COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

OPTIMIZATION

EXPERT TRAINING
 Introduction to
Compressed Air

1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

• Compressed air has 3

primary uses
– Power
• As an energy source to perform
work
– Process
• Air becomes part of a process
– Control
• To stop, start or regulate the
operation of a machine

1
1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

• A compressed air
system includes
both the supply
side components
and the demand
side components.

1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

• Old Management Technique • New Management Technique
– Plant production is #1 – Plant productivity is the #1
priority priority
– Plant compressed air – The plant air demand must
system must always be always be supplied
maintained – The compressed air system
must be in balance with
– Over supply of demand. Both over supply
compressed air is and under supply are
acceptable, under supply unacceptable
is not acceptable – Compressed air pressure
– Minimum
Mi i pressure mustt mustt be
b stable.
t bl Pressures
P
be maintained. Higher higher than required are
pressure is acceptable unacceptable as are
pressures lower than
required.

2
 Compressed Air System Optimisation Defined

There are three basic ways to optimise the consumption of a

compressed air system:
1. Produce compressed air more efficiently
2. Consume less compressed air
3. Utilise the heat of compression
Source: ASME EA-4

Compressed Air System Efficiency

Fact: Compressed air is an inefficient source of energy

and should be used wisely.

Consider this:

• An air motor with 0,68 kW shaft output consumes 50

m3/hr

• An air compressor consumes about 5.6 kW to produce

50 m3/hr at 7 bar, or 8 times as much!

3
 Compressed Air System Efficiency
8

6
Power
Losses on
hp Supply and
4 Demand
Sides
(including
heat of
2 compression
losses)

Useful Work
0
Input Power Shaft Power Power
to Electric Required by Losses and
Motor Compressor Useful Work
Source: Compressed Air Challenge

Compressed Air System Cost

Compressed air power is costly

• The 0,68 kW compressed air motor shaft output costs

RM 16 000 per year at 8 760 hours operation.

• An electric motor with a similar shaft output would consume

about 0,85 kW and cost RM 2 430 per year to operate.

4
 Compressed Air System Costs
System losses further increase the costs:
Typically 35 to 45% of compressed air is wasted to leakage and
artificial demand before it gets to the user. And 10%+ may be
wasted through inappropriate uses.

Artificial Demand – 10-15%

Inappropriate
pp p Uses – 5-10%
Leaks – 25-30%

Production – 50%

Compressed Air System Costs

System losses further increase the costs:
Pressure differentials typically reduce end use pressure by 1
or 2 bar forcing discharge pressures higher. Compressor
power increases 6 to 7% per unit output for every bar
increase.

10

5
 Compressed Air System Costs

System losses further increase the costs:

Air compressors often do not run at full efficiency due to poor
control and lack of storage receiver capacity
120

100

80
nt kW Input

60
Per cen

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Per cent Capacity

11

The Systems Approach

Application of a systems approach to a compressed air system
assessment and resulting energy measures directs the focus towards
total system performance rather than individual component efficiency

• Understand compressed air point of use as it supports critical plant

production functions
• Correct existing poor performing applications and those that upset
system operation
• Eliminate
Eli i t wasteful
t f l practices,
ti lleaks,
k artificial
tifi i l d
demand,
d and
d
inappropriate use
• Create and maintain an energy balance between supply and demand
• Optimize compressed air energy storage and air compressor control
Source: ASME EA-4

12

6
 Life Cycle Costs
Typically over 75% of the lifetime costs of compressed air are
energy related

Source: Compressed Air Challenge

Based on 30 cen per kWh blended rate 55 kW fully loaded compressor at

4200 hours over ten years.

13

Typical Compressor Operating Cost

Item: Typical 160 kW air cooled screw compressor
Duty: Full load at 7.5
7 5 bar,
bar 4 200 hours per year
Rate: 30 cen per kWh blended

Power at full load: 182.5 kW

Flow: 505 l/sec
Specific Power: 36.1 kW/ 100l/s

Energy Cost = kW x hours x rate

Energy Cost = RM 229 950 per year

Purchase Price = RM 189 540

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7
 Comparing Energy Usage and
Efficiency

15

Compressed Air System Comparisons

Three 160 kW compressed air systems are being evaluated in

an existing plant :

1. Existing fixed speed air cooled load/unload compressor,

standard refrigerated dryer, standard filter and small receiver

2
2. A new fixed speed load/unload compressor,
compressor new refrigerated
dryer, oversized filter and large receiver

3. A VSD compressor, cycling refrigerated dryer, oversized filter

and medium receiver

16

8
 Compressed Air System Comparisons

Air cooled compressor, 8 bar 8 760 hour operation, peak flow

330 l/s
l/s, average flow 175 l/s , cost 0,3
0 3 cen per kWh

Option 1 – Existing unit – Base Case

Ave Compressor Power = 134,5 kW

Dryer Power = 6,0 kW
Total Energy = 1 230 780 kWh
Specific Power = 80,3 kW/100 l/s
Electrical Cost = RM 369 200

17

Compressed Air System Comparisons

Air cooled compressor, 7 bar 8 760 hour operation, peak flow
268 l/s, average
g flow 133 l /s, cost 0,3 cen p
per kWh

Option 2 – New more efficient load/unload , larger storage, lower

pressure, cycling refrigerated dryer, leak reduction

Ave Compressor Power = 85,1 kW

Dryer Power = 1,7 kW
Total Energy = 760 400
Specific Power = 65,3 kW/100 l/s
Electrical Cost = RM 228 100
Saved = RM 141 100 or 38%
Project Cost = RM 400 000
18

9
 Compressed Air System Comparisons
Air cooled compressor, 7 bar 8 760 hour operation, peak flow
g flow 133 l /s, cost 0,3 cen p
268 l/s, average per kWh

Option 3 – New VSD unit, medium storage, lower pressure,

cycling refrigerated dryer, leak reduction

Ave Compressor Power = 46,0 kW

Dryer Power = 1,7 kW
Total Energy = 417 850 kWh
Specific Power = 35.9 kW/100 l/s
Cost = RM 125 400
Saved = RM 243 800 or 66%
Project Cost = RM 485 000
19

Compressed Air System Payback

Option Project Savings Payback

Cost
O1 - Base 0 0 0
O2 - New load/unload RM 400 000 RM 141 100 2.8
O3 - New VSD RM 485 000 RM 243 800 2.0

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10
 Compressed Air System Incremental Payback

Option Project Savings Payback

Incremental Cost Years
O1 - Base RM 235 000 0 0
O2 - New load/unload RM 165 000 RM 141 100 1.2
O3 - New VSD RM 250 000 RM 243 800 1.0

21

Artificial Demand
• If the required
pressure is 5.5 bar
• Operating at 7 bar
creates 2.8 m3/min of
artificial demand
• 20% of the air that is
supplied to the system
is wasted.

22

11
1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

Finding leaks
• soap connections
• locate source of noise
• ultra-sound device
Example:
hole diameter: 3 mm
air loss: 0.5 m3/min (6 bar gauge)
0 5 m3/min x 60 min/h = 30 m3/h
0.5
30 m3/h x 8000 h/year = 240,000 m3/year
240,000 m3/year x cost/m3 = ????

23

1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

Leakage losses

Hole diameter Air consumption Loss kW At RM 0.30/kWh, a

at 6 bar (g) 6 mm leak costs
m3/min over
1 mm 0.05 0.3 RM 35,478
2 mm 0.21 1.3 /year in power plus
additional service
4 mm 0.83 5.2 on the compressed
6 mm 2 12
2.12 13 5
13.5 air
i equipment.
i t

Class exercise: Calculate the cost over 4,000 hours.

24

12
1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

Leakage losses

Hole diameter Air consumption Loss kW At RM 0.30/kWh, a

at 6 bar (g) 6 mm leak costs
m3/min over
1 mm 0.05 0.3 RM 35,478
2 mm 0.21 1.3 /year in power plus
additional service
4 mm 0.83 5.2 on the compressed
6 mm 2 12
2.12 13 5
13.5 air
i equipment.
i t

Class exercise: Calculate the cost over 4,000 hours.

13.5 kW x 4,000 x 0.30 = RM 16,200
Question: How much if at 7 bar?

25

1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

Leakage losses

Hole diameter Air consumption Loss kW At RM 0.30/kWh, a

at 6 bar (g) 6 mm leak costs
m3/min over
1 mm 0.05 0.3 RM 35,478
2 mm 0.21 1.3 /year in power plus
additional service
4 mm 0.83 5.2 on the compressed
6 mm 2 12
2.12 13 5
13.5 air
i equipment.
i t

Class exercise: Calculate the cost over 4,000 hours.

13.5 kW x 1.06 x 4,000 x 0.30 = RM 17,170
Question: If this leak was repaired how much would be saved?

26

13
 1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems
Measuring leakage losses
by exhausting an air receiver Leakageg volume
(tools not in use!)
Feed pipe
shut off
VR x ( pI - pF )
VL = x 1.25
T

VL = Leakage volume
VR = Receiver volume
Leakage losses in
PI = Initial receiver Example: the compressed air
pressure VR = 500 litres system: 94 l/s
pI = 9 barg
PF = Final receiver
pF = 4.5 barg
pressure T = 30 sec
T = Measuring period 500 l x ( 9 – 4.5 )
VL = = 75 x 1.25 = 94 l/s
30 sec
27

28

14
 1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems
Measuring leak losses
by measuring loaded time of the compressor with end users shut off

8 VL = Leakage volume in m3/min

Pressure VC = Compressor volumetric flow rate in m3/min
gauge 7 t = Time units during which the compressor
reading 6 ran on load
(bar(g)) T = Total time of the measurement procedure
5
Example:
4 T Volumetric compressor flow rate V= 3 m3/min
Compressor time on load t =tt1+t2+t3+t4+t5 = 120 sec
3 Total measurement time T= 600 sec
2
c 3 x 120
1 = 0.6 m3/min = 20%
600

Time

29

1. Introduction to Compressed Air Systems

Leak measurement of the consumers
In factories where a large number of air tools, machines and
equipment are used, hose connectors and valves often cause
considerable leak losses.
Using the two methods described previously,
two measurements are carried out:

A B
Tools, machines and equipment The shut-off valves upstream of the
are connected for normal operation connectors of the consumers are
(total leakage) closed (air distribution leakage)

The difference between A and B represents the losses in the pneumatic tools, etc.
and their fittings.

30

15
 Key Learning Points
• Compressed
p air is a necessary
y utility
y for industrial
plants.
• For some production uses compressed is a process
variable.
• Many systems waste 50% of more of the compressed
air that is consumed.
• System management must focus on productivity rather
than traditional goals
goals.
• The Systems Approach is an integrated approach, not
component efficiency.
• Generating compressed air is an inefficient energy
conversion.

31

Key Learning Points

• Using
Us g a air o
only
y when
e otother
e aalternatives
te at es a are
e not
ot
available.
• Eliminating inappropriate uses of compressed air.
• Reducing delivered pressure to the system
eliminates Artificial Demand.
• Reducing the amount of leakage loss in the system.
• Minimize Irrecoverable Pressure Loss.
• Operating compressed air systems at the lowest
practical pressure.
• Optimize compressor control with a properly
implemented control strategy.
32

16
For more information:
Wayne Perry Tom Taranto
Technical Director President
Kaeser Compressors Data Power Services
P O Box 946
P.O 8417 Oswego Road PMB-236
PMB 236
Fredericksburg, VA 22404 Baldwinsville, NY 13027
USA USA
540 898 5500 315 635 1895
[email protected] [email protected]

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17
 2. Understanding
g
Compressed Air

2. Understanding Compressed Air

grid system user
What is compressed Power station transformer

air?
Compressed air is ...
... compressed atmospheric air
... a mixture of gases
... compressible
... an energy carrier
Air center air main
air treatment user

Proportional relationship between

pressure, temperature and volume: still valid:

1
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Basic units m = Meter kg = Kilogram

s = Second A = Ampere

K = Kelvin mol = Molar mass

Derived units N = Newton Pa = Pascal

bar = Bar  = Ohm

J = Joule W = Watt

C = Celsius Hz = Hertz

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Physical laws
COMPRESSED AIR is atmospheric air under pressure.
pressure
That means energy is stored in the air.
When the compressed air expands again
this energy is released as WORK.

pressure (energy)

WORK

EXPANSION
4

2
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Components of air

other gasses
oxygen 1%
21%

nitrogen
78%
5

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Atmospheric pressure...
...is generated by the weight
of the atmosphere.
It is dependent on the DENSITY
of the air and the height:

The normal atmospheric

pressure at sea level is 1.013
bar ((760 mmHgg (Torr))
( ))

3
 2. Understanding Compressed Air
Absolute pressure ... Gauge pressure ...
... is the pressure measured ... is the practical reference pressure
from absolute zero.
zero and is based on atmospheric
It is used for all theoretical pressure.
calculations and is required in
vacuum and blower applications.

pamb atmospheric pressure

absolute pressure

(g) (g) (g) (g)

P
vacuum gauge pressure
g

100%
vacuum 0%

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Definition of pressures Equivalents
Generally: 105 Pa = 1 bar

F
Force (F) 1 MP
MPa = 10 b
bar
Pressure (p) =
Area (A) 1 hPa = 0.001 bar
Gauge pressure
Dimensions: 1 bar = 14.5 psi(g)

1 Newton (N) 1 bar = 10197 mmWC

1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 bar = 750.062 Torr
1 m² (A)

A = 1 m2

4
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Volume ambient air pressure

1 bar (a)

7 m³
atmospheric
air volume

working pressure
7 bar (a) = 6 bar (g)

1 working m³

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Volume Expansion:

Working pressure
7 bar (a)
= 6 bar (g)
Working
pressure
p1, V1 Ambient air pressure p0, V0

V1 p
The volume of atmospheric air decreases
at an inverse ratio to the respective absolute  0
pressures (at constant temperature,
without taking humidity into account)
V0 p1
10

5
2. Understanding Compressed Air
Definition of volumes
Relative
Temperature Pressure Density
humidity
Volume according
to DIN 1343 0°C = 1.01325 1.294
(normal
0%
273.15K bar kg/m³
physical state)

Volume according 15°C = 1.01325 1.225

to DIN/ISO 2533 0%
288.15K bar kg/m³
Volume related atmospheric atmospheric atmospheric
to atmosphere
temperature pressure humidity variable
(normal state)

Volume related working working variable

to operating state temperature variable
pressure

11

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Conversion of normal volume to volume according to DIN 1343

VI x TN x (pI - (Hrel x pD))

VN =
pN x TI
VN = Normal volume to DIN 1343
VI = Volume at inlet conditions
TN = Temperature to DIN 1343, TN = 273.15K
TI = Maximum temperature at the installation in K
pN = Air pressure to DIN 1343, pN = 1.01325 bar
pI = Lowest air pressure at the installation in bar
Hrel = Maximum relative humidity in the air at the installation
pD = Saturation pressure of the water vapor contained in the air
in bar, dependent on the temperature of the air

12

6
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Extract from the table for the saturation pressure

of water vapour at saturation

-10 0.00260 10 0.0123 30 0.0424

-9 0.00280 11 0.0131 31 0.0449
Saturation pressure -8 0.00310 12 0.0140 32 0.0473
-7 0.00340 13 0.0150 33 0.0503
pD (bar) at air 34 0.0532
-6 0.00370 14 0.0160
temperature t (° C) -5 0.00400 15 0.0170 35 0.0562
36 0.0594
-4 0.00440 16 0.0182
37 0.0627
-3 0.00480 17 0.0184
38 0.0662
-2 0.00520 18 0.0206
39 0.0699
-1 0.00560 19 0.0220
40 0.0738
0 0 00610
0.00610 20 0 0234
0.0234
41 0.0778
1 0.00640 21 0.0245 42 0.0820
2 0.00710 22 0.0264 43 0.0864
3 0.00740 23 0.0281 44 0.0910
4 0.00810 24 0.0298 45 0.0968
5 0.00870 25 0.0317 46 0.1009
6 0.00940 26 0.0336 47 0.1061
7 0.01000 27 0.0356 48 0.1116
8 0.01070 28 0.0378 49 0.1174
9 0.01150 29 0.0400 50 0.1234

13

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Gas laws – Boyle

Boyle’s
s Law
Isotherms (constant temperature)

If the volume is reduced under constant

temperature, the pressure increases.

P0  V0  P1  V1
Heat dissipation

14

7
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Isotherms (constant temperature)

p
Heat dissipation
1
p1
T0 = T1
0
p0

V1 dV V0 V

15

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Gas laws – Charles’ Law

Isobars ( constant pressure )
If heat is applied under constant pressure,
The air volume behaves directly proportional
to its absolute temperature.

V0 T0

V1 T1 Application of heat

16

8
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Isobars (constant pressure)

p Application of heat
p0 = p1
0 1
p 0 = p1
T1

T0

V0 dV V1 V

17

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Gas laws – Amonton’s Law

Isochors (constant volume)
A li ti off heat
Application h t
If heat is applied with constant volume,
the pressure behaves directly proportional
to the absolute temperature.

P0 T0

P1 T1
18

9
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Isochors (constant volume)

V0=V1
p1 1

T1
p0 0
T0
V0=V1 V
Application of heat

19

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Adiabatic or Isentropic
(no heat transfer)
Heat insulation
If the
th volume
l is
i reduced
d d anddh heatt cannott b
be di
dissipated,
i t d
temperature increases with the pressure

p
p p

p1 1

T1
p0 0
T0
V
V1 dV V0

20

10
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Gas equation Gas law relating to a closed system:

p0 x V0 p1 x V1
= = R = constant
T0 T1

p = pressure (bar (absolute))

V = volume (m3)
T = temperature (K)
R = special gas constants
bar·m³ J
e.g. R = 28.96 K = 289.6 kg·K

for dry air

21

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Flow velocity in air lines

A1 A2
v1 v2

valid is:
• A1 v2
V = A1 x v1 = A2 x v2 =
A2 v1
•V = flow volume
v = velocity
A = pipe sectional area
22

11
2. Understanding Compressed Air
Flow profile
pipe wall

border layer

flow velocity

23

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Flow types
We differentiate between:
laminar (even) and turbulent (swirling) flow

24

12
2. Understanding Compressed Air
Pipe length in m
Inside
pipe dia. (mm)
Straight-line graph Free air delivery
Pressure losses
bar
for determining inside m³/h - m³/min

System-
pipe diameter (steps 1 to 8) pressure
bar (g)
1 4

2 8
7 6

3 5

25

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Compressed air in motion

bar)
Pressure (b

Pressure loss
is dependent on:
sectional area
velocity
pipe length
internal surface area of the pipe
length (m)

26

13
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Pressure drop ... Performance

... is caused by: Working press.

bar (g) % kW
•high flow velocities
•turbulence 6.0 100 3.0
•internal friction (molecules)
•friction on the pipe walls 5.5 86 2.6

Pressure drop lowers the performance

5.0 74 2.2
of the consumers, increases
the cost of compressed air generation
and thus production too! 4.5 62 1.9

4.0 52 1.6

Performance loss caused by pressure drop

27

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Minimum diameters of pipes

working pressure 7.5 bar (g)

FAD
m3/min length of pipeline
up to 50 m up to 100 m up to 200 m over 200 m
up to 12.5 2 1/2" 2 1/2" 3"
up to 15,0 2 1/2" 2 1/2" 3" see straight-
up to 17.5 2 1/2" 3" DN100 line graph

up
p to 20.0 3" 3" DN100
up to 25.0 3" DN100 DN100
up to 30.0 3" DN100 DN100
up to 40.0 DN100 DN100 DN 125

28

14
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Flow resistance of fittings

expressed in equivalent pipe lengths

equivalent pipe length in m

fitting
example pipe inside diameter in mm
25 40 50 80 100 125 150

6 10 15 25 30 50 60

3 5 7 10 15 20 25

0,3 0,5 0,6 1 1,3 1,6 1,9

Total pipe length: Loverall = Lstraight + Lequivalent

or roughly: Loverall = 1,6 x Lstraight

29

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Pressure drop
If the normal working pressure of a pneumatic tool is 6 bar (g),
any increase above that pressure costs money.
Example:
V = 30 m3/min demand at 7 bar (g) 160 kW
At 8 bar (g) approximately 6% more power is required, i.e. around 9.4 kW more

Costs:
9.4 kW x 0.05 $/kWh x 4000 h/year = 1880 $/year (13,160 ZAR) !

Air main:
On a well designed air piping system a pressure drop of 0.1 bar is normally expected.

The maximum pressure drop in the air piping system

should be no more than 1.5 % of the working pressure

30

15
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Pressure drop
1. Main piping 0.03 bar
2. Loop
p main ((distribution)) 0.03 bar
3. Connecting lines 0.04 bar
4. Refrigeration dryer 0.2 bar
5. FRL unit and hose 0.5 bar 2

max. 0.8 bar

3
Overall pressure drop 0.8 bar 5
1
Max. pressure at compressor 7.0 bar (g)
Pressure at consumer 6.0 bar (g)
Difference 1.0 bar 4

31

2. Understanding Compressed Air

The right fittings G

C E

A A. Valve (we recommend ball valves)

B. Filter (separation of water and rust)
B
C. Regulator (constant working pressure)
D. Lubricator (mostly oil mist lubricators)
E. Quick release couplings (flexibility at the workplace)
F. Hose (length: 3-5 m)
F G. Tool balancer (reduction of work effort)

32

16
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Points to be observed when sizing

g and
choosing air system piping:

Cross-section of the pipe

• Air consumption
• Length
g of the p
piping
p g
• Working pressure
• Pressure drop
• Flow resistance
33

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Points
o ts to be observed
obse ed when e sizing
s g and
a d
choosing air system piping:

Pipe layout
• Loop/spur main
• Connecting lines
• Dead-end lines
• Pipe connections
• Fittings
34

17
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Points to be observed when sizing and

choosing air system piping:
Fittings and
connections • Lubricators
• Types of outlets • Particulate filters
• Shut-off valves • Oil filters
O es
• Stopcocks • Regulators
• Condensate • Hoses
separators • Couplings

35

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Points to be observed when sizing and choosing air

system piping:

Choice of materials
• Environmental conditions (humidity,
temperature, chemical pollution of the air)
• Quality of the air (moisture content,
content oil content,
content
temperature)
• Costs
• Expected working life

36

18
2. Understanding Compressed Air

Uncontrolled Storage: Air Out

With t P
Without Pressure Diff
Differential
ti l
Air In
Quiet zone 9.5 bar

9.5 bar
Moisture separator
Protects downstream
equipment from oil slugs
Prevents compressor from
No “ Real” Storage
excessive cycling

37

2. Understanding Compressed Air

Uncontrolled pressure and flow
4,000 140

3,500 120
Pressure (psig)
Flow (scfm)

3,000
100
2,500
80
2,000

60
1,500

40
1,000

500 20

0 0
04:26:25.00
05:01:25.00
05:36:25.00
06:11:25.00
06:46:25.00
07:21:25.00
07:56:25.00
08:31:25.00
09:06:25.00
09:41:25.00
10:19:31.00
10:54:31.00
11:29:31.00
12:04:31.00
12:39:31.00
13:14:31.00
13:49:31.00
14:24:31.00
14:59:31.00
15:34:31.00
16:09:31.00
16:44:31.00
17:19:31.00
17:54:31.00
18:29:31.00
19:04:31.00
19:39:31.00
20:14:31.00
20:49:31.00
21:24:31.00
21:59:31.00
22:34:31.00
23:09:31.00
23:44:31.00

Time

Pressure
Flow
Average Flow

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19
2. Understanding Compressed Air
Flow
Controller
Air Out
Controlled Storage:
With Pressure Differential 75b
7.5 bar
Air In
Quiet zone
Moisture separator
3 m3
9.5 bar
Protects downstream equipment from oil
slugs 6 m3 Useable
Storage!
Prevents compressor from excessive
cycling
y g
PLUS 6 m3 of useable air in storage!

Pressure Differential
Creates Stored Energy!
39

Flow
2. Understanding Compressed Air Average Flow (Before controller)
Average Flow (w/ controller)
Controlled pressure and flow Pressure (Before controller)
Pressure (w/ controller)

4,000 140

3,500 120
Pressure (psig))

3,000
100
Flow (scfm)

2,500
80
2,000
60
1,500

40
1,000

500 20

0 0
04:26:25.00
05:01:25.00
05:36:25.00
06:11:25.00
06:46:25.00
07:21:25.00
07:56:25.00
08:31:25.00
09:06:25.00
09:41:25.00
10:19:31.00
10:54:31.00
11:29:31.00
12:04:31.00
12:39:31.00
13:14:31.00
13:49:31.00
14:24:31.00
14:59:31.00
15:34:31.00
16:09:31.00
16:44:31.00
17:19:31.00
17:54:31.00
18:29:31.00
19:04:31.00
19:39:31.00
20:14:31.00
20:49:31.00
21:24:31.00
21:59:31.00
22:34:31.00
23:09:31.00
23:44:31.00

Time

40

20
2. Understanding Compressed Air

41

21
 3. Understanding Compressors &
Their Application

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Types of
Compressors

1
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Compressor types

dynamic displacement
compressor compressor

ejector centrifugal- axial-turbo

turbo

rotary
y reciprocating
p g

single-rotor double-rotor

piston crosshead free- labyrinth diaphragm

vane liquid helical screw rotary piston
ring blower

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Reciprocating compressors
single
i l / ttwo stage
t

Note the - single / two stage

difference: - single acting / double acting
Installation: - portable
- stationary

Application: - common 10 bar

(single stage) - boosters 35 bar

2
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Double-acting
with crosshead

Application:
High pressure, up to 1000 bar
in combination with screw compressors.
Compression of gas

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Reciprocating compressor
Clearances that affect efficiency

upper piston
clearance
(dead space)

machining constructional
tolerances clearances in peculiarities
valves and
valve recesses

3
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Effective air delivery with reciprocating compressors

Inlet pressure drop leakage losses heating of

inlet air detrimental
displacement volume clearances

losses

Effective
air delivery

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

8 bar 1 bar absolute

Upper piston
clearance top dead
centre
(dead space)
stroke

bottom dead
centre

4
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

8 bar 1 bar absolute

upper clearance
top dead
centre
back expansion

stroke

bottom
dead centre
V is lost from
the displacement

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Compression

air escapes past

the piston rings
into the crankcase

losses

10

5
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Suction
inlet filter

losses caused by throttling

and filter contamination

11

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Reciprocating compressors

Volumetric efficiency of single

and two stage compressors 2-stage

1-stage
Volumetric effficiency

free air delivery

Volumetric efficiency =
theoretical displacement

pressure

12

6
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Rotary Screw compressors

13

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

• Single Stage Rotary • Two Stage Rotary

Screw Screw

14

7
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Rotary Screw compressors

compressed
Construction: air
cooled fluid-air
fluid mixture
Fluid separation:

2nd stage,
Separator
element
a) coarse filter
layer
b) fine filter
fluid layer
filter
1st stage,
centrifugal
hot fluid
thermostatic fluid with heat of
valve compression
15

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Efficiency - comparison of specific power consumption

power* in kW
Specific power consumption* =
Effective FAD in m3 / min

* depending on reference point:

P*
Pspec = p
- compressor shaft p
power
V - motor output power
- electric power input

16

8
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Function of the fluid in a lubricated rotary screw

heat transfer, discharge temperature

First task: approximately 75 - 80 oC

Second task: lubrication of bearings

sealing the gap between rotors and
Third task: casing, prevention of metallic contact
absorbing dust,
Fourth task sulphur etc.
sulphur, etc

17

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Fluid and aftercooler:

compressed air inlet
80 °C

cooling air inlet

20 °C
g air outlet
cooling
40 °C
Delta-t = 6 K
compressed air outlet
26 °C

18

9
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

2nd stage, fluid

Fluid separation
separator element
a) coarse filter layer
b) fine filter layer

98-99%

1st stage,
centrifugal

19

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Rotary tooth
compressors
Advantages:
quieter running than
reciprocating compressors Inlet channel

Disadvantages:
high power consumption
more expensive Air discharge
8 bar max. gauge pressure

20

10
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Rotary tooth compressor

21

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Rotary sliding vane compressors

• single shaft rotary compressor
• high maintenance costs to maintain
constant efficiency
• high remaining oil content with clean
oil injection and oil mist separator
• poor efficiency at high pressures

Main applications:
2 - 5 bar
Vacuum down to 1 x 10-3 bar

22

11
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Rotary Blowers
Characteristics:
capacity: up to 1200 m3/min
air flow: 2 or 3 pulsations per working cycle
pressure range: - 0.5 to +1 bar (g)
speed:
p 300 to 11000 min-1

23

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Scroll compressors

air delivery: up to 0.5 m3/min

air flow: constant, no pulsation
pressure range: up to 10 bar (g)
speed range: up to 3100 min-1

1 Gas chamber 4 Oscillating spiral 6 Suction 6 Suction

2 Inlet 5 Fixed spiral 7 Discharge
3 Discharge 8 Compression

24

12
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application
Scroll compressor
Inlet Suction chamber
1 2

Rotating spiral
Fixed spiral
Discharge

Pressure chamber

25

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

ROTARY SCREW
COMPRESSOR CONTROLS

26

13
 Load / Unload Control

27

Load / Unload Control

Average kW vs Average Capacity w ith Load/Unload Capacity Control

120

100

80
Per cent kW Input

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Per cent Capacity

1 gal/cfm 3 gal/cfm 5 gal/cfm 10 gal/cfm

28

14
 Inlet Valve Modulation Control
Rotary Compressor Performance with Inlet Valve Modulation
120.0

100.0
nt kW Input Power

80.0

60.0

40.0
Per cen

20.0

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Per cent Capacity
Inlet modulation - No Blowdown

29

Variable Displacement Control

Rotary Compressor Perf ormance with Variable Displacement

120.0

100.0

80.0
Per ecnt kW Input Power

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Per cent Capacity

Rotary Compressor Performance with Variable Displacement

30

15
 Variable Speed Control
Variable Speed Lubricant Injected Rotary Screw Compressor Package

120.0

100.0

80.0
Per cent kW Input Power

60.0

40.0

20.0
©1998 Compressed Air
Challenge

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Per cent Capacity

%kW input vs % capacity With unloading With stopping

31

Variable Speed Control

“Control Gap”

Base + Max VFD Output

20.0
emand (m3)

Base +Min VFD Output

12.5
CONTROL
Max VFD Output GAP
10.0

Fixed Speed Compressor

De

2.5
Min VFD Output
Base Load 10 m3/min

12:00a 8:00 a 5:00 p 12:00a

32
32

16
 Variable Speed Control
Eliminating “Control Gap”

2 x Base + Max VFD Output

24.0

Base + Max VFD Output

17.0 CONTROL
mand (m3)

2 x Base +Min VFD Output

16.5 OVERLAP

Max VFD Output

10.0 CONTROL
Base +Min VFD Output OVERLAP
95
9.5
Dem

Min VFD Output

Fixed Speed #1 Compressor
2.5
Base Load 7 m3/min

12:00a 8:00 a 5:00 p 12:00a

33
33

3. Understanding Compressors

DYNAMIC AIR COMPRESSORS

34

17
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Turbo compressors

Centrifugal turbo compressor

Characteristics:
Capacity: 35 - 1200 m3/min
Stages: 1 - 6
Pressure range: 3 - 40 bar (g)
Speed range: 3000 - 80000 min-1
35

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Axial compressor
Characteristics:
Capacity: 600 - 30000 m3/min
Stages: 10 - 25
Pressure range: 0 - 6 bar (g)
Speed range: 6000 - 20000 min-1

36

18
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Centrifugal turbo compressor

centrifugal impeller

Air Flow Air Flow

Drive axis

37

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Axial compressor

Axial impeller

Air Flow Air Flow

Drive axis

38

19
 Centrifugal Compressors
• Most Common Dynamic Compressor
– Relatively easy to install

– Attractive first cost esp. larger capacities

– 500 Hp
p ((2000 cfm)) -> 15,000..
, 20,000
, cfm

– Efficient operation
• Low Specific Power while operating in turndown range
• Very inefficient when operating in blow-off

Centrifugal Compressors
• Smaller size centrifugals
g now available
– Over lap in performance with large positive displacement
compressors
– More combined systems with a mix of positive displacement
and centrifugal machines.

• Dynamic Control -> Constant Pressure

• Displacement Control -> Pressure Band

• Special Considerations when Controlling Mixed

Systems

20
 Centrifugal Compressors
• Centrifugal
g Compressor
p Drivers
– Range 200 Hp through 3,500+ Hp

– Electric motors are common

• 208, 230/460, & 575 volt / 3 phase / 60 Hz
• 220, 380-400 volt / 3 phase / 50 Hz
• Synchronous 1.0 or 0.85 leading optional > 500 Hp
• Large compressor motors medium voltage
– 2,300 or 4,160 volt / 60 Hz; 3600 volt / 50 Hz
– Medium Voltage (1kV - 35 kV) * Medium Voltage - ANSI/IEEE 1585
1585-2002
2002
[It is assumed that this is ac.]

– Other air compressor drivers

• Engine drive, natural gas and diesel
• Steam Turbine drive
• Gas turbine drive in larger sizes

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Construction of a Centrifugal
g compression
p stage
g

Impeller blades

Air Flow

Impeller

casing

42

21
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Centrifugal impeller velocities

At inlet
C1 = velocity of the air to be compressed
U1 = peripheral speed of the compressor
impeller
W1= relative velocity between air and
compressor impeller

At outlet
C2 = velocity of the air to be compressed
U2 = peripheral speed of the compressor
impeller
W2 = relative velocity between air and
compressor impeller

43

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

centrifugal impeller, singlesided

Impeller profile direction
di ti off
rotation
backward-bent impeller vanes

air flow

44

22
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Turbo compressor: Throttle control

Partial load

45

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Turbo
u bo co
compressor:
p esso Throttle
ott e co
control
to

Full load

46

23
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

Turbo compressor: Volume control

Inlet guide vanes - Full load

47

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

T b compressor: Volume
Turbo V l control
t l
Inlet Guide Vanes – Closed

Partial load

48

24
 Centrifugal Compressor Performance
• Dynamic Compression
– Air enters the eye of the impeller

– Velocity increases to the impeller

tip

– Air enters the diffuser and volute

– Velocity decreases energy

converts to pressure

– Air exits to the inter-stage

– The process repeats

Centrifugal Compressor Performance

• Dynamic Compression
Li ne e
g
Sur

– Flow –vs – Pressure –

Design
Point Power Curve

Head Choke
psig or
Stonewall
Region

Power
bHp

Flow (cfm)

25
 Centrifugal Compressor Performance

• Dynamic Compression

Li ne e
g

Eff x im u o f
ic ie m
Sur

M a c us

y
nc
– Flow –vs– Pressure

Lo
– & Power Curve
Design
Point – with Locus of Maximum
Efficiency
Head Choke
psig or
Stonewall
Region

Power
bHp

Flow (cfm)

Centrifugal Compressor
Performance
Li ne e
g
S ur

• Dynamic Compression
Blow-off
Excess Flow – Throttling Range – Blow-off
Throttling Design
100 %
Point

Head Choke
psig or
Stonewall
Region

100 %

Power
Constant Power
bHp During Blow-off
80 %

Minimum 100 %
Safe Flow
80% (Typical) Flow (cfm)

26
 Centrifugal Compressor
Performance

Centrifugal Compressor Performance

Li ne e
g
Sur

Head
psig Blow-off
Positive
Excess Flow
120 psig Displacement
Throttling Design Compressor
110 psig Point

100 psig
Choke
90 psig or Artificial Demand
Stonewall
System
80 psig Region
Target
Pressure
100 %

Power
Constant Power
bHp During Blow-off
80 %

Minimum 100 %
Safe Flow
80% (Typical) Flow (cfm)

27
Centrifugal Compressor Performance

Centrifugal Compressor Performance

28
 Centrifugal Compressor Performance

Li ne e
g
Su r
Head
psig Blow-off
Positive
Excess Flow
120 psig Displacement
Throttling Design Compressor
110 psig Point

100 psig
Choke
90 psig or Storage Delta-P
Stonewall
System
80 psig Region
Target
Pressure
100 %

Power
Constant Power
bHp During Blow-off
80 %

Minimum 100 %
Safe Flow
80% (Typical) Flow (cfm)

Centrifugal Compressor Performance

• Major HVAC Equipment Manufacturer

– Multi-building site 3.5 million sq. ft.

– Power House multiple mixed compressors

– 3 additional centrifugals in 3 locations

– Operating with multiple machines in blow-off

29
 Centrifugal Compressor Performance
• Project Goals

– Cost effective reduction in energy use

– Improve system reliability

– Consistent pressure to support production

– Eliminate compressed air related downtime

Centrifugal Compressor Performance

• Project
j Implementation
p

– $ 23,000 Assessment
– $ 68,000 (1) Flow & (3) backpressure controls
– $ 8,000 reuse (2) 30,000 gal LP Tanks
– $ 47,400 (14) Thermal mass flow transducers
– $ 39,900 (4) microprocessors, BMS
– $ 10,300 (10) Digital power kW / kWh meters
– $ 96
96,800
800 E i
Engineering,
i I t ll ti
Installation, T i i
Training

– $ 293,600 Total Project Cost

– 36% Reduction in Energy Use
– 3.7 Mwh Annual Energy Savings

30
 Centrifugal Compressor Performance

• Project Life Cycle Cost

– $ 293,600 Total Project Cost
– $ 280,000 Annual Energy Savings
– Simple Payback 1.05 years

– 3.7 Megawatts Annual Energy Savings

– 15 year project life $4.2 million total savings

Centrifugal Compressor Performance

• Centrifugal Compressor Maintenance
– Routine operational checks and maintenance items are
critical.

– Minor maintenance items that are not repaired can

result in major failures.

– Check capacity and surge controls, along with safety

shutdowns

– Other checks per the manufacturer’s recommendations

31
 Centrifugal Compressor Performance
• Centrifugal Compressor Maintenance
– Centrifugal compressors are less forgiving than other
designs.

– Routing checks and maintenance are important epically

in harsh environments.

– If there is a history of marginally effective routine

maintenance, consider alternatives.

– Run to failure maintenance of centrifugal compressors

is very expensive.

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

• Key Points
– There are two broad categories of industrial air compressors, positive
displacement and dynamic.

– Reciprocating compressors are positive displacement compressors.

– Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors.

– Rotary screw compressors are the most common type of industrial air
compressor.

– There are many different types of part load capacity control for rotary
screw compressors.

– Different types of part load capacity control have different part load power
characteristics.

64

32
3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

• Key
y Points

– Centrifugal air compressors are the most common type of

dynamic compressor used by industry.

– Aerodynamic design determines the head -vs- flow

performance curve for centrifugal air compressors.

– Operating centrifugal compressors with blow-off control can

be extremely inefficient.

– Operating in the stonewall (or choke) region of a centrifugal

compressor's performance range is in efficient.

65

3. Understanding Compressors & Their Application

• Key
y Points

– When operating multiple centrifugal air compressors in a

system it is preferable to throttle multiple compressor as
opposed to operating in blow-off.

– When operating a system using a combination of positive

displacement and centrifugal compressors requires special
attention
tt ti to t control
t l strategy
t t and
d the
th system's
t ' pressure
profile.

– Performing poor routine maintenance for centrifugal air

compressors can lead to expensive failures of major air
compressor components.
66

33
 4. Understanding
g Air
Treatment

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Impurities in the air

Regardless of which type of construction, all compressors

draw in the impurities in the air and concentrate them many times
2

1
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Solid particles in the air

%

0-5µm 5-10µm 10-20µm 20-40µm 40-80µm

Size in micron
3

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Overall hydro carbon concentration

Mean daily value (mg/m3)
Location: a small German town
Period: July 1992
16
mg/m3
14

12

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

2
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Sulphur-dioxide (SO2) concentration

Period: July 1991 - June 1992
Location: a small German town
ppm

0·14

0·12

0·10

0·08
0 08

0·06

0·04

0·02

0
Jul-91 Aug-91 Sep-91 Oct-91 Nov-91 Dec-91 Jan-92 Feb-92 Mar-92 Apr-92 May-92 Jun-92

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Concentration in mg of mineral oil / m3 air

mg/m3 Time period 8:00 - 17:00

Gear grinding
workshop
Drilling workshop

Turning shop

Other

3
4. Understanding Air Treatment
Quality classification of compressed air
to ISO 8573-1: 2001 (E)

ISO Moisture Oil

Solid particle content
content content
8573-1 max. number of particles per m³ sized d [μm] PDP /
(x=liquid water
Class  0,1 0,1< d  0,5 0,5< d  1,0 1,0< d  5,0 µm mg/m³ content g/m³ ) mg/m³
0 as specified by the equipment user or supplier and more stringent than class 1

1 - 100 1 0 - -  -70 °C  0,01

2 - 100.000 1.000 10 - -  -40 °C  0,1

3 - - 10.000 500 - -  -20 °C  1,0

4 - - - 1.000 - -  +3 °C  5,0

5 - - - 20.000 - -  +7 °C -

6 - - - -  5  5  +10 °C -

7 - - - -  40  10 x  0,5 -

8 - - - - - - 0,5  x  5,0 -

9 - - - - - - 5,0  x  10,0 -

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Air quality downstream of the compressor

4
4. Understanding Air Treatment

CONDENSATE:

This compressor with an air delivery of 5 m3/min

(referred to +20° C, 70 % moisture carry-over
and 1 bar absolute) transports around 30 litres of
water into the air main during an 8 hour day
9

4. Understanding Air Treatment

CONDENSATE:
around 20 litres of this water
accumulates in the aftercooler
in the form of condensate (at
7 bar gauge working pressure
and an outlet temperature of
+30° C at the aftercooler)

10

5
4. Understanding Air Treatment

CONDENSATE:
As the air cools down further the remaining 10 litres
accumulate at convenient points in the air main

the results are

expensive
maintenance,
repairs and
d f t in
defects i
production

11

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Water Content of Ambient Air

Dewpoint g/m3 Dewpoint g/m3
+100 588.208 +6 7.246
+90 417.935 +4 6.359
+80 290.017 +2 5.570
+70 196.213 +0 4.868
+60 129.020 -10 2.156
+50 82.257 -20 0.88
+40 50.672 -30 0.33
+30 30.078 -40 0.117
+20 17.148 -50 0.038
+10 9.356 -60 0.011
+8 8.342 -70 0.0033

12

6
4. Understanding Air Treatment
pressure
dewpoint in
degrees °C.

P
Pressure d
dewpoint
i -
atmospheric
dewpoint
Example:
Pressure dewpoint: 2-3 °C.
Working pressure: 7 bar
Atmospheric dewpoint: - 25 °C.

atmospheric dewpoint in °C.

13

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Compressed air
Diffusion drying methods

Sorption
Condensation

Absorption Adsorption (desicc.)

Mechanism Cooling

Liquid
Cooling
Overpressurisation Refrigeration
drying method Solid drying

Solid drying Deliquescent

drying Regeneration

Heatless Heated Warm air

regeneration
14

7
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Why Dry Compressed Air?

Untreated air Problems in the air main Problems with equipment

dirt corrosion contamination

oil aerosols pressure loss tool wear

moisture contamination scrap

p

freezing downtime

maintenance
COSTS
COSTS

15

4. Understanding Air Treatment

air outlet
air inlet
Condensate separation

To ensure sufficient separation, deflector

liquids and heavy particles are
subjected to centrifugal forces at
high rates of flow.
The degree of separation is around cyclonic
95% att 6 b
bar, 20 °C and
d the
th nominal
i l air movement

volumetric flow rate. The pressure

drop is approximately 0.05 bar .

condensate collection

16

8
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Condensate separation
The compressed air discharged from the
aftercooler of a compressor is normally
100% saturated with water vapor.
If the temperature of the compressed air
falls, the water vapor condenses.

A coarse separation of the condensate

can be achieved if the pipework and the
compressed air outlets are installed as
shown in the illustration. condensate
collector
compressed
air outlet
condensate
drain
17

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Condensate separation
Fine filter

• used directly at the takeoff point

• mechanical filter
• rotating movement
• deflection plate
• condensate drain (important!)

18

9
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Over-compressing Simplest method

Disadvantage: high energy requirement

Suction of Example:
atmospheric air,
High-voltage safety switch
Working pressure 15 bar (g)
Preliminary compression to 300 bar (g)
high compression
e.g. 300 bar (g), Manufacture of high pressure cable
Working pressure 0.5 bar (g)
Preliminary compression to 30 bar (g)

cooling the air

and separation
of condensate,
high humidity
low humidity
decompression to
15 bar (g).

19

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Refrigeration drying

1. Air inlet
2. Air to air heat exchanger
3. Refrigerant to air heat exchanger
4. Refrigerant compressor
5. Condensate separation,
automatic condensate drain
6. Compressed air outlet

20

10
4. Understanding Air Treatment
High Inlet Temperature Refrigerated Dryer

Description:

 Air inlet temperatures up to 82 °C

 Centriflex separator system
 Automatic, float-controlled
condensate drain

Advantages:
 Ideal for reciprocating compressors
 Pressure dew point +10 °C :
selected to suit the practical
requirements of reciprocating
compressor operation
 Hot gas-bypass valve for constant
PDP

21

4. Understanding Air Treatment

The hot-gas
g bypass
yp controller allows high-pressure
g p refrigerant
g gas
g to flow
to the inlet of the refigerant compressor under fluctuating load.

This ensures constant temperature cooling of the compressed air.

> no pressure dew point fluctuations

> no danger of freezing

22

11
4. Understanding Air Treatment
Air inlet
Separator systems
for refrigeration dryers
Centriflex

First stage of separation:

A special stainless steel insert separates
all particles larger than 10 micron, using Displaced holes
the basic principle of centrifugal force
and deflection.
The re
re-usable
usable separator is fabricated as a
cartridge and is easy to remove for cleaning.

Air outlet

23

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Separator systems for compressed air dryers

Type: Zentri
Zentri-Dry
Dry
water
air outlet separator
system

mesh of
stainless
steel

air inlet

stainless steel housing

condensate

24

12
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Water Vapor Outlet Water Vapor at Atmospheric Pressure

Air Inlet Air Outlet

Water Vapor Outlet

Membrane Dryer
25

4. Understanding Air Treatment

filler neck for topping
Absorption drying up the drying
medium

Chemical process
drying
Solid soluble drying medium medium dry air
Deliquescent drying medium
Periodic renewal of the drying medium
Dewpoint: + 15 ° Celsius
Low compressed air inlet temperatures
humid pre
air drying

condensate

26

13
 4. Understanding Air Treatment

Desiccant drying - heatless

Application:
Systems subjected to freezing.
High ambient temperatures.
Extreme requirements of air quality.

1 microfilter (0.01 µm, 0.01 ppm)

2 g
changeover valve
3 flow diffuser
4 desiccant bed: moisture adsorption
5 outlet collector
6 particulate filter 1 µm
7 purge (regeneration ) air valve
8 desiccant bed: regeneration
9 purge air exhaust silencer

27

Design of the heatless regenerating desiccant dryers

Standard Cycle 100 % desiccant volume
100 % air flow
35 °C
C inlet temperature
7 bar (g)
pressure dew point - 40 °C

Regenerating air requirement:

time (min)
average 14 %
10 0.5 min standby
+ chamber filling 1%
0.5 min pressurising
total average 15 %
4 min regenerating
g g

5
Regenerating air (max.)
5 min drying 15 % x 5 min
 17 %
0
4.5 min

28

14
Conventional dryers
Standard Cycle 80 % desiccant volume
100 % air flow
35 °C inlet temperature
p
7 bar (g)
pressure dew point - 40 °C

Regenerating air requirement:

time (min)
average 17 %
10 0.5 min standby + chamber filling 1%
0.5 min pressurising
total average 18 %
4 min regenerating

5
Regenerating air (max.)
5 min drying 18 % x 5 min
 20 %
4.5 min
0

29

Economy Dryer
Economy Cycle 60 % desiccant volume
100 % air flow
35 °C
C inlet temperature
7 bar (g)
pressure dew point - 40 °C

Regenerating air requirement:

time (min)
average 22 %
10
+ chamber filling 2%

total average 24 %

5 0.25 min standby

0.25 min pressurising Regenerating air (max.)
2 min regenerating
24% x 2.5 min
2.5 min drying  27 %
2.25 min
0

30

15
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Desiccant drying -
i t
internally
ll heated
h t d
- integrated heating rods
(desiccant not heated evenly during
regeneration)
- low purge air requirement (cooling,
pressure build-up)
- constant dry, oil-free and clean
compressed air

31

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Desiccant drying - externally heated

1 microfilter (0.01 µm, 0.01ppm)

2 changeover valve
3 flow diffuser
4 desiccant bed: adsorption
5 outlet collector
6 regeneration (purge) valve
7 particulate filter
8 desiccant bed: regeneration
9 purge air inlet
10 purge air blower
11 purge air heating
12 purge air outlet

32

16
 4. Understanding Air Treatment

Desiccant drying, externally heat regenerated

Principle of no compressed air loss: 1 microfilter (0.01
(0 01 µm
µm, 0.01ppm)
0 01ppm)
2 changeover valve
3 flow diffuser
4 desiccant bed: adsorption
5 outlet collector
6 particulate filter
7 purge air blower
11

12

8 desiccant bed: regeneration

9 purge air heating
10 changeover valve
11 purge air inlet
12 purge air outlet

33

7 microfilter 0.01µm
1 compressed air inlet 8 changeover valve
2 air/air heat exchanger 9 flow diffuser
10 desiccant bed
3 refrigerant/air heat
11 outlet collector
exchanger 12 particulate filter
4 refrigerant compressor 13 blower
5 automatic condensate drain 14 purging (regeneration) of drying
6 compressed air outlet medium
15 purge air heating
16 changeover valve
17 purge air recovery
18 cooling/purge air outlet
12

15

11 13
17

16

5 18

14

34

17
4. Understanding Air Treatment

100 %
Absolute
humidity Ranges of
Refrigeration
dryers
dryer
application
Adsorption
dryers

After-
cooler

t
Pressure dewpoint
0%
40 20 0 -20 -40
35

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Pressure dewpoints for some areas of application

Area of application Required pressure dewpoint in °C

Workshop air - indoor pipework 10 to - 10

Paint spraying 10 to - 25
Instrument air 10 to - 40
Air motors 10 to - 40
Sand blasters 5 to 0
Pneumatic tools 5 to - 25
Packaging 5 to - 25
Plastics industry 5 to - 40

36

18
4. Understanding Air Treatment
How large are the impurities in the air?
Description: vapour / mist / smoke dust fog: spray rain

Perception: Description: microscopic visual

Sec.
Falling time at 1 m height Min.
foundry sand
water mist heavy industrial smog
Influence of the Brownian Molecular movement
carbon dust
traffic dust
cement dust
pollen
plant spores
bacteria
metallurgical dust
paint spray mist
Viruses oil vapours oil mist
tobacco smoke
gas molecules

centrifugal
separation and filtration performance normal bag-type
heavy air filter

Particle size
in microns
pore dia, activ. carbon, silica-gel, etc.

37

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Permissible p
particle sizes
Compressed air Permissible particle
usage size in micron
rotary vane air motors
percussion tools 40 - 20

cylinder
20 - 5
controllers
control systems. instru-
5-1
ments, spray guns
fluidic elements, phar-
maceutics. electronics <1

pure breathing
0.01
air

38

19
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Current hydro carbon carry-over limits

for various applications

Application Max. hydro carbon carry-over

in compressed air in mg/m3

Working air <5

Normal breathing air

Testing air <1

Pure breathing air < 0.5

Oil-free air < 0.003

39

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Prefilter
used as a coarse filter for 100%
saturated compressed air (or
for water vapor components in
the liquid phase)

Streamed from the inside to the outside.

Used as a liquid filter

Principle the same as all deep

deep-bed
bed filters

40

20
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Particulate filter

used as dust filter

for dried air (e.g.
downstream of a
desiccant dryer)

Streamed from the outside

to the inside.
Used as surface filter

41

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Microfilter

0.01 to 0.001 micron

for liquids
(aerosols) and particles

Streamed from the inside

to the outside.
Used as a deep-bed filter

42

21
 4. Understanding Air Treatment
How does the microfilter work?

contaminated air filter medium (deep-bed filter) technically oil-free clean air

Direct interception

Impact

Diffusion /Coalescence

43

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Coalescing filter behaviour in the partial load range

0.025
Remaining oil mg/m³

0.020

0.015

0 010
0.010 Filter (old)
Filter (new)
0.005

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Loading (flow in %)
44

22
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Activated carbon adsorber

Quality of inlet air:

hydro carbon content <0.01 mg/m3

free of particles > 0.01 m

Particulate
• long contact time of the air and
activated carbon bed filter 1 µm
(recommended)
• long
g and reliable life

• hydro carbon indicator for

continuous quality control
Quality of outlet air:

hydro carbon content 0.003 mg/m3

45

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Condensate drainage

Reliable drainage must be ensured at all condensate collecting

points of the air main
46

23
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Condensate drains: float type

condensate inlet

air back flow line connection

Drainage occurs only when

sufficient condensate has collected

No compressed air blowoff

condensate
Regular maintenance required
outlet
manual valve

47

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Condensate drains: solenoid valve,, 1 ball valve

2 dirt trap
timer controlled 3 solenoid valve with
integrated or external
timer
3

1 2

• automatic and regular drainage

• interval 1.5 to 30 min
• opening period 0.4 to 10 sec
• condensate can be directed into a disposal canister

48

24
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Condensate drains: Electronic level-sensing type

Capacitive level sensing
Automatic pressure matching
Self-monitoring
Volt-free alarm contact

1 condensate inlet 4 solenoid valve

2 collection chamber 5 valve diaphragm
3 pressure balance line

2 collection chamber 9 discharge pipe

6 level sensor
8 valve seat

49

4. Understanding Air Treatment

What’s the reason for treating condensate?

Regardless of which type of construction, all compressors

draw in the impurities in the air and contentrate them many times
50

25
4. Understanding Air Treatment

Condensate: Oil-Water separator

1 condensate inlet
2 expansion chamber
3 separating tank: gravitational separation
4 oil overflow drain
5 oil collector tank
6 prefilter: retention of solids
7 adsorption filter: retention of oil particles
8 water drain ((clean water))

Used to separate condensate dispersions

51

4. Understanding Air Treatment

Pollutants in the condensate of oil-free

and
d oil-cooled
il l d compressor units
it
Sample HC mg/l Ph Cu mg/l Zn mg/l Cl mg/l Pb mg/l Fe mg/l Na mg/l
oil-free 4.2 4.7 2.5 0.75 1.3 0.2 0.2 1.6

fluid-injected 7.1 6.6 1.1 1 1 0.2 0.2 0.12

oil-free 7 5.5 1.7 0.22 2.4 0.2 0.2 0.45

fluid injected
fluid-injected 01
0.1 71
7.1 0 11
0.11 0 04
0.04 1 02
0.2 02
0.2 0 64
0.64
oil-free 4.2 16 2 6.4 2.1 4 1.5
oil-free 5.3 6.2 0.11 2.2 1 0.2 0.2 0.76

HC .... Hydro carbon content

Ph .... ph value

52

26
4. Understanding Air Treatment

53

27
 5. Understanding Systems

The Demand Side

5. Understanding Systems

Pneumatic Power
Air Flow > Mass or Weight of Air
Pressure > Potential Energy

Increasing – or – Decreasing
Fl
Flow – or – Pressure
P
Increase – or – Decrease
Power Delivered & Power Consumed
2

1
5. Understanding Systems

5 TON CLAMP CYLINDER

12” Bore x 10” Stroke
5.6 Tons @ 100 psig

5 Ton Clamping Cylinder Mainline

Compressed Air
Header
1.5 seconds
4 cycles per minute
320mm Bore (45,000 Time Required to Clamp
and Unclamp is 1.5 Seconds

Newtons @ 6.9 bar) Machine Operates at

4 Cycles / Minute

250mm Stroke Length

Filter Regulator Lubircator

5. Understanding Systems

Cylinder Volume Calculation

 r2  l  (160) 2  250
V    0.02 cubic meters
10003 10003
Cylinder Air Use

2
5. Understanding Systems

Cylinder Average Air Demand (1 minute)

i t )

What Size Components?

Air Line Size _______________________
Filter, Regulator, Lubricator ___________
Valve Size _________________________

5. Understanding Systems

Cylinder Peak Dynamic Flow Rate

What Size Components Now?

Air Line Size _______________________
Filter, Regulator, Lubricator ___________
Valve Size _________________________

3
5. Understanding Systems

•When does the Peak Air Flow Occur?

•When is the High Pressure Required?

•What Size Components Now?

5. Understanding Systems

•Flow Static Demand

Peak air flow and minimum pressure
required do not occur simultaneously.

•Flow Dynamic Demand

Peak airflow rate and minimum pressure
required must occur simultaneously.

4
5. Understanding Systems

•Perceived
Perceived High Pressure Demands
Often Dictate the System Pressure

Validate Pressure Requirements

Rule Out Excessive Pressure Drop

Measure Flow & Pressure (Data Logging)

Evaluate
• Connection Practice – Modify Equipment – Storage – Pressure
Boosters

5. Understanding Systems

Validate Perceived High Pressure

Pressure Gauges – Mechanical Damping
Air System Audit
Point of Use (P5) Pressure @ Test Machine
7

6.8

6.6

6.4
Pressure (bar)

6.2

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2
© 1992 Tom Taranto
5
11:05 11:10 11:15 11:20 11:25 11:30
Time of Day 11/13/92
System Supply Pressure (bar) Header Pressure (bar)
Average Point of Use Pressure (bar) Minimum Point of Use Pressure (bar)

10

5
5. Understanding Systems

Test Machine Flow Dynamic Demand

What’s
What s Wrong With This Picture?

11

5. Understanding Systems

•High Volume Intermittent Demand

Consume Large Airflow for Short Periods

High Peak Airflow Rate and Low Average

Demand

Affects the System Pressure Profile

Control Signals Supply Pressure
Distribution Gradient Use Point Pressure

12

6
5. Understanding Systems

High Volume Intermittent Demand

•Wastes Energy
Initiates Compressor Start-up
Operational Remedy – Increased Pressure
Adds to Artificial Demand
•Data Logging
gg g Airflow & Pressure
Peak Airflow Rate
Duration of Event & Total Air Consumed
Dwell Time Between Events – Storage Refill
Evaluate Control Response & Excess Supply Pressure

13

5. Understanding Systems

High Volume Intermittent Demand

High Volume Intermittent Demand Event - Dynamic Profile
Dense Phase Transport System (Tanks 1 & 2) - Test 2

7.2 24

7 22

6.8 20

6.6 18

6.4 16
Flow to System (m3/m)
Pressure (bar)

6.2 14

6 12

5.8 10

5.6 8

5.4 6

5.2 4

5 2
© 2001 Tom Taranto
4.8 0
11:25 11:26 11:27 11:28 11:29 11:30 11:31 11:32 11:33 11:34 11:35 11:36 11:37

Time of Day on Tuesday 03/20/2001

System Pressure (bar) Event Flow @ Tanks 1&2 (m 3/m)

Page 2

14

7
5. Understanding Systems

•Pipe
Pipe Layouts – Point of Use Piping
 Delivers Air From Header to – Demand
 Energy = Airflow & Pressure

•1 to 2 bar Loss in Point of Use Piping is Common

 Poor Unreliable, Inconsistent Applications Performance
 Don
Don’tt Increase Pressure
 Decrease Piping Resistance

15

5. Understanding Systems

• Which Piping Configuration Performs Best?

16

8
5. Understanding Systems

Key Points
• Identify dynamic airflow conditions of average
–vs- peak airflow.

• Classify air demands as Flow Static and Flow

Dynamic.

• Point of use connection practice has a

significant affect on applications performance.
17

5. Understanding Systems

– Key Points
• Review perceived high pressure air
demands to validate their pressure
requirements.

• P
Pressure gauges have
h slow
l response tto
pressure changes. It may be necessary to
use pressure transducers and high-speed
sampling to capture pressure dynamics.
18

9
5. Understanding Systems

Key Points
• Minimize the use of hose for connections.
Hose has much smaller ID size (higher
pressure drop) than pipe.

• Where hose must be used select the hose

size based on the inside diameter and peak
airflow rate. Avoid the use of hose barbs and
pipe clamps, they are dangerous, very
restrictive and frequently develop leaks.

19

5. Understanding Systems

Key Points
• Do not use redundant point of use dryers, filters, etc.
as each component represents additional pressure
drop.
• Avoid over filtration, maintain an appropriate
compressed air cleanliness class for the application
requirements.
• Size all connection equipment to the actual dynamic
conditions associated with the application.
• Account for to peak airflow rate that must be
supported, do not size equipment based on average
airflow rate.
20

10
 5. Understanding Systems

BALANCING THE SUPPLY TO

DEMAND

21

5. Understanding Systems

• Supply > Demand ~ Pressure

• Demand > Supply ~ Pressure

22

11
5. Understanding Systems

• Air System Minimum Pressure

 What is the correct pressure?
 What is the Cost?

• Increased Air Pressure = Waste

 Artificial Demand
 Increasing Pressure Increases Airflow

23

5. Understanding Systems

• Artificial Demand

– Increasing pressure applied

to a hole in the air system,
increases the airflow
through the air system.

– Leaks and unregulated air

demands all have a
potential component of
artificial demand.

– Leak repair without pressure

control is not fully effective.

24

12
5. Understanding Systems
Discharge of Air Through an Orifice
In cubic meters of free air per minute at standard atmospheric pressure 1.013 bar absolute and 21° C

Gauge Diameter of Orifice, mm

pressure
before 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
orifice, bar
4 0.03 0.11 0.25 0.45 0.70 1.01 1.38 1.80 2.28 2.82 6.34 11.28
4.5 0.03 0.12 0.28 0.50 0.78 1.12 1.52 1.98 2.51 3.10 6.98 12.40
5 0.03 0.14 0.30 0.54 0.85 1.22 1.66 2.16 2.74 3.38 7.61 13.53
5.5 0.04 0.15 0.33 0.59 0.92 1.32 1.79 2.34 2.97 3.66 8.24 14.65
6 0.04 0.16 0.35 0.63 0.99 1.42 1.93 2.52 3.19 3.94 8.87 15.78
6.5 0.04 0.17 0.38 0.68 1.06 1.52 2.07 2.70 3.42 4.23 9.51 16.90
7 0 05
0.05 0 18
0.18 0 41
0.41 0 72
0.72 1 13
1.13 1 62
1.62 2 21
2.21 2 88
2.88 3 65
3.65 4 51
4.51 10 14
10.14 18 03
18.03
7.5 0.05 0.19 0.43 0.77 1.20 1.72 2.35 3.06 3.88 4.79 10.77 19.15
8 0.05 0.20 0.46 0.81 1.27 1.82 2.48 3.24 4.11 5.07 11.40 20.27
8.5 0.05 0.21 0.48 0.86 1.34 1.93 2.62 3.42 4.33 5.35 12.04 21.40
9 0.06 0.23 0.51 0.90 1.41 2.03 2.76 3.60 4.56 5.63 12.67 22.52
9.5 0.06 0.24 0.53 0.95 1.48 2.13 2.90 3.78 4.79 5.91 13.30 23.65
10 0.06 0.25 0.56 0.99 1.55 2.23 3.03 3.96 5.02 6.19 13.94 24.77
Table is based on 0.61 coefficient of flow.

25

5. Understanding Systems

Engineer Appropriate Storage

Air System
y Audit - Artificial Demand Reduction
Test #21 Throttled System Response
8 56
7.9 54
7.8 52
7.7 50
7.6 48
7.5 46
ystem Flow (m3/m)

7.4 44
Pressure (bar)

7.3 42
7.2 40
7.1 38
7 36
6.9 34
Sty

6.8 32
6.7 30
6.6 28
6.5 26
6.4 24
© 1992 Tom Taranto
6.3 22
13:07 13:08 13:09 13:10 13:11 13:12 13:13 13:14 13:15 13:16 13:17 13:18 13:19 13:20
Time of Day 11/14/92
System Pressure (bar) C#1 225 kW Discharge Pressure (bar)
C#2 262 kW Discharge Pressure (bar) Stystem Flow (m3/m)

26

13
5. Understanding Systems

Storage; A Lake – vs – A Reservoir

LAKE RESERVOIR

AIR RECEIVER AIR STORAGE

8.2 bar 8.2 bar 6.2 bar
Working Pressure Storage Pressure Working Pressure

Intermediate
Control

27

5. Understanding Systems

• Stabilize System Operation

– Minimize the cost of generating compressed air.
– Control air demand and reduce artificial demand.
– Create controlled air storage to supply peak
demand

• Evaluating Controlled Storage

– Meet surge demands
– Satisfy events as defined in the demand profile
– Improve compressor control response

28

14
5. Understanding Systems
Compressed Air Storage - for Stable System Operation
Useable air in storage based on receiver size and pressure differential
60
3 0 bar
3.0
Receiver = 10 m3
Useable Air Storage
50 @ 3.0 bar 30 m3 2.5 bar
@ 2.5 bar 25 m3
)

@ 2.5 bar 25 m3
3

40
able Air Storage (m

@ 1.5 bar 15 m3 2.0 bar

@ 1.0 bar 10 m3
@ 0.5 bar 5 m3
30 1.5 bar
@ 0.2 bar 2 m3

1.0 bar
Usea

20

0.5 bar
10

0.2 bar
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3
Receiver Size (m )

29

5. Understanding Systems

Tuning Compressor & System Controls

Ai S
Air System
t P
Performance
f T
Testt C
Comparison
i
Properly Tuned System Performance w/ Intermediate Control
7.8 95
7.6 90
7.4 85
7.2 80
7 75
6.8 70
System Flow (m3/m)

6.6 65
Pressure (bar)

6.4 60
kW x 10

6.2 55
6 50
5.8 45
5.6 40
S

5.4 35
5.2 30
5 25
4.8 20
4.6 15
4.4 © 1994 Tom Taranto 10
0

0
:0

:1

:2

:3

:4

:5

:0

:1

:2

:3

:4

:5

:0
19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

21

Time of Day on Thursday 5/26/94

Storage Pressure (bar) System Pressure (bar )
Flow (m3/m) kW x 10 (source)

30

15
5. Understanding Systems

Tuning Compressor & System Controls

Air System Performance Test Comparison
Improperly Tuned System Performance w/ Compressor Source Control
7.8 95
7.6 90
7.4 85
7.2 80
7 75
6.8 70

System Flow (m3/m)

6.6 65
Pressure (bar)

6.4 60

kW x 10
6.2 55
6 50
5.8 45
5.6 40
5.4 35
5.2 30
5 25
4.8 20
4.6 15
© 1994 Tom Taranto
4.4 10
0

0
:0

:1

:2

:3

:4

:5

:0

:1

:2

:3

:4

:5

:0
19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

21
Time of Day on Wednesday 5/25/94
Storage Pressure (bar) System Pressure (bar )
Flow (m3/m) kW x 10 (source)

31

5. Understanding Systems

Key Points
• Stabilize system operating pressure.
• Increased air pressure increases
compressed air demand at leaks and
unregulated air demands.
• Leakage can be reduced by controlling
to a lower system pressure.
• Artificial demand is a component of any
unregulated leak or air demand.

32

16
 5. Understanding Systems

Key Points
• Target pressure should be the lowest optimal
pressure to supply productive air demands.
• Air storage should be designed to supply surge
demands, satisfy events defined in the demand
profile, and improve compressor control response.
• The
Th amountt off energy in
i storage
t depends
d d on
storage volume and controlled pressure
differential.

33

5. Understanding Systems

17
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

6. Pressure Profile

Graphical description of
compressed d air
i pressure as
measured throughout the system.

Typical pressure
measurement locations
• Compressor maximum working pressure (MWP)
• Compressor control range
• Treatment equipment pressure drop
• Pressure differential reserved for primary storage
• Supply header pressure to the system
• Distribution header pressure in one or more
demand side locations
• Point of use connection pressure
• End use pressure
2

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 1
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Plant Air C om pressors

Com pressor 001-5040
TA1 Atlas Copco GA250-100
TP1
300 Hp 480 Volt
254 kW FL - 56 kW NL
1,448 acfm 107 psig

Com pressor 001-5130

TA2 Gardener D enver EAUSAV Air
TP2
300 H p 4160 Volt TP6 Receiver Flow
280.2 kW FL - 62.9 kW NL Control
1,481 acfm 100 psig 400 ft. TP9
To M ill
Refrigerated A ir Dryer Air Receiver
Zander 3000 gal To M ill
4,300 scfm

TA3 Com pressor 001-5135

Gardener D enver EAUSAV Air
TP3
300 H p 4160 Volt Receiver
280.2 kW FL - 62.9 kW NL TP7
1,481 acfm 100 psig

TP8

TA4 Com pressor 001-5133

LeR OI W E300SS TP4
300 H p 4160 Volt
223.5 kW FL - 55.9 kW NL
1,410 acfm 100 psig

Pack H ouse C om pressor

TP10

TA5 Com pressor 087-1205

A tlas C ocpo GA160 - 125 200 ft. A ir
TP5 To Receiver Receiver To M ill
200 Hp 480 Volt
175 kW FL - 36 kW NL 1000 gal
890 acfm 125 psig

System Pressure Profile

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 2
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

System Pressure Profile

System Pressure Profile

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 3
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Measuring Pressure Profile

• Multiple
M li l D Data L
Loggers w// synchronized
h i d time
i

• Dynamic Performance pressure changes with

time.

• Dynamic pressure changes affect

– Compressor control response
– Compressed air storage
– End use pressure / reliability

Practical Application of
Pressure Profiles
• Target
T Pressure
P
– The lowest optimum pressure necessary to support
production requirements.

• Reducing System Pressure Decreases Energy Use

– Power at the air compressor drops by 6% per bar of
pressure reduction (for positive displacement
compressors).

– Air demand in the system drops by 6 % to 12% per bar

of pressure reduction (assuming 50% to 75% of air use
is unregulated).
8

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 4
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Two types of pressure differentials
• Irrecoverable Pressure Loss
an energy loss to the system.
– Pressure drop through a filter, pipe restriction, hose,
quick disconnect fitting, etc.

• Recoverable Pressure Differential

an energy cost to the system
– Increased pressure of an air storage receiver which
creates compressed air energy storage

Pressure Profile
component pressure loss
• Pressure
P Regulator
R l t
– Recoverable
• adjust the regulator to higher pressure
– Irrecoverable
• offset pressure required to open the regulator
• pressure loss at a given air flow rate

• Pressure Flow Control

– Recoverable
• differential between storage pressure and target pressure
– Irrecoverable
• control pressure differential
• pressure loss at a given air flow rate with valve(s) wide open.

10

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 5
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Design Criteria
• Operate compressor controls in as narrow a pressure band as
possible while allowing:

– Unneeded compressors to automatically shutdown.

– All compressors, except one, to operate at full load capacity.

– Only one compressor to provide trim capacity, selecting the most

efficient part load capacity control available.

• Operate compressor discharge pressure at the lowest possible

pressure

11

Pressure Profile
Design Criteria
• E
Establish
t bli h th
the d
delivered
li d use point
i t pressure att th
the llowestt
optimum pressure necessary to support productive air demand.

• Create pressure differential (P final minus P initial) to create the

necessary compressed air energy storage. Energy storage
should serve normal demand events and cover permissive
start-up time of reserve compressor capacity.

• Use energy storage to prevent additional air compressors from

starting in response to short duration peak demand events.

• Minimize irrecoverable pressure loss throughout the system.

12

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 6
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Design Criteria

• Control recoverable pressure differential of primary storage to

eliminate artificial demand.

• Control supply header target pressure to the lowest optimum

pressure while accounting for irrecoverable pressure loss
through distribution,
distribution and point of use piping
piping.

• Apply pressure regulation at use points where recoverable

pressure differential is available. Eliminate pressure regulators
that are set at maximum.

13

Pressure Profile
Design Criteria

• Supply Side – upper pressure limit

• Supply Side – lower pressure limit

• Demand side – upper pressure limit

• Demand side – lower pressure limit

14

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 7
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Key Points - Pressure Limits
1
1. P
Pressure limits
li it fform th
the operating
ti envelope
l off th
the pressure
profile

2. Supply maximum working pressure (MWP) is the high limit of

the pressure profile

3. Demand side point of use pressure target is the low limit of

the pressure profile

4. Consider minimum design pressure (velocity) rating of supply

components

5. Protect demand side components from exceeding their MWP

15

Pressure Profile – point of use

Perceived –vs– actual required pressure
Air System Audit - Point of use Testing
Test #9A P5 @ 550 Line Lift Cyl.
100

90

80
age Pressure (PSIG)

70

60

50

40
Avera

30

20

10

0
10:35 10:36 10:37 10:38 10:39 10:40
Time of Day

P3 Service Rm #1 P3 Service Rm #3 P4 @ 550 Line P5 Lift Cyl.

16

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 8
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile – point of use

Flow Static –vs- Flow Dynamic Demand

• Flow Static Demand

– applications are characterized when peak airflow
does not occur simultaneously with the minimum
pressure required.

• Flow Dynamic Demand

– applications where-in the peak airflow and
minimum pressure must occur simultaneously.

17

Pressure Profile
Key Points – Point of Use Pressure
1
1. E l t use points
Evaluate i t that
th t require
i high
hi h system
t pressure.

2. Validate perceived high pressure requirements.

3. Eliminate poor point of use piping causing excessive pressure loss.

4. Check dynamic supply pressure to end use pneumatic devices.

5. Review OEM designs to identify excessive pressure loss within

machines.

6. Establish an appropriate target pressure for point of use supply

connection.

18

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 9
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Distribution Pressure Gradient
• Pressure Gradient, the rate of change of pressure with respect
to distance in the direction of maximum change.

– In fluid mechanics the change in pressure P, along the length and

distance X of a fluid conduit. It is represented by dP / dX.

• NOTE 1: The air velocity in a pipeline depends on the

magnitude of the gradient and the resistance of the pipeline.

• NOTE 2: With out gradient there is no airflow. In a compressed

air system air moves from high-pressure toward low-pressure
areas.

19

Pressure Profile
Distribution System Performance
98 4500
97 4250
96 4000
95 3750
94 3500
93 3250
Flow to System (SCFM)

92 3000
Pressure ( PSIG )

91 2750
90 2500
89 2250
88 2000
87 1750
86 1500
85 1250
84 1000
83 750
82 500
15:00 15:05 15:10 15:15 15:20 15:25 15:30
Time of Day on 09/26/95

Sullair Discharge Turbo Receiver Orifice Upstream Orifice Downstream

Bldg 13 Flow to System

20

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 10
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Distribution System Performance
98 5500

96 5250

94 5000

92 4750

90 4500

Flow to System(SCFM)
88 4250
Pressure ( PSIG )

86 4000

84 3750

82 3500

80 3250

78 3000

76 2750

74 2500

72 2250

70 2000
19:00 19:05 19:10 19:15 19:20 19:25 19:30
Time of Day on 09/25/95

Sullair Discharge Turbo Receiver Orifice Upstream Orifice Downstream

Bldg 1 Receiver Flow to System

21

Pressure Profile
Sustained Pressure Gradient
High Pressure Low Pressure

High Pressure Low Pressure

22

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 11
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
System Resistance Creates Pressure
Flow, Pressure & System Resistance
Compressors Pump Flow
Resistance Creates Pressure

Compressor
100 SCFM
@ 100 PSIG
50 mm
2” Pipe Open to Atmosphere
Receiver Pressure = 0 PSIG
47 l/s
18 kW

23

Pressure Profile
Key Points - Distribution
• Di
Distribution
t ib ti pressure gradient
di t requires
i measurements t th
throughout
h t th
the
system.
• Check pressure gradient at peak airflow rate.
• Normally pressure should track supply at < 0.15 bar (2 psig) pressure
differential.
• High pressure gradient leads to unstable performance.
• High pressure gradients in distribution piping must be corrected.
• Sustained pressure gradient will drive inefficient compressor load
cycles.
l
• Compressors create airflow, system resistance creates pressure.
• Pressure drop increases as a function of airflow change squared.
• Pipeline design velocity should be less than 30 ft/sec.

24

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 12
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Air Compressor Control Signal

25

Pressure Profile
Control Shift as Flow Changes

26

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 13
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Control Shift as Flow Changes

27

Pressure Profile
Control Shift as Flow Changes

28

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 14
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Pressure Drop Changes w/ Flow
• In a Fluid System, pressure drop changes
as the square of the change in velocity.
2
Q 
 P2   2    P1
 Q1 
2
 21.29 m3 / min 
 P2     0.5 bar  0.995 bar
 15.09 m3 / min 
The resultant control pressure shift would be P2  P1 , or 0.495 bar

29

Pressure Profile
Remote Control Pressure Sensing

30

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 15
UNIDO Industrial Systems Optimization
Module 4 Compressed Air Systems -
Instructor Notes

Pressure Profile
Key Point – Control Signals
1
1. Ai compressor capacity
Air it controls
t l reactt tto pressure sensed
dbby itits control
t l
system.

2. As pressure decreases compressor air delivery will increase until its

maximum output is being produced.

3. As pressure increases compressor air delivery is reduced.

4. y
Restrictions in the system such as air dryers
y and filters can impact
p
compressor control.

5. Remote sensing or external sequencing of compressor controls can improve

control response.

6. Over pressure protection should sense pressure within the compressor

package.
31

© 2005 US Department of Energy and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
– Tom Taranto and Wayne Perry 16
 Air Storage and
System Energy Balance

Air Storage and

System Energy Balance
• DYNAMICS
– Dynamics is the study of the affect of time variant
parameters on system performance.

• AVERAGE AIR DEMAND

– For an individual compressed air use point, Average Air
Demand is the compressed airflow rate (Nm3 / min)
consumed by the use as considered during the time
duration of one or more full cycles of operation.

1
 Air Storage and
System Energy Balance
• Peak Air Demand
– The highest compressed airflow rate (Nm3 / min) of
the system’s combined air demand which is a
detectable airflow rate greater than the continuous
steady demand. Peak demand duration may be a
few seconds or minutes of time
time.

• Demand Event
– A peak air demand along with duration of time
during which that airflow rate must be sustained.
3

Air Storage and

System Energy Balance
• Demand Event
– A peak air demand along with duration of time
during which that airflow rate must be sustained.

• Demand Shift
– Similar to a demand event where-by air demand
quickly increases or decreases. However, a
demand shift will operate at the new airflow rate for
several minutes, an hour, or more.
4

2
 Maintaining an Efficient
Supply / Demand Balance
• C
Compressed d air
i system
t controls
t l mustt maintain
i t i a reall titime energy
balance between supply and demand.

– Rotating Capacity – Compressed air energy generated by operating air

compressors.

– Rotating Reserve Capacity – Potential compressed air energy in

operating air compressors which are operating a less than their full load
capacity.

– Storage Capacity – Potential compressed air energy stored in an air

receiver tank.

– Stand-by Capacity – Potential compressed air energy in air compressors

that are shutdown.

Maintaining an Efficient
Supply / Demand Balance
• System Supply / Demand Control Strategy
– Operate rotating capacity equal to or slightly greater than
the system’s average air demand. Shutdown any rotating
capacity that is not needed.

– Operate all compressors at full load with only one

compressor operating at part load to provide trim capacity
capacity.

– Serve demand events from storage capacity. Eliminate the

use of rotating reserve capacity and prevent stand-by
capacity from coming on-line in response to short duration
demand events.
6

3
Where:

Storage Capacity Calculation

 P  Pmin  
Va  Vs   max 
 Pamb 
Where:
Va = Useable compressed air storage capacity
Vs = Storage Volume = total volume of storage system

Pmax = Maximum storage or receiver pressure (cut-out pressure)

Pmin = Minimum storage or receiver pressure required (cut-in pressure)

Pamb = Absolute ambient air pressure

Storage Volume Calculation

T  C  Pamb
Vs 
Pmax  Pmin
Where:
T = Time duration of the event (minutes)
C = Air demand of the event
Vs = Total volume of storage system
Pmax = Maximum storage or receiver pressure (cut-out pressure)
Pmin = Minimum storage or receiver pressure required (cut-in
pressure)
Pamb = Absolute ambient air pressure

4
 Air Storage
Controlled and Uncontrolled
• Controlled Storage
– pressure / flow controls separate the demand side
of the system from the supply side.

– pressure in the distribution system is maintained at

a low pressure in order to minimize artificial
demand

– provide a stable pressure regardless of air use or

compressor control response.
9

Air Storage
Controlled and Uncontrolled
• Uncontrolled
U ll d S
Storage
– pressure throughout the plant rises and falls over the
full control range of the compressors.

– plant air pressure can fall significantly below the lowest

desired pressure because the compressor controls
cannot react to changes
g in demand as quickly y as they
y
occur.

– artificial demand is introduced whenever the demand

side pressure is above the lowest optimum pressure for
the system.
10

5
 Air Storage and
System Energy Balance
• Ideal Supply / Demand Qgen  Qdmnd
Balance
– only if pressure is
constant

• Practical Supply / Qsys  Qdmnd

Demand Balance
– accounts for changing Qsys  Qgen  Qsto  Qdmnd
system pressure
11

Air Storage and

System Energy Balance
Qsys  Qdmnd (– Qsto ) for increasing pressure

Qsys  Qgen  Qsto  Qdmnd (+ Qsto ) for decreasing pressure

12

6
 Air Storage and
System Energy Balance
Air Receiver Pressure Change

Slope of a Line

( y1 = 8,  x1 = 0 )

Pressure  Negative slope, decreasing pressure 
(bar) implies that air is released from 
storage to the system.

( y2 = 1,  x
( y = 1 x2 = 1 )
=1) Vgas  Vrec 
P f  Pi 
Patm

Vgas  1 m3 
1 bar  8 bar  V   7 m3
gas
Time 1 bar

Negative Slope = Energy is Released from Storage to the System

Positive Slope = Energy is Absorbed to Storage from the System

13

Gas Volume – Receiver Volume

Relationship
Vgas  Vrec 
Prec 
Patm
Receiver

Vrec  Pf  Pi 
V = 1 m3
Compressor

Vgas 
Patm

1 m 3  1 bar  8 bar 
Vgas    7 m3
1 bar

14

7
 Introducing Time into
Air Receiver Storage Calculations
• Adding time to the air
Vgas  Vrec 
Pf  Pi 
storage calculation Patm
results in airflow rate
Qgas being calculated.
Vrec 
P f  Pi 
Vgas Patm

• The flow rate of gas is T T
volume per unit of
Vrec  Pf  Pi 
time. Qgas 
T  Patm

15

Air Receiver Pump-up Test

Vrec  Pf  Pi 
Pump-up Test
Initial Pressure Pi = 1 bar (abs)
Final Pressure Pf = 8 bar (abs)
Pump-up Time T = 1 minute
Qgen 
Receiver
V = 1 m3
T  Patm
1 m  8 bar  1bar 
Compressor
Airflow Qgen = ??
3
Qgen 
1 minute  1bar
Qgen   7 m 3 minute

16

8
 Useable Air in an Air Receiver Piping ΔP
0.2 bar

Compressor
Unload = 8.0 bar Receiver
V = 5 m3 Piping ΔP
Load = 7.3 bar Dryer ΔP 0.5 bar
0.3 bar
Filter ΔP IN OUT
0.2 bar
Filter

Use Point
Requires
Vrec  Pf  Pi 
50b
5.0 bar
Qsto 
T  Patm
The useable compressed air energy depends 5 m 3  6.0 bar  7.3 bar 
Qsto 
on the receiver volume Vrec and the available 1 minute  1.013 bar
storage pressure differential ( ΔP = Pf – Pi ). Qsto   6.42 Nm 3 minute

17

Pneumatic Capacitance of
Compressed Air Systems
• Volume of gas • Volume of gas using
calculation Pneumatic
Capacitance
P  Pi   Pf  Pi 
Vrec
Vgas 
Vggas  Vrec 
f
Patm
Vgas  CPN  Pf  Pi 
Patm

Vgas  1 m 3

1 bar  8 bar  V  7 m
3
m3
Vgas  1  1 bar  8 bar  Vgas   7 m3
gas
1 bar
bar

18

9
 Pneumatic Capacitance &
Dynamic Time Based Calculations
• Flow rate of gas • Flow rate of gas using
calculation Pneumatic
Capacitance
Vrec Pf  Pi 
Vrec  P  P Q gas 
Patm
x
T
Q gas 
f i

T  Patm dP
Q gas  C pn x
dT

19

Air Storage & System Energy

Balance – Key Points
1. Consistent, Stable, & Efficient Operation – Balance Supply & Demand.

2. System dynamics determine the nature of the compressed air demand

profile.

3. Average air demand (compressors) – Peaks & valleys in demand (system).

4. Sources of supply – rotating capacity – rotating reserve – energy storage &

stand-by compressors.

5. Rotating online capacity must be greater than average air demand.

6. Peak demand from storage – don’t forget that refill of storage is an air
demand.

20

10
 Air Storage & System Energy
Balance – Key Points
7. Control Strategy – turn off unneeded compressors – run compressors at full
load

8. Pick one machine for trim capacity (efficient at part load operating point).

9. Engineer storage to system applications avoid using rules of thumb.

10. Energy available from storage depends on volume and available pressure
differential.

11. The unanticipated shutdown of an operating air compressor is often the

largest event that will occur in a system.

21

11
 8. Compressed Air System
Assessment

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• The Systems Approach

– A comprehensive system assessment
examines the entire compressed air system,
including:
• Generation
• Treatment
• Storage
• Distribution
• Use and waste of compressed air

1
8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Th
The systems
t approachh evaluates
l t overallll
system performance rather than individual
component efficiency.

• The system boundary includes energy input to

the compressed air ssupply
ppl and treatment
through the production equipment and work
performed as a result of the energy input.

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• The information gathered should allow the

assessment team to:
– Understand point of use applications
– Correct poor performing applications and those
that upset system operation
– Eliminate wasteful practices
– Create and maintain an energy balance
– Optimize storage and compressor controls

2
8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Brake horsepower calculation for annual energy cost.

bhp  0.746 x hours x energy cost

 annual energy cost
mtr eff

Where: bhp = full load brake horsepower of the motor

0.746 = conversion of bhp to kW
hours = annual running hours
energy cost = $ / kWh
mtr eff = full load motor efficiency

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Measured Volts - Amps calculation for annual energy cost.

volts  amps  1.732 x pf  hours  energy cost

 annual energy cost
1000

Where: volts = average line to line 3 phase voltage

amps = full load amperage of the motor
1.732 = square root of 3 for phase to neutral voltage from
line to line voltage
pf = power factor of the motor (0.80 to 0.85 typical)
hours = annual running hours
energy cost = $ / kWh
mtr eff = full load motor efficiency

3
8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Systems Engineering Process

– Establish requirements definitions
– Evaluate assessment process
– Evaluate outcomes and results

(see chart in the workbook

Figure 4 – 8.1)

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

4
8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Common goals in all compressed air

system assessments:
– Baseline airflow and energy use
– Capture system pressure trends during baseline period
– Establish pressure profile through system to key applications
– Characterize system performance and operation of poor
performing end use applications that cause productions issues
– Identify
f waste and inappropriate use and evaluate alternatives
– Understand system dynamics and measures to create balance
between supply and demand
– Implement control strategy to maintain balance.

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• R
Reality
lit is,
i the
th supply
l off compressed d air
i
does not drive system performance or cost.
If you never take any air out of a system,
performance would be stable and cost
would be minimal. The determination of
both performance,
performance and cost is how the
compressed air gets out of the system, not
how it gets in.

10

5
8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Issues and Opportunities –

• Organize the Assessment –

• Air System Definition –

• Design the Assessment –

11

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• The table below is an example of how various measurement
points should be identified.
Measurement ID Description

Test Flow TF1 Air flow in 6” header leaving the Compressor Room

Test Pressure TP1 Air pressure in 6” header leaving the Compressor Room

Test Dew Point TD1 Air pressure dew point in 6” header leaving the Compressor Room

Test Amperage TA1 Compressor #1 Package Amperage taken at Disconnect Box

Test Power kW TK1 Compressor #1 Package Power taken in the Compressor Panel

12

6
8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• G
Goall Check
Ch k – review
i and
d compare plan
l tto
original assessment goals for:
– Relevance
– Completeness
– Timeliness
– Simplicity
– Cost effectiveness
– Repeatability
– Accuracy

13

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Analysis of Data –
– Is it reasonable and correct?
– Consistent with established assessment goals?
– Create various profiles
– Estimate energy savings
– Suggest multiple measures to improve
reliability and produce sustainable savings

14

7
8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Reporting and documentation

– Executive summary
– Detailed report
– Appendices
– Attachments
– Data files

15

8. Compressed Air System Assessment

• Common Assessment Mistakes

– An air compressor power study is not an air system

assessment

– An air system assessment designed to prove a point usually

will

– Controlling leaks is not controlling the system

– Drawing the distribution piping does not define performance.

16

8
17

9
 9. Data Collection & Analysis

9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Data collection training will consists of several

elements:

– Defining the objectives & information goals

– Connecting to the system
– Sensors,, transmitters and transducers
– Data acquisition hardware and software
– Measurement techniques
– Analysis
– Recommendations

1
9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Informational goals:
– Demand profile
– Pressure profile
– High volume intermittent demand events
– Perceived high pressure demands
– Power consumption
– Production levels

9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Collect demand data to establish the dynamics

of the system.

• Identify events and their impact on the system.

• Id
Identify
tif cycle
l titimes and
ddduration
ti off th
these
events.

• Identify periods of system draw-down.

4

2
9. Data Collection & Analysis
System Pressure Profile (typical)
Supply Demand
8.5
bar Operating
range of
compressors
7.5
Pressure drop
bar from: aftercooler,
separator, dryer,
filter Distribution system
7.0
7 0 pressure drop (un-
bar regulated end
uses)
6.5 bar
FRL,valve, hose, and
disconnect pressure
drop (regulated end
5.5 bar uses)

9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Developing a Compressed Air System Profile
– Data Logging,
gg g Flow, Power and Pressure

3
9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Supply Side Operational Baseline

– Energy Consumption of Compressors for

Typical Operating Days

– Airflow, Average Demand, Peak Demand

– Pressure, Part Load Compressor Response

7

Main Compressor Room Silo Area Compressor

Comp#1, 10.2 m3/min Comp#2, 13.9 m3/min Comp#3, 21.8 m3/min Comp#4, 20.7 m3/min
7.6 bar MWP 7.6 bar MWP 7.6 bar MWP 7.6 bar MWP
Inlet Modulation Inlet Modulation Inlet Modulation Inlet Modulation

Check Valve
50 mm
50 mm Separator
2 inch 80 mm
3 inch
Separator Air System Block
2 inch
Diagram with Test
100 mm Filter
Locations
4 inch 50 mm 40 mm
2 inch 1.5 inch
w/ 3 valve by-
pass installed Refrigerated
Air Dryer
22.6 m3/min

Refrigerated Refrigerated Refrigerated

Air Dryer Air Dryer Air Dryer
23.2 m3/min 14.1 m3/min 12.7 m3/min
225 mm
8 inch
Header
Air Receiver 3.8
m3

Air Receiver 3.8 100 mm 80 mm

m3 4 inch 3 inch 100 mm
4 inch

All lines supply one common distribution system.

4
9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Pressure & Flow Dynamic Profiles

– Identify Characteristic Signatures

– Characterize Drawdown Rates, magnitude and

duration of events

– Quantify Transient Supply Deficits, evaluate benefits of

increased storage

– Correlate Known Demand Events with demand side

performance upsets and supply side control response
9

Main Compressor Room Silo Area Compressor

Comp#1, 10.2 m3/min Comp#2, 13.9 m3/min Comp#3, 21.8 m3/min Comp#4, 20.7 m3/min
7.6 bar MWP 7.6 bar MWP 7.6 bar MWP 7.6 bar MWP
Inlet Modulation Inlet Modulation Inlet Modulation Inlet Modulation

TP8 TP7 TP9

2 inch Separator
3 inch
Separator Air System Block
Diagram with Test
4 inch
Locations
2 inch 1.5 inch Filter

Refrigerated
Air Dryer
22.6 m3/min

Refrigerated Refrigerated Refrigerated

Air Dryer Air Dryer Air Dryer
23.2 m3/min 14.1 m3/min 12.7 m3/min

8 inch
Heade
r Air Receiver 3.8
m3
TF1 TF2
TF3

Air Receiver 3.8 TP3

m3 3 inch 4 inch

4 inch
All lines supply one common distribution system.

10

5
9. Data Collection & Analysis Demand Profile & Characteristic
Signature Demand Events
Plant Air Demand Profile
Plant Compressed Air Flow Rate and System Pressure - Test 10C

7.0 75.0

6.9 70.0

6.8 65.0

6.7 60.0

6.6 55.0

Flow to System (Nm3 / min)

6.5 50.0

6.4 45.0
Pressure (bar)

6.3 40.0

6.2 35.0

6.1 30.0

6.0 25.0

5.9 20.0

5.8 15.0

5.7 10.0

5.6 5.0
© 1999Tom Taranto
5.5 0.0
7:00 7:05 7:10 7:15 7:20 7:25 7:30
Time of Day on Tuesday 05/04/1999

TP7 Compressor #2 100 Hp TP10 Compressor #4 150 Hp TP9 Com pressor #3 150 Hp
TP3 4" Supply Pressure TF1 4" Header Flow TF2 3" Elec Rm Flow
TF3 3" Comp. Rm Flow TF5 4" Silo Compressor Flow Total Flow

Page 10C © 1999 Tom Taranto

11

9. Data Collection & Analysis Supply Side Response to the

Plant Air Demand Profile Demand Events
Plant Compressed Air Flow Rate and System Pressure - Test 10C

7.0 75.0

6.9 70.0

6.8 65.0

6.7 60.0

6.6 55.0
Flow to System (Nm3 / min)

6.5 50.0

6.4 45.0
Pressure (bar)

6.3 40.0

6.2 35.0

6.1 30.0

6.0 25.0

5.9 20.0

5.8 15.0

5.7 10.0

5.6 5.0
© 1999Tom Taranto
5.5 0.0
7:00 7:05 7:10 7:15 7:20 7:25 7:30
Time of Day on Tuesday 05/04/1999

TP3 4" Supply Pressure TF3 3" Com p. Rm Flow TF5 4" Silo Compressor Flow Total Flow

Page 10C © 1999 Tom Taranto

12

6
9. Data Collection & Analysis
Plant Air Demand Profile
Plant Compressed Air Flow Rate and System Pressure - Test 10C

102 2200

100 2000

98 1800

96 1600

Flow to System (SCFM)

94 1400
Pressure (PSIG)

92 1200

90 1000

88 800

86 600

84 400

82 200

80 0
7:00 7:05 7:10 7:15 7:20 7:25 7:30
Time of Day on Tuesday 05/04/1999

TP3 4" Supply TF1 4" Header Flow TF2 3" Elec Rm Flow

TF3 3" Comp. Rm Flow TF5 4" Silo Compressor Flow Total Flow

Page 10C © 1999 Tom Taranto

13

9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Key
y Points

– Compressed air energy is a significant investment including

capital, energy, maintenance, and productivity costs.

– In today’s highly competitive global economy, timely compressed

air system management information is essential.

– Multiple compressor systems can be very inefficient if not properly

controlled.

– Compressed air demand and pressure profile data can help

identify potential areas for improvement.

14

7
9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Key
y Points

– Compressed air system assessment defines performance and

current method operating costs.

– Balancing system operation provides stable performance and

reduces energy cost.

– Inappropriate compressed air demands must be identified and

replaced with more energy efficient alternatives.

– Leak management, correctly sized distribution piping, and good

point of use piping practice improves air application performance.

15

9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Key
y Points

– Reducing system operating pressure to the lowest optimum

pressure necessary to supply productive air demands, will
reduce energy cost.

– Training and education must raise awareness of

compressed air cost, opportunities to lower air pressure, and
i
improve system
t performance.
f

– Monitoring compressed air system performance provides

necessary management information to keep the air system
operating efficiently, and reliably.

16

8
9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Data Acquisition sample rate

rate, data
averaging, and data storage interval

– Analysis of compressed air system

performance is only as good as the data that
the analysis is based on.

– What is worse than having no information

about system performance?

17

9. Data Collection & Analysis

– What is worse than having

g no information about system
y
performance?
– Having bad information about system performance.

– Many factors impact the accuracy of measured performance

data.

• Sample Rate • Data Interval

• Accuracy • Repeatability

• Electrical signals • Interference and errors

• Equipment set –up • Scaling of engineering units

18

9
9. Data Collection & Analysis

Data Acquisition
Sample Rate – The time interval (in seconds) at which data
inputs are read from the attached sensor or transducer.

Data Averaging – A data reduction method that reduces

multiple samples to a single data point.

S AVG  S1  S 2  ...S n  / n

Data Interval – The frequency with which an averaged sensor

reading is recorded as a measured data point.

Data Interval  T  n
19

9. Data Collection & Analysis

Hourly Trend Data – Hourly trend data can be used to develop the
profile of compressor power, or flow data to calculate operating
cost.
t Trend
T d data
d t will
ill not,
t hhowever, d
define
fi d dynamic
i performance.
f

Method #1 Method #2

Sample Rate T = 5 minutes T = 1 second

Samples to n = 12 n = 3600
Average samples samples
Data Interval 60 minutes 3600 seconds
( 1 hour ) ( 1 hour )

20

10
9. Data Collection & Analysis

Dynamic Response – When system events are of short duration,

the data interval must decrease to properly characterize
performance.

High Rate Slow Rate

Sample 1 sample per 1 sample per

Rate 1 second 3 seconds
Data
10 samples 15 samples
Averaging
Data
10 seconds 45 seconds
Interval

21

9. Data Collection & Analysis

Data shown for the high sample rate is reading pressure once per second
and averaging 10 samples. The low sample rate is reading pressure every
3 seconds and averaging 15 samples.
P la n t A ir C o n s u m p tio n
P la n t C o m p r e s s e d A ir F lo w R a te a n d S y s te m P r e s s u r e - T e s t 3 6 D

7 .8 55

7 .7 5 50

7 .7 45
Flow to System (SCFM)

7 .6 5 40
essure (PSIG)

7 .6 35

7 .5 5 30

7 .5
5 25
Pre

7 .4 5 20

7 .4 15

7 .3 5 10
© 1 9 9 9 T o m T a r a n to
7 .3 5
1 5 :3 0 1 5 :3 5 1 5 :4 0 1 5 :4 5 1 5 :5 0 1 5 :5 5 1 6 :0 0
T im e o f D a y o n T h u r s d a y 1 1 /1 8 /1 9 9 9
P r e s s u re w ith H ig h S a m p le R a te
P r e s s u re w ith S lo w S a m p le R a te
A ir F lo w w ith H ig h S a m p le R a te

22

11
9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Selecting
g Sensors to Support
pp Informational Goals and
the Measurement Plan
– Physical parameters to be measured
• pressure, power, energy, airflow, and others.

– Sensor detects a physical parameter

• Mechanical movement sensed by a strain gauge & output is
changing resistance

– Transmitter electrical resistance is modified to a output

signal for example 4-20 ma

– Sensor + Transmitter = Transducer

23

Flow Meter with Floating Power Source Interference

9. Data Collection
Compressed Air Mass Flow Probe Scaled for 0 - 49 m3/m
Floating Source Interference
Between Data Logger Power Supply and Flow Probe Power Supply
1.3
12
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
Air Flow (m3/m)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 © 2000 Tom Taranto
0
14:22 14:24 14:26 14:28 14:30 14:32 14:34 14:36 14:38 14:40 14:42 14:44 14:46 14:48
Time of Day
Mass Flow Probe @ Zero SCFM

24

12
 Pressure Transducer Comparison
9. Data Collection Four General Purpose 0 - 14 bar Pressure Transducers
Connected to a Common Pressure Signal
8

78
7.8

7.6
Air Pressure (bar)

7.4

7.2

6.8

6.6
©2000 Tom Taranto
6.4
13:59 14:00 14:01 14:02 14:03 14:04
Time of Day
Transducer #1 Transducer #2
Transducer #3 Transducer #4
25

Pressure Transducer Comparison

9. Data Collection Four High Accuracy 0 - 14 bar Pressure Transducers
Connected to a Common Pressure Signal
8

78
7.8

7.6
Air Pressure (bar)

7.4

7.2

6.8

6.6
© 2000 Tom Taranto
6.4
14:26 14:27 14:28 14:29 14:30 14:31
Time of Day
Transducer #1 Transducer #2
Transducer #3 Transducer #4
26

13
9. Data Collection & Analysis
Pressure Transducer Slope and Offset
Pressure Transducer Range 0 to 15 bar - Signal Range 4 - 20 ma
16
Y=mX + b
14 Pressure = (Slope x Signal) + Offset
12 Slope = 0.9375 bar / ma
Offset = - 3.75 bar
10
Pressure (psig)

Pressure
8
Transducer
6 Range
0 - 15 bar
The variation between calculated and measured
4
pressure is due to the accuracy and linearity of the
2 pressure transducer's performance.
NOTE: the affect of inaccuracy and non-linearity
0 are exaggerated
t d ffor illustration
ill t ti purposes.
Offset
-2 Signal Offset -3.75 bar
4 ma Signal Range
-4 4 - 20 ma
© 2000, Tom Taranto
-6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Transducer Signal (ma)
Calculated (psig) Measured psig

27

9. Data Collection & Analysis

• Key Points

– Measurement system accuracy depends on human factors; connections

to the system, transducers; wiring, cables, electrical connections; data
acquisition hardware and software; along with measurement techniques.

– Sample rate, data averaging, and data intervals depend on system

characteristics.

– Use appropriate
pp p sensors,, transducers,, and measurement system
y
accuracy.

– Transducers output various signals in proportion to the physical

parameter being measured.

– Signals must be properly scaled to correctly record the measurement.

28

14