. Extraversion: Extroversion is person's interest in the outside world and can be exhibited
through sociability, talkativeness and assertiveness. This dimension deals with
relationships with others. Sociability is the ability of a person in maintaining
interrelationship within a social group. Sociability of executives and superiors tend to
result in positive job behavior and improved job performance. Talkativeness is the art
and ability to attract and influence others through speaking skills. Assertiveness is
confirming one's own ideas and reactions confidently or defending oneself and/or
others through positive arguments declaring strongly or laying claims. Subordinates
like the assertive nature of their superiors and mould their behavior and performance to
his expectations.

3. Openness to Experience: Such people have appreciation for art, adventure, ideas, and
variety. This personality dimension people have a tendency to engage in intellectual
abilities and experience new sensations and ideas. They like to learn new things and
enjoy new experiences. Creativity, Intellect and Culture is involved here. People with this
tendency are characterized as dreamy, imaginative, inventive and non-conservative in
their thoughts.

4. Agreeableness: Highly agreeable people are co-operative, warm and trusting.

Individuals with these traits always think from the viewpoint of their employees or
clients accept the proposals, needs or requests of the employees. Such a trait has a
positive influence on job behavior and job performance. Such individuals involve the
employees in decision making, and help and guide them in their work. Cooperative
traits regarding attitude and practice of superiors of an organization helps the company
in moulding the job behavior and improving the job performance. Executives with a
trustworthy nature provide autonomy to employees enable them to realize their
potentialities and rise to the expectations of their superiors.

5. Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness is a measure of reliability. Persons with a high

level of conscience are reliable, organized, dependable and persistent. The responsible
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

nature of the individuals enables them to take up the work activities with or without
delegation and makes the superiors to concentrate on policy issues. The persistent trait
refers to the behavior of rendering the services continuously at a steady pace without
any opposition.

Personality does contribute to performance but only at a moderate level (it is because of this
that most psychologists recommend using personality tests as a supplement to other selection
tools (such as structured interviews and reference checks). Conscientiousness is the only Big-
Five trait that predicts performance across all job-types and job-levels. Different combinations of
personality traits are needed for jobs that have unique demands (such as customer service and
managerial work). Use personality and cognitive ability tests for employee selection (combined
they are very highly predictive of performance).

PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING OB:

1. Locus of Control: Locus of control is the extent to which people believe that they can control
the events affecting their lives. Some believe that they are the masters of their own fate. These are
labeled as internals. Other people see themselves as pawns of fate believing that whatever happens
to them in their lives is due to luck or fate. These have been called the externals.

(a) Internal Locus of Control: A person with strong internal locus of control believes that he
controls events concerning his own life and his internal traits determine what happens in a given
condition. Such people are successful in their jobs, career and lives. They are better at stressful
situations and are satisfied with challenging jobs and performance based incentives. They are
independent and more active socially. Also they prefer participative style of management.

(b) External Locus of Control: People who rate high in externality view that external
environment or God determines what should happen to them and it will happen. Such people
prefer directive management and can break under pressure. These people prefer chance oriented
awards and are more interested in job security and extrinsic awards. Externals do well on jobs that
are well structured and routine.

2. Machiavellianism: This personality trait of Machiavellianism also known as Mach is named

after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the 16 th century on how to gain and use power. The
characteristics of high Machiavellianism employers are as follows:

 A Machiavellianism man is pragmatic and keeps emotional distance from others; and
believes that ends can justify means.
 A high Machiavellianism manipulates more, wins more, are persuaded less and
persuade others more than the low Machiavellianism.
 High Machiavellianism people flourish when they interact face to face with others
rather than indirect] y.
 These people are successful when the situation has a minimum number of rules and
regulations.
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

 High Machiavellianism man has high self-confidence and high self-esteem. They are
cool and calculating and have no hesitation using others or taking advantage of others in
order to serve their own goals.
We cannot conclude that whether high Machiavellianism makes good employees or not.
The answer will depend upon the type of the job and whether moral and ethical values
are considered in evaluating the performance of a person.

3. Self Esteem: People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike themselves. This trait is
called self-esteem. The research on self-esteem offers some interesting insights into organizational
behavior. For example, self-esteem is directly related to expectations for success. High self
-esteems believe that they possess the ability they need to succeed at work.
Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to
choose unconventional jobs than people with low self-esteem.

The most generalizable finding on self-esteem is that low self-esteems are more susceptible to
external influence than are high self-esteems. Low self-esteems are dependent on the receipt of
positive evaluations from others. As a result, they are more likely to seek approval from others and
more prone to conform to the beliefs and behaviors of those they respect than are high self
-esteems. In managerial positions, low self-esteems will tend to be concerned with pleasing others
and, therefore, are I s likely to take unpopular stands than are high self-esteems.

Not surprisingly, self-esteem has also been found to be related to job satisfaction. A number of
studies confirm that high self-esteems are more satisfied with their jobs than are low self-esteems.

4. Self-monitoring: "Self-monitoring is a personality trait that measures an individual's ability to

adjust his or her behavior to external situational factors".

High self-monitors change their behavior easily based on situational requirements while low self
-monitors reveal their moods which may contradict situational requirements. They cannot change
their behavior. In case of low self-monitors, there is a high behavioral consistency between who
they are and what they do. On the other hand, high self-monitors present striking contradictions
between their public, personal and private image. The high self-monitors are more successful in
managerial positions, are better leaders, better conversationalists and can work efficiently with
people of different departments.

5. Risk taking: Managers in large organizations tend to be risk-averse, especially in contrast to

growth-oriented entrepreneurs who actively manage small businesses. For the work population as
a whole, there are also differences in risk propensity. As a result, it makes sense to recognize
these differences and even to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with specific job demands.
For example, a high-r i s k taking propensity may lead to more effective performance for a stock
trader in a brokerage firm because that type of job demands rapid decision making. On the other
hand, a willingness to take risks might prove a major obstacle to an accountant who performs
auditing activities. The latter job might be better filled by someone with a low risk-taking
propensity.
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

6. Type A and Type B personalities: Type A personality are impatient, aggressive and highly
competitive. Such people are always in a hurry and can't deal with leisure time. They measure
success with quantity and are always under time pressure. They are very productive but have poor
judgment. Type B personality are easy going, laid back and non-competitive. They are not
concerned about time and relax without feeling guilty. They don't have any time deadlines set for
themselves. They are better on complex tasks involving judgment and accuracy rather than speed
and hard work.

Type A employees are poor in creativity. They suit to the routine activities and their behavior is
easily predictable. Type B employees can easily get promoted as "promotions usually go to those
who are wiser rather than to those who are hasty, to those who are tactful rather than to those who
are hostile and to those who are creative rather than to those who are merely agile in competitive
strife."

SIGNIFICANT PERSONALITY TRAITS SUITABLE TO THE WORKPLACE

(PERSONALITY AND JOB FIT THEORY)

Personality-job fit theory was developed in the 1950s by John Holland. He was of the view that
people are happier and most productive when they are placed into jobs that match their
personality.

This theory of Holland revolves around the idea that every organization and individual has specific
personality traits. The closer the traits between the person and the company match, the higher the
chance of workplace productivity and satisfaction. The best personality fit will also decrease job
turnover and stress, absenteeism, and poor job satisfaction. The person-job fit is conceptualized as
the match between individual knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) and demands of the job.

This theory groups people on the basis of their suitability for six different categories of occupations.
The six types yield the RIASEC acronym, by which the theory is also commonly known. Holland
believed certain types of people work best when paired with jobs that not only utilize their strengths
but are tailored to how they work best, resulting in more work getting done and of high quality.The
typology has come to dominate the field of career counselling and has been incorporated into most
of the popular assessments used in the organizations today.

According to him, there are six key categories that define the modern worker. Those are: Realistic,
Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional. He also viewed that most people
fall into more than one category and people with the same personality type tend to work best with
others of their type, but certain types work best alone or with specific groups over others.

Realistic (Doers): People who like to work with "things". They tend to be assertive and competitive,
and are interested in activities requiring motor coordination, skill and strength. They approach
problem solving "by doing something, rather than talking about it, or sitting and thinking about it.
They also prefer concrete approaches to problem solving, rather than abstract theory. Finally, their
interests tend to focus on "scientific or mechanical rather than cultural and aesthetic areas.
 Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

Investigative (Thinkers): People who prefer to work with "data". They like to think and observe
rather than act, to organize and understand information rather than to persuade. They also prefer
individual rather than people-oriented activities.

Artistic (Creators): People who like to work with "ideas and things." They tend to be creative,
open, inventive, original, perceptive, sensitive, independent and emotional. They rebel against
structure and rules, but enjoy "tasks involving people or physical skills. They tend to be more
emotional than the other types.

Social (Helpers): People who like to work with "people" and who seem to satisfy their needs in
teaching or helping situations. They tend to be drawn more to seek close relationships with other
people and are less apt to want to be really intellectual or physical.

Enterprising (Persuaders): People who like to work with "people and data." They tend to be good
talkers, and use this skill to lead or persuade others. They also value reputation, power, money and
status.

Conventional (Organizers): People who prefer to work with "data" and who like rules and
regulations and emphasize self-control. They like structure and order, and dislike unstructured or
unclear work and interpersonal situations. They also place value on reputation, power, or status.

PERSONALITY TESTS AND THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Psychologists have devised a number of tests to measure the various aspects of personality, these are
explained as below.

1. Projective Techniques: It uses vague, ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects or situations in

which the subject “projects” his or her personality, attitude, opinions and self-concept to give the
situation some structure. The two widely used projective tests are as follows:

(a) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): is a projective measure intended to evaluate a person's
patterns of thought, attitudes, observational capacity, and emotional responses to ambiguous test
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

materials. The individual is exposed to ambiguous pictures and requested to make up a story for
each.
(b) Rorschach Test: a type of projective test used in psychoanalysis, in which a standard set of
symmetrical ink blots of different shapes and colours is presented one by one to the subject, who
is asked to describe what they suggest or resemble.

2. Situational Tests: Involves studying the individual in daily situations when he is interacting with
others, solving a problem or exploring a new environment. The purpose of this study is to observe
the individual in a context, which is similar to the one for which he is under review. Practical
Application: Case study solving for managerial trainees.

3. Personality Inventories. These inventories are printed forms containing questions, adjectives or
statements about human behaviour. They can be used to evaluate both normal and psychiatric
characteristics. The individual is required to indicate his reactions to different items. The inventories
are scored and assessed in terms of percentiles or statistical norms. Relatively the inventories are less
time consuming and easy to administer however, in certain cases, the individuals can give false
impression about themselves if they desire to do so. Practical Application: Psychometric tests during
interviews.

MODULE 2.3: PERCEPTION

"Perception is the process through which the information from outside environment is selected,
received, organized and interpreted to make it meaningful to you. The input of meaningful
information results in decisions and actions."

"Perception may be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment"

IMPORTANCE: -

Whatever we see or feel is not necessarily the same as it really is. People's behavior is based on
their perceptions of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that
is important for understanding the human behavior.

THE PROCESS OF PERCEPTION:

Perception is composed of various sub processes viz. receiving, selecting, organising,

interpreting, checking and reacting to stimuli. Through perception people process information
input into decisions and actions. In other words, it screen or filter through which information
passes before having an effect on people.

Perceptual Inputs:
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

A number of stimuli are constantly confronting people in the form of information, objects, events,
people etc. in the environmen t . These serve as the inputs of the perceptual process. A few of the
stimuli affecting the senses are the noise of the air coolers, the sound of other people talking and
moving, outside noises from the vehicular traffic or a street repair shop or a loud speaker playing
somewhere plus the impact of the total environmental situation. Some stimuli do not affect the
senses of a person consciously, a process called subliminal perception.

(I) Perceptual Mechanism

When a person receives information, he tries -to process it through the following sub processes of
selection, organization and interpretation.

A. Perceptual Selectivity
Many things are taking place in the environment simultaneously. However, one cannot pay equal
attention to all these things, thus the need of perceptual selectivity. Perceptual selectivity refers to
the tendency to select certain objects from the environment for attention. The objects which are
selected are those which are relevant and appropriate for an individual or those which are
consistent with our existing beliefs, values and needs. For this, we need to screen or filter out most
of them so that we may deal with the important or relevant ones. The following factors govern the
selection of stimuli:

(i) External Factors:

Size: The bigger the size--of the stimulus, the higher is the probability that it is perceived. Size
always attracts the attention, because it establishes dominance. The size may be the height or weight
of an individual, sign board of a shop, or the space devoted to an advertisement in the newspaper. A
very tall person will always stand out in the crowd, on the other hand, a very short person will also
attract attention. A full-page advertisement will always catch attention as compared to a few lines in
the classified section.

Intensity: Intensity attracts to increase the selective perception. A few examples of intensity are
yelling or whispering, very bright colors, very bright or very dim lights. Intensity will also include
behavioral intensity. If the office order says "Report to the boss immediately," it will be more intense
and effective as compared to the office order which says "Make it convenient to meet the boss
today."

Repetition: The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is more attention
drawing than a single one. Because of this principle, supervisors make it a point to give the
necessary directions again and again to the workers. Similarly, the same advertisement or different
advertisement but for the same product shown again and again on the TV will have more attention as
compared to an advertisement which is shown once a day.

Status: High status people can exert greater influence on the perception of the employees than the
low status people. There will always be different reactions to the orders given by the foreman, the
supervisor or the production manager.
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

Contrast: An object which contrasts with the surrounding environment is more likely to be noticed
than the object which blends in the environment. For example, the Exit signs in the cinema halls which
have red lettering on a black background are attention drawing or a warning sign in a factory, such
as Danger; written in black against a red or yellow background will be easily noticeable. In a room if
there are twenty men and one woman, the woman will be noticed first because of the contrast.

Movement: The principle of motion states that a moving object receives more attention than an
object which is standing still. A moving car among the parked cars catch our attention faster. A
flashing neon-sign is more easily noticed.

Novelty and Familiarity: This principle states that either a novel or a familiar external situation can
serve as an attention getter. New objects in the familiar settings or familiar objects in new settings
will draw the attention of the perceiver. A familiar face on a crowded railway platform will
immediately catch attention. Because of this principle, the managers change the
workers jobs from time to time, because it will increase the attention they give to their jobs.

Nature: By nature we mean, whether the object is visual or auditory and whether it involves
pictures, people or animals. It is well known that pictures attract more attention than_ words. Video
attracts more attention than still pictures. A picture with human beings attracts-more attention than a
picture with animals. Poetry attracts more attention than prose.

(ii) Internal Factors:

The internal factors relate to the perceiver. Perceiving people is very important for a manager,
because behavior occurs as a result of behavior. Following are the internal factors which affect
perception.

Learning. Although interrelated with other internal factors learning may play the single biggest role
in developing perceptual set. A perceptual set is basically what a person expects from the stimuli on
the basis of his learning and experience relative to same or similar stimuli. This perceptual set is
also known as cognitive awareness by which the mind organizes information and forms images and
compares them with previous exposures to similar stimuli.

Motivation: Besides the learning aspects of the perceptual set, motivation also has a vital impact on
perceptual selectivity. For example, a person who has a relatively high need for power, affiliation or
achievement will be more attentive to the relevant situational variables. For example, when such a
person walks into the lunch room, he may go to the table where several of his co-workers are
sitting, rather than a table which is empty or on which just one person is sitting.

Personality: Closely related to learning and motivation is the personality of the perceiving person.
For example, the older senior executives often complain about the inability of the new young
manager to take tough decisions concerning terminating or reassigning people and paying attention
to details and paperwork. The young managers, in turn, complain about the 'old guards' resisting
change and using paper and rules as ends in themselves. Different perceptions in young and old are
due to their age differences. Further, the generation gap witnessed in recent years definitely
contributes to different perceptions.
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

B. Perceptual Organization

After having selectively absorbed the data from the range of stimuli we are exposed to at any given
time, we then try to organize the perceptual inputs in such a manner that would facilitate us to
extract meaning out of what we perceive. Or in other words, person's perceptual process organizes
the incoming information into a meaningful whole. While selection is a subjective process,
organizing is a cognitive process. How we organize the stimuli is primarily based on the following
principles.

1. Figure and Ground. Figure Ground principle is generally considered to be the most basic form of
perceptual organization. This principle simply implies that the perceived object or person or event
stands out distinct from its back ground and occupies the cognitive space of the individual. For
example, as you read this page, you see white as the background and lack as the letters or words to
be read. You do not try to understand what the white spaces amidst the black letters could mean.
Likewise, in the organizational setting, some people are more noticed or stand out than others. For
example, an individual in the organization might try to focus his entire attention on his immediate
supervisor, trying to be in his good books, completely ignoring his colleagues and how they feel
about his behavior. According to this principle, thus, the perceiver tends to organize only the
information which stands out in the environment which seems to be significant to the individual.

2. Perceptual Grouping: Grouping is the tendency to curb individual stimuli into meaningful
patterns. For i ns ta nc e, if we perceive objects or people with similar characteristics, we tend to
group them together and this organizing mechanism helps us to deal with information in 'an efficient
way rather than getting bogged down and confused with so many details. This tendency of grouping
is very basic in nature and largely seems to be inborn. Some of the factors underlying this grouping
are:

Similarity: The principle of similarity states that the greater the similarity of the stimuli, the greater
the tendency to perceive them as a common group. The principle of similarity is exemplified when
objects of similar shape, size or colour tend to be grouped together. For example, if all visitors to a
plant are required to wear white hats while the supervisors wear blue hats, the workers can identify
all the white-hats as the group of visitors. Another example is our general tendency to perceive
minority and women employees as a single group.

Proximity. The principle of proximity or nearness states that a group of stimuli that are close
together will be perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. For example, several
people working on a machine will be considered as a single group so that if the productivity on that
particular machine is low, then the entire group will be considered responsible even though only
some people in the group may be inefficient.

Closure. The principle of closure relates to the tendencies of the people to perceive objects as a
whole, even when some parts of the object are missing. The person's perceptual process will close the
gaps that are unfilled from sensory input. Speaking from the point of view of an organization, if a
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

manager perceives a worker, on the whole, a hard worker, sincere, honest, then even, if he behaves
in a contradictory way sometimes (which is a kind of a gap), the manager-will tend to ignore it,
because it does not fit in with the overall impression, that he has about the worker.

Continuity. Continuity is closely related to closure. But there is a difference-Closure supplies

missing stimuli, whereas the continuity principle says that a person will tend to perceive continuous
lines of pattern. The continuity may lead to inflexible or non creative thinking on the part of the
organizational participants. Only the obvious patterns or relationships will be perceived. Because of
this type of perception, the inflexible managers may require that employers follow a set and step by
step routine leaving no ground for implementation of out of line innovative ideas.

3. Perceptual Constancy: Constancy is one of the more sophisticated forms of perceptual

organization. This concept gives a person a sense of stability in this changing world. This
principle permits the individuals to have some constancy or stability in a tremendously variable
and highly complex world. If constancy were not at work, the world would be very chaotic and
disorganized for the individual. There are several aspects of constancy.
a. Shape Constancy: Whenever an object appears to maintain its shape despite marked
changes in the retinal image e.g. the top of a glass bottle is seen as circular whether we
view it from the side or from the top.
b. Size Constancy: The size constancy refers to the fact that as an object is moved farther
away from us we tend to see it as more or less invariant in size. For example, the players
in cricket field on the opposite side of the field do not look smaller than those closer to
you even though their images on the retina of the eye are much smaller.
c. Color Constancy: implies that familiar objects are perceived to be of the same color in
varied conditions. The owner of a red car sees it as red in the bright sunlight as well as in
dim twilight. Without perceptual constancy the size, shape and color of the objects would
change as the worker moved about and it will make the job almost impossible.

4. Perceptual Context: The highest and most sophisticated forms of organization are context. It
gives meaning and value to simple stimuli, objects, events, situations and other persons in the
environment. The organizational structure and culture provide the -primary context in which
workers and managers do their perceiving. For example, a verbal order, a new policy, a pat on the
back, a raised eye brow or a suggestion takes on special meaning when placed in the context of
the work organization.

5. Perceptual Defense: Closely related to perceptual context is the perceptual defense. A person
may build a defense against stimuli or situational events in a particular context that are personally
or culturally unacceptable or threatening. Accordingly, perceptual defense may play a very
F
important role in understanding union-management and supervisor-subordinate relationship.
Most studies verify the existence of a perceptual defense mechanism. The general conclusions
drawn from these studies are that people may learn to avoid certain conflicting, threatening or
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

unacceptable aspects of the context. The various defenses may be denial of an aspect, by
modification and distortion, by change in the perception, then the last but not the least is
recognition but refusal to change

C. Perceptual Interpretation: Perceptual interpretation is an integral part of the perception

process. Without interpretation, selection and organization of information do not make any sense.
After the information has been received and organized, the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning
to the information. In fact, perception is said to have taken place only after the data have been
interpreted. Several factors contribute towards the interpretation of data. More important among
them are perceptual set, attribution, stereotyping, halo effect, perceptual context, perceptual
defense, implicit personality theory and projection. It may also be noted that in the process of
interpretation, people tend to become judgmental. They may tend to distort what they see and even
ignore things that they feel are unpleasant.

D. Checking: After data have been received and interpreted, the perceiver tends to check whether
his interpretations are right or wrong. One way of checking is for the person himself to indulge in
introspection. He will put a series of questions to himself and the answers will confirm whether his
perception about an individual or object is correct or otherwise. Another way is to check the validity
of the interpretation with others.

E. Reacting: The last stage in perception is the action. The perceiver shall indulge in some action
in relation to the perception. The action depends on whether the perception is favorable or
unfavorable. It is negative when the perception is unfavorable and the action is positive when the
perception is favorable.

Perceptual Outputs

Perceptual outputs encompass all that results from the throughout process. These would include
such factors as-one's attitudes, opinions, feelings, values and behaviors resulting from the
perceptual inputs and throughputs. Perceptual errors adversely affect the perceptual outputs.

The lesser our biases in perception, the better our chances of perceiving reality as it exists or least
perceiving situations with the minimum amount of distortions. This will help us to form the right
attitudes and engage in appropriate behavioral patterns, which in turn will be beneficial for
attaining the desired organizational outcomes. It is essentially important for managers who are r

responsible for organizational results to enhance their skills in order to develop the right attitudes
and behaviors.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

The perception, organization and interpretation of information depend very much on the
characteristics of the stimuli (already discussed), characteristics of the situation and some our own
personality characteristics. The situational and personality characteristics which influence the
perceptual set are as explained below:

A. Characteristics of the Perceiver:

When a person looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he sees, hi interpretation is greatly
influenced by his personal characteristics which are discussed as follows:-

1. Needs and Motives. Our need pattern play an important part in how we perceive
things. A need is a feeling of discomfort or tension when one things he is missing
something or requires something. Therefore, unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate
individuals and may exert -a strong influence on their perception. When people are not
able to satisfy their needs they are engaged in wishful thinking which is a way to satisfy
their needs not in the real world but imaginary world. In such cases, people will perceive
only that item which suits their wishful thinking. Motives - also influence the perception
of people. People who are devious are prone to see others as also devious.
2. Self Concept: Self concept indicates how we perceive ourselves which then influences
how we perceive others and the situation we are in. The more we understand ourselves,
the more we are able to perceive others accurately. For example, secure people tend to see
others as warm and friendly. Less secure people often find fault with others. Perceiving
ourselves accurately and enhancing you concept are factors that enhance accurate
perception.
3. Past Experience: Our- perceptions are often guided by our past experiences and what
we expect to see. A person's past experiences mould the way he perceives the current
situation. If a person has been betrayed by a couple of friends in the past, he would tend to
distrust any new friendship that he might be in the process of developing.
4. Current Psychological State: The psychological and emotional states of an individual
are likely to influence how things are perceived. If a person is depressed, he is likely to
perceive the same situation differently than if he is elated. Similarly, if a person is scared
out of wits by seeing a snake in the garden, she is likely to perceive a rope under the bed
as a snake.
5. Beliefs: A person's beliefs influence his perception to a great extent. Thus, a fact is
conceived not on what it is but what a person believes it to be. The individual normally
censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs.
6. Expectations. Expectations affect the perception of a person. Expectations are related
with the state of anticipation of particular behavior from a person. For example, a
technical manager will expect that the non-technical people will be ignorant about the
technical features of the product.
7. Situation. Elements in the environment surrounding an-individual-like time, location,
light, heat etc., influence his perception. The context in which a person sees the objects or
events is very important.
8. Cultural Upbringing. A person's ethics, values and his cultural upbringing also play
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

an important role in his perception about others. It is difficult to perceive the personality
of a person raised in another culture because our judgment is based upon our own values.

B. Characteristics of the Perceived: Characteristics of the person who is being observed

can affect what is perceived. Though, it may go against logic and objectivity, but it cannot
be denied that our perceptions about others are influenced by their physical characteristics
such as appearances, age, gender, manner of communication as well as personality traits
and other forms of behavior. For example, loud people are more likely to be noticed in a
group than are quite ones. So too are extremely attractive or extremely ugly individuals.

Persons, objects or events that are similar to each other tend to be grouped together.
People dressed in business suits are generally thought to be professionals, while
employees dressed in ordinary work clothes are assumed to be lower level employees.

Manner of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, affect our perception about others.
For example, the choice of words and precision of language can form impressions about
the education and sophistication of the person. The tone of voice indicates the mood of the
person. The depth of conversation and choice of topics provide clues of people's
intelligence. The body language or expressive behavior such is how a person sits and the
movement of his eyes or a smile can indicate whether he is nervous or self-confident.

The status or occupation of a person also influences the perception. We tend to behave in a
more respectful way when we are introduced to the principal of a school in which our
child is studying, judge of the high court or Supreme Court or a famous cricket player.
Sometimes our perception of a person tends to be biased, depending upon the description
given to us by other persons. When we meet a person, who is described to us as warm and
friendly, we treat him differently as compared to meeting a person who is known to be
cold and calculating.

B. Characteristics of a Situation: The context in which we see objects or events is very

important. The surrounding environment and the elements present in it influence our
perception while perceiving a particular situation or event, its physical, social and
organizational setting can also influence the perception. For example, if you meet a person
for the first time and he is with a person whom you respect and admire, you will create a
favorable image about him in your mind as compared to a situation in which you see him
with another person whom you intensely dislike. Of course, the initial impression is very
valued. Location of a given event is also very important factor in determining the
behavior. For example, a conversation with the boss taking place in a casual reception area
may be perceived differently than when taking place in the boss's office with the door
closed. Organizational setting also affects the behavior of the people. An organization
setting where people are given an opportunity to interact in a friendly and sociable work
situation, they become more trust worthy and less defensive.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF PERCEPTION:
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

In day-to-day life, we come across people with whom we interact. Motives, intentions, belief and
attitude of people have an impact as to how they behave. It has been seen that our perception
about the people is greatly influenced by the assumption we make about a person and not by
reality.

There are two factors, which has an impact on human behaviour. First is internally caused
behaviour – refers to internal factors on which individual has a full control, secondly the
externally caused behavior refers to the behaviour which has been caused due to external factors
and that the individual has no control over it.

Attribution theory suggests that when we evaluate human behaviour, it is either internally caused
or it is caused due to external factors as explained above. The determination however depends on
the following three factors. See figure below:

(a) Distinctiveness: Let us for evaluation purposes take an example of X worker coming late for
duty. When we carry out interpretation there are two factors, one whether arriving late is usual or
unusual behaviour. If it is usual, it is attributed to internal factor on which X has full control. When
the behaviour is unusual then it can be attributed to external factors. In the former situation
individual could be counselled appropriately in the later situation, the external factors cannot be
corrected. If the external factors are high, then late coming should not be attributed to the individual
behaviour.

(b)Consensus: This factor refers to group behaviour. If the entire group taking the same route came
late on duty, the causation is attributed to external factors. But by some chance if X only was late
then the causation would be internal.

(c)Consistency: If the behaviour of Mr. X is consistence that is if he is consistently coming late then
attribution should be to internal factors. In such cases there is a high internal causation. If X came
late once in a while the causation would be low and attributed to external factors. More consistence
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

the behaviour, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to internal causes. It has been seen that
we have the tendency to under estimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the
influence of internal factors or personal factors while carrying out perception.

This phenomenon is called the fundamental attribution error. Fall in sales of a commodity is
generally attributed to inefficiency of sales force rather than market trend, recession or innovative
product launched by the competitor.

There is also a self-serving bias error caused by the individuals who tend to attribute their own
success to internal causation like ability, hard work and self-worth and the failure, to external factors
like Luck. This phenomenon is called a self-serving bias displayed by the individuals. There are bias,
which distorts attribution universally across culture. During World War II it was considered by
Allies that Japanese are invincible, but the attribution proved to be false at later date when tide took
the turn and Japanese had to suffer total annihilation.

Self-serving bias does not apply to all organizations, where cultural identity has been established like
Defense Services of India. Where the leader takes the responsibility for the failure of group task and
attribute success to collective efforts. This is the main reason that soldiers have great faith in their
leader and his ability and that is how the soldiers are led in war and they follow the leader blindly
because they have a correct perception of their leader.

PERCEPTION AND ITS APPLICATION IN ORGANISATIONS

The perception, in many cases, has important effect on organizations. A few of these are obvious,
and the same is discussed below: -

Employment Interview: Different interviewers try to see different things in the same candidate
differently, and thus arrive at different perceptions. Who one thinks is a good candidate, the
candidate can be seen perceived by another interviewer as not good for the job. Interviewers
form early Impressions about the candidate, which ultimately weighs more in the selection.
Therefore, interviewers must be given adequate training in the skills of interviewing.

Performance Appraisal: Assessment of an employee's performance very much depends on the

perception of the evaluator about the employee, superior officers and executives closely tie an
employee's future to his performance and its appraisal. Promotions pay rises, and continuation of
job is the most obvious and common outcome of the employee's performance. Performance
Appraisal is both objective and subjective. It becomes objective when performance can be
sufficiently quantified. For e.g., a salesman's performance can be assessed based S on how many
rupees of sales he generated in his territory during a given period of time. However, many
employees’ jobs are evaluated subjectively. Therefore, these become judgmental. Judgment will
become susceptible to distortion. It might affect the performance appraisal process.

Performance Expectation: New employees during their selection process acquire a set of
expectations booth about the organization and about the job. In case there is a big gap between
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

the expectations and realities, there will be problems of increased alienation of employee,
absenteeism, and even turnover.

Employee Effort: Since many organizations, the level of an employee's performance is given
high importance. Hence, an employee's future in an organization depends upon his effort made
for achieving the organizational goals. However, assessment of an individual's performance is
subjective judgment and thus, susceptible to perceptual distortions and bias also.

Employee Loyalty: While assessing employees the managers also make another important
decision- whether the employee are loyal to the organization? Like effort, assessment of loyalty
is also a subjective judgment susceptible to perceptual distortions and bias. As an example, an
employee looking for greener pastures outside the organization may be labelled as disloyal to the
organization. As a resultant behaviour, the organization may cut his future advancement
opportunities.

DISTORTION IN PERCEPTION/ COMMON ERRORS/SHORTCUTS WHILE

JUDGING OTHERS:

1. Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see based on their attitude,
interest, background and experience. An individual might have been appointed on a key position
on the day of the visit of CEO and the appointment may be incidental but we may perceive
appointments as a consequence of CEO’s visit. In an organization so many things keep
happening but different people will perceive one fact differently based on individuals selectivity
in perceiving which is generally based on his past experience and attitude towards work. It is
important that when we read others, we make a mistake reading with speed and putting seal of
what has been selectively seen by a perceiver. For correct perception an individual must be
observed, studied, tried and later perceived without an individual bias.

2. Halo Effect: Halo effect refers to judging an individual based on single characteristics, such
as intellectual ability, sociability and appearance. Sales Manager’s visit to sales territory and
consequent increase in sales volume may be attributed to the visit of the sales manager to a
particular sales territory. Perceiver in this situation did not notice the cause of increased sales to
probably higher demand, change in market forces, subordinate sales employees past efforts to
encourage customers to buy the product and host of other factors that go with increase in the
sales volume. This type of perception is quite common in any organization, which is called halo
effect in perceiving an individual or situation. A rater may rate a subordinate based on
dominance of a single trait of the subordinate. The halo effect has been very frequently noticed
in performance appraisal.

3. Projection: You assume a person based on your own traits and not what he actually possesses.
If you were hard working and dependable you would expect others to be so. If a person projects
the above characteristics in his dealings he is rated high or perceived in a different way than what
he actually is. It is commonly found that subordinates do or exhibit the same behaviour as
desired by the boss. This phenomenon is called the ‘projection’, an error that is common in any
organization.
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Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

4. Contrast Effect: We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to one person is
relative to the other. During selection process, interviewer selects a particular person for a
particular job not because he fulfils all requirements but he is generally selected in relation to the
other candidates. Individual selected may be academically, skill wise, experience wise better
than those not selected. So it is a comparative or contrast phenomenon of perception. We
generally hear, people say that Mr. X presentations in a particular session.

5. Stereotyping: In order to simplify matters, we often tend to classify people and events into
already known categories. For example, we generally perceive man as executive and woman as
secretary even if the situation may be different. For police person, it is generally believed that
they are generally tough and law abiding which may not be true. In our mind we have established
certain categories with certain attributes. For example, category of teenagers would generally be
independent, indiscipline and so on. In reality this may not be true. Similarly, we attach positive
attribute to judges, professors and doctors and negative attributes to school dropouts, addicts
although they may not be really so.

HOW CAN WE PERCEIVE MORE ACCURATELY? OR HOW CAN PERCEPTUAL

SKILLS BE ENHANCED?

• Knowing oneself more accurately: That is to say, one should improve to know more
about oneself. Frequent interactions with peers, colleagues, free, frank and open
communication with others and mutual trust are some commonly adopted practices for
perceiving more accurately.
• Assessing and Knowing others more accurately: Putting yourself in the others’
situation and understanding others’ more maturedly.
• Being empathic: Empathy means to be able to see a situation as it is perceived by other
people. In a way, it is like putting your feet in another's shoes. Looking at a problem from
other's point of view enables the person to perceive the other side of the problem.
• Having positive attitudes: Positive attitude makes one's perception positive or more
accurate. Hence, the managers need to overcome their personal bias, get rid of any
negative feelings about others.
• Enhancing one's self concept: When people successfully accomplish what they want, it
develops a sense of self-esteem. It also indicates that correct perception about on self
helps perceive others also more accurately.
• Taking a conscious effort to reduce perceptual barriers
• Frank, open and two-way communication: Experience suggests that sometimes
perception gets distorted due to communication gap and inadequate communication. In
such case, effective communication needs to be developed to ensure that the true and
right message reaches the right place at the right time. This will enable to know the
problem in a better perspective, which in turn will improve a person's perception about
the problem.
• Avoid attributions
• Avoid perceptual distortions: Some factors like the halo effect, stereotyping, attribution
Biju Patnaik Institute of IT & Management Studies, Bhubaneswar

Dr. Pallabi Mund, Assistant Professor (HR & OB)

etc., distort a person's perception about things or problems. Therefore, sincere and
continuous efforts should be made to guard oneself against such biases. Get complete
information from different sources regarding an object/person/event and organize,
interpret and perceive from the data.