UNIT IV

DC CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION

A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a constant
dc voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter. The thyristor converter
offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size and smooth control.
Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction motor control,
control of large number of dc motors, etc….. They are also used in regenerative braking of dc
motors to return energy back to supply and also as dc voltage regulators.

Choppers are of two types

• Step-down choppers
• Step-up choppers.
In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage whereas
in step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.

PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER

Chopper
i0
+

V R V0

Fig. 5.1: Step-down Chopper with Resistive Load

Figure 5.1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the circuit
acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and when
thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage and current
waveforms are as shown in figure 5.2.
v0
V

Vdc

t
tON tOFF
i0

V/R
Idc
t
T

Fig. 5.2: Step-down choppers — output voltage and current waveforms

Vdc = average value of output or load voltage
I dc = average value of output or load current
tON = time interval for which SCR conducts
tOFF = time interval for which SCR is OFF.
=
T tON + tOFF = period of switching or chopping period
1
f= = frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency.
T
Average output voltage

 tON 
Vdc = V   ... ( 2.1)
 tON + tOFF 
 tON 
=Vdc V=   V .d ... ( 2.2 )
 T 
 tON 
but  = d= duty cycle ... ( 2.3)
 t 
Average output current,

Vdc
I dc = ... ( 2.4 )
R

V  tON  V
=I dc =  d ... ( 2.5 )
R T  R
RMS value of output voltage

tON
1
VO = ∫ v dt
2
o
T 0

But during tON , vo = V

Therefore RMS output voltage

tON
1
VO = ∫V
2
dt
T 0

V2 tON
=VO = tON .V ... ( 2.6 )
T T

VO = d .V ... ( 2.7 )

Output power PO = VO I O

VO
But IO =
R

VO2
Therefore output power PO =
R

dV 2
PO = ... ( 2.8 )
R

Effective input resistance of chopper

V
Ri = ... ( 2.9 )
I dc

R
Ri = ... ( 2.10 )
d

The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.

METHODS OF CONTROL

The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.

• Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.

• Variable frequency control.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

In pulse width modulation the pulse width ( tON ) of the output waveform is varied
keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ and hence chopping period ‘T’ constant. Therefore output
voltage is varied by varying the ON time, tON . Figure 5.3 shows the output voltage waveforms
for different ON times.
V0
V

tON tOFF

t
T
V0

t
tON tOFF

Fig. 5.3: Pulse Width Modulation Control

VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL

In this method of control, chopping frequency f is varied keeping either tON or tOFF
constant. This method is also known as frequency modulation.
Figure 5.4 shows the output voltage waveforms for a constant tON and variable
chopping period T.
In frequency modulation to obtain full output voltage, range frequency has to be varied
over a wide range. This method produces harmonics in the output and for large tOFF load
current may become discontinuous.
v0
V

tON tOFF
t
T
v0

tON tOFF
t
T

Fig. 5.4: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control

STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R-L LOAD

Figure 5.5 shows a step-down chopper with R-L load and free wheeling diode. When
chopper is ON, the supply is connected across the load. Current flows from the supply to the
load. When chopper is OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through
the free-wheeling diode due to the energy stored in the inductor L. The load current can be
continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of L and duty cycle, d. For a continuous
current operation the load current is assumed to vary between two limits I min and I max .

Figure 5.6 shows the output current and output voltage waveforms for a continuous
current and discontinuous current operation.

Chopper
i0
+
R

V V0
FWD L

E
−
Fig. 5.5: Step Down Chopper with R-L Load

v0 Output
voltage
V
tON tOFF
t
T
i0 Output
Imax current

Continuous
Imin current
t
i0 Output
current
Discontinuous
current
t

Fig. 5.6: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)
When the current exceeds I max the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when current
reduces to I min .

EXPRESSIONS FOR LOAD CURRENT iO FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT

OPERATION WHEN CHOPPER IS ON ( 0 ≤ t ≤ tON )

i0
+
R

V V0
L

E
-
Fig. 5.7 (a)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 5.7(a) is

di
V= iO R + L O + E ... ( 2.11)
dt
Taking Laplace Transform
= RI O ( S ) + L  S .I O ( S ) − iO ( 0− )  +
V E
... ( 2.12 )
S S
At t = 0 , initial current iO ( 0− ) = I min

V −E I
IO ( S )
= + min ... ( 2.13)
 R R
LS  S +  S +
 L L

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

V −E  − t 
 R  R
− t
iO ( t ) = 1 − e  L
+
 min  
I e L
... ( 2.14 )
R  

This expression is valid for 0 ≤ t ≤ tON . i.e., during the period chopper is ON.

At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is

iO ( tON ) = I max
When Chopper is OFF ( 0 ≤ t ≤ tOFF )
i0

Fig. 5.7 (b)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 5.7(b) is

diO
0 =RiO + L +E ... ( 2.15 )
dt

Taking Laplace transform

0 = RI O ( S ) + L  SI O ( S ) − iO ( 0− )  +
E
S

Redefining time origin we have at t = 0 , initial current iO ( 0− ) = I max

I max E
Therefore O (S )
I= −
S+
R  R
LS  S + 
L  L

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

R
− t E − t
R
iO ( t=
) I max e L
− 1 − e L
 ... ( 2.16 )
R 

The expression is valid for 0 ≤ t ≤ tOFF , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At the
instant the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is

iO ( tOFF ) = I min

TO FIND I max AND I min

From equation (2.14),

At = = dT , iO (=
t tON t ) I max
 V −E  −
dRT
 −
dRT
Therefore I max = 1 − e L
+
 min
I e L
... ( 2.17 )
R  

From equation (2.16),

At t= T − tON , iO ( t ) =
tOFF = I min

t= tOFF= (1 − d ) T
(1− d ) RT (
1− d ) RT
− E − 
Therefore =
I min I max e L
− 1 − e L
 ... ( 2.18 )
R  

Substituting for I min in equation (2.17) we get,

 −
dRT

V 1 − e L − E
=I max ... ( 2.19 )
R −
RT  R
 1 − e L 

Substituting for I max in equation (2.18) we get,

 dRT 
V  e L − 1 E
=I min − ... ( 2.20 )
R  RTL  R
 e − 1 

( I max − I min ) is known as the steady state ripple.

Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current

∆=
I I max − I min

Average output voltage

Vdc = d .V ... ( 2.21)

Average output current

I max + I min
I dc( approx ) = ... ( 2.22 )
2

Assuming load current varies linearly from I min to I max instantaneous load current is given by

iO= I min +
( ∆I ) .t for 0 ≤ t ≤ tON ( dT )
dT
 I −I 
=
iO I min +  max min t ... ( 2.23)
 dT 

RMS value of load current

dT
1
I O( RMS ) = ∫ i dt
2
0
dT 0

( I max − I min ) t 
2
1
dT

=
I O( RMS )
dT ∫0  I min + dT  dt

 2  I max − I min  2 2 I min ( I max − I min ) t 

dT 2
1
I O( RMS ) = ∫  I min + 

 t +

 dt
dT 0  dT dT 

RMS value of output current

1
 2 ( I max − I min ) 2
2

I O( RMS ) =
 I min + + I min ( I max − I min )  ... ( 2.24 )
 3 

RMS chopper current

dT
1
= ∫ i dt
2
I CH 0
T 0

2
 I −I  
dT
1
=I CH
T ∫0  I min +  maxdT min  t  dt
 

1
 2 ( I max − I min ) 2
2

I CH = d  I min + + I min ( I max − I min ) 

 3 

I CH = d I O( RMS ) ... ( 2.25 )

Effective input resistance is

V
Ri =
IS

Where I S = Average source current

 I S = dI dc

V
Therefore Ri = ... ( 2.26 )
dI dc

PRINCIPLE OF STEP-UP CHOPPER

I L D
+
+ −

L
C O VO
V A
D
Chopper

Fig. 5.8: Step-up Chopper

Figure 5.8 shows a step-up chopper to obtain a load voltage VO higher than the input
voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output voltage
and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply. The
inductor current ‘I’ rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the chopper, tON
. When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the diode D and load
for a period, tOFF . The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced
EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by
dI
VO = V +L i.e., VO > V ... ( 2.27 )
dt
If a large capacitor ‘C’ is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide a
continuous output voltage VO . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the source.
Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.

EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.

When Chopper is ON

Voltage across inductor L = V

Therefore energy stored in inductor = V .I .tON ... ( 2.28 ) ,
where tON = ON period of chopper.
When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load)

Voltage across =
L VO − V
Energy supplied by inductor=
L (VO − V ) ItOFF , where tOFF = OFF period of
Chopper.
Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L
Therefore VIt=ON (VO − V ) ItOFF
V [tON + tOFF ]
VO =
tOFF
 T 
VO = V  
 T − tON 
Where T = Chopping period or period of switching.
=
T tON + tOFF
 
 1 
VO = V 
t 
 1 − ON 
 T 
 1 
Therefore VO = V   ... ( 2.29 )
 1− d 
tON
Where =d = duty cyle
T
For variation of duty cycle ‘d’ in the range of 0 < d < 1 the output voltage VO will vary in the
range V < VO < ∞ .
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF. Hence duty
cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value, limiting the minimum
and maximum value of the output voltage. Ripple in the load current depends inversely on the
chopping frequency, f. Therefore to reduce the load ripple current, frequency should be as high
as possible.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS

Choppers are classified as follows

• Class A Chopper
• Class B Chopper
• Class C Chopper
• Class D Chopper
• Class E Chopper
CLASS A CHOPPER

i0 v0
+

Chopper
L
O v0 V
V A
FWD D

− i0

Fig. 5.9: Class A Chopper and vO − iO Characteristic

Figure 5.9 shows a Class A Chopper circuit with inductive load and free-wheeling
diode. When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load i.e., vO = V and
current i0 flows as shown in figure. When chopper is OFF, v0 = 0 and the load current iO
continues to flow in the same direction through the free wheeling diode. Therefore the average
values of output voltage and current i.e., vO and iO are always positive. Hence, Class A
Chopper is a first quadrant chopper (or single quadrant chopper). Figure 5.10 shows output
voltage and current waveforms for a continuous load current.

ig Thyristor
gate pulse

t
i0
Output current

CH ON
t
v0 FWD Conducts
Output voltage

t
tON
T

Fig. 5.10: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
 Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from source to
load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor. The output current equations obtained in step
down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the performance of Class A Chopper.

CLASS B CHOPPER
D
i0 v0
+
R

V L v0

Chopper
E −i0
−

Fig. 5.11: Class B Chopper

Fig. 5.11 shows a Class B Chopper circuit. When chopper is ON, vO = 0 and E drives
a current iO through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure 2.16. During the
ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is OFF, diode D
conducts, vO = V and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the supply. Also the
current iO continues to flow from the load to source. Hence the average output voltage is
positive and average output current is negative. Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second
quadrant. In this chopper, power flows from load to source. Class B Chopper is used for
regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 5.12 shows the output voltage and current waveforms
of a Class B Chopper.

The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode ‘D’
conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by

i0
+
D
Conducting R

V V0
L

E
-
LdiO
V= + RiO + E
dt
For the initial condition i.e., iO ( t ) = I min at t = 0 .
The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in step-down chopper with
R-L load
 V −E − t
R R
− t
Therefore iO ( t )
=  1 − e L
+
 min
I e L
0 < t < tOFF
R  

At t = tOFF i(O ) ( t ) = I max

V −E R
− tOFF  R
− tOFF
I max =  1 − e L
+
 min
I e L
R  

During the interval chopper is ON voltage equation is given by

i0
+
R

Chopper V0
ON L

E
-
LdiO
0= + RiO + E
dt

Redefining the time origin, at t = 0 iO ( t ) = I max .

The solution for the stated initial condition is

R
− t E − t
R

O (t )
i= − 1 − e L  0 < t < tON
L
I max e
R 

= =
At t tON iO ( t ) I min

R
− tON E − tON 
R
Therefore I=
min I max e L
−  1 − e L

R 
 ig
Thyristor
gate pulse

t
i0 tOFF tON

T
t
Output current
Imax
Imin D
conducts Chopper
conducts
v0 Output voltage

Fig. 5.12: Class B Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

CLASS C CHOPPER

Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 5.13 shows
a Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit. For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2
conducts and for second quadrant operation, CH 2 is ON or D1 conducts. When CH1 is ON,
the load current iO is positive. i.e., iO flows in the direction as shown in figure 5.13.
The output voltage is equal to V ( vO = V ) and the load receives power from the source.

CH1 D1
i0 v0
+

V R

CH2 D2 L v0

Chopper
i0
E
−
Fig. 5.13: Class C Chopper

When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through
the diode D2 and the output voltage vO = 0 , but iO continues to flow in positive direction.
When CH 2 is triggered, the voltage E forces iO to flow in opposite direction through L and
CH 2 . The output voltage vO = 0 . On turning OFF CH 2 , the energy stored in the inductance
drives current through diode D1 and the supply; output voltage vO = V the input current
becomes negative and power flows from load to source.

Thus the average output voltage vO is positive but the average output current iO can
take both positive and negative values. Choppers CH1 and CH 2 should not be turned ON
simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the supply. Class C Chopper can be used
both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 5.14 shows the output
voltage and current waveforms.
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

D1 CH1 D2 CH2 D1 CH1 D2 CH2

ON ON ON ON
V0 Output voltage

Fig. 5.14: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

CLASS D CHOPPER

v0
CH1 D2

R i0 L E
V
+ v0 − i0

D1 CH2

Fig. 5.15: Class D Chopper

 Figure 5.15 shows a class D two quadrant chopper circuit. When both CH1 and CH 2
are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO = V and output current iO flows through
the load in the direction shown in figure 5.15. When CH1 and CH 2 are turned OFF, the load
current iO continues to flow in the same direction through load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy
stored in the inductor L, but output voltage vO = −V . The average load voltage vO is positive
if chopper ON-time ( tON ) is more than their OFF-time ( tOFF ) and average output voltage
becomes negative if tON < tOFF . Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load
voltage can be positive or negative. Waveforms are shown in figures 5.16 and 5.16.

ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

t
CH1,CH2 D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v0 Output voltage
V
Average v0
t

Fig. 5.15: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON > tOFF
 ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

CH1
CH2
t
D1, D2
v0
Output voltage
V

t
Average v0

Fig. 5.16: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON < tOFF

CLASS E CHOPPER

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ −
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

Fig. 5.17: Class E Chopper

 v0
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH1 - CH4 ON
D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts

i0

CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts

CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts

Fig. 5.18: Four Quadrant Operation

Figure 5.17 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When CH1 and CH 4 are
triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction as shown in figure 5.17 through CH1
and CH 4 , with output voltage vO = V . This gives the first quadrant operation. When both CH1
and CH 4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D3 and D2 in the
same direction, but output voltage vO = −V . Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth
quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the direction of battery must be reversed. When CH 2
and CH 3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in opposite direction and output voltage
vO = −V .
Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When both
CH 2 and CH 3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through D1
and D4 and the output voltage vO = V . Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as
vO is positive but iO is negative. Figure 5.18 shows the devices which are operative in different
quadrants.

EFFECT OF SOURCE AND LOAD INDUCTANCE

In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient
voltage. Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source inductance. Also
source inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper. The load ripple current is
inversely proportional to load inductance and chopping frequency. Therefore the peak load
current depends on load inductance. To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is
connected in series with the load.

Problem 2.1 : For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure 5.19, express the following
variables as functions of V, R and duty cycle ‘d’ in case load is resistive.

• Average output voltage and current

• Output current at the instant of commutation
• Average and rms free wheeling diode current.
• RMS value of output voltage
• RMS and average thyristor currents.
 i0
+
Chopper
L
O v0
V FWD A
D

−
Fig. 5.19.

Solution

 tON 
• =
Average output voltage, Vdc =  V dV
 T 
Vdc dV
Average output current, I=
dc =
R R

• The thyristor is commutated at the instant t = tON .

V
Therefore output current at the instant of commutation is , since V is the output
R
voltage at that instant.

• Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore average
and RMS free wheeling diode currents are zero.
• RMS value of output voltage
tON
1
VO( RMS ) = ∫ v dt
2
0
T 0

But vO = V during tON

tON
1
= ∫V
2
VO( RMS ) dt
T 0

t 
VO( RMS ) = V 2  ON 
 T 
VO( RMS ) = dV
tON
Where duty cycle, d=
T
• RMS value of thyristor current
= RMS value of load current
 VO( RMS )
=
R

dV
=
R

Average value of thyristor current

= Average value of load current

dV
=
R

Problem 2.2 : A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V

supply. If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction period of the thyristor in each
cycle.

Solution

V = 460 V, Vdc = 350 V, f = 2 kHz

1
Chopping period T=
f
1
=T = 0.5 m sec
2 ×10−3
t 
Output voltage Vdc =  ON  V
 T 
Conduction period of thyristor
T × Vdc
tON =
V
0.5 ×10−3 × 350
tON =
460
tON = 0.38 msec
Problem 2.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the
conducting time of thyristor is 200 µssec. Compute

• Chopping frequency,
• If the pulse width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new output
voltage.
Solution

V = 200 V, tON = 200 µ s , Vdc = 600V

 T 
Vdc = V  
 T − tON 

 T 
600 = 200  −6 
 T − 200 ×10 

Solving for T

T = 300 µ s

• Chopping frequency
1
f =
T

1
=f = 3.33KHz
300 ×10−6

• Pulse width is halved

200 ×10−6
Therefore=tON = 100 µ s
2

Frequency is constant

Therefore f = 3.33KHz

1
T= = 300 µ s
f

 T 
Therefore output voltage =V 
 T − tON 

 300 ×10−6 
= 200
=  −6 
 300 Volts
 ( 300 − 100 )10 

Problem 2.4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20Ω and input voltage VS = 220V . When
chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If the duty cycle
is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.
Solution

VS = 220V , R= 20Ω , f = 10 kHz

tON
=
d = 0.80
T
Vch = Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts
Average output voltage
t 
= Vdc  ON  (VS − Vch )
 T 
Vdc 0.80 ( 220 − 1.5
= = ) 174.8 Volts
Chopper ON time, tON = dT
1
Chopping period, T=
f
1
T= 3= 100 μsecs
0.1×10−3 secs =
10 ×10
Chopper ON time,
tON = dT
tON = 0.80 × 0.1×10−3
tON = 0.08 ×10−3 = 80 μsecs
Problem 2.5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is 250
Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if the load
resistance is 2 ohms.

Solution

I dc = 30 Amps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R = 2Ω

1 1
Chopping period, T == = 4 ×10−3 =
4 msecs
f 250
V
I dc = dc and Vdc = dV
R
dV
Therefore I dc =
R
I dc R 30 × 2
=d = = 0.545
V 110
Chopper ON period, tON = dT= 0.545 × 4 ×10−3= 2.18 msecs
Chopper OFF period, tOFF= T − tON
4 ×10−3 − 2.18 ×10−3
tOFF =

tOFF = 1.82 ×10−3 = 1.82 msec

Problem 2.6: A dc chopper in figure 5.20 has a resistive load of R= 10Ω and input voltage of
V = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping frequency is 1 kHz.
If the duty cycle is 60%, determine

• Average output voltage

• RMS value of output voltage
• Effective input resistance of chopper
• Chopper efficiency.
Chopper
i0
+

V R v0

−
Fig. 5.20

Solution

V = 200 V, R= 10Ω , Chopper voltage drop, Vch = 2V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.

• Average output voltage

Vdc d (V − Vch )
=

Vdc 0.60 [ 200=

= − 2] 118.8 Volts

• RMS value of output voltage

= VO d (V − Vch )

=
VO 0.6 ( 200
= − 2 ) 153.37 Volts

• Effective input resistance of chopper is

V V
R=
i =
I S I dc

Vdc 118.8
I=
dc = = 11.88 Amps
R 10

V V 200
R=
i = = = 16.83Ω
I S I dc 11.88
 • Output power is
dT
1 v2
PO = ∫ 0 dt
T 0 R

(V − Vch )
dT 2
1
PO =
T ∫
0
R
dt

d (V − Vch )
2

PO =
R

0.6 [ 200 − 2]
2

=PO = 2352.24 watts

10
dT
1
• Input power, Pi =
T ∫ Vi
0
O dt

1
dT
V (V − Vch )
PO =
T ∫
0
R
dt

dV (V − Vch ) 0.6 × 200 [ 200 − 2]

=PO = = 2376 watts
R 10

• Chopper efficiency,
PO
η
= ×100
Pi

2352.24
η
= ×100
= 99%
2376

Problem 2.7: A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a free-wheeling diode. The load
inductance is 5 H and resistance is 10Ω. The input voltage to the chopper is 200 volts and the
chopper is operating at a frequency of 1000 Hz. If the ON/OFF time ratio is 2:3. Calculate

• Maximum and minimum values of load current in one cycle of chopper operation.
• Average load current
Solution:

L = 5 H, R = 10 Ω, f = 1000 Hz, V = 200 V, tON : tOFF = 2 : 3

1 1
Chopping period, T= = = 1 msecs
f 1000

tON 2
=
tOFF 3
 2
tON = tOFF
3
=
T tON + tOFF
2
=T tOFF + tOFF
3
5
T = tOFF
3
3
tOFF = T
5
3
T = ×1×10−3 = 0.6 msec
5
tON= T − tOFF
tON =(1 − 0.6 ) ×10−3 =0.4 msec
tON 0.4 ×10−3
Duty cycle, = d = = 0.4
T 1×10−3
• Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min .
Maximum value of load current [equation (2.19)] is
 −
dRT

V 1 − e L − E
=I max
R −
RT  R
 1 − e L

Since there is no voltage source in the load circuit, E = 0
 −
dRT

V 1 − e L 
Therefore I max =
R −
RT 
 1 − e L 
 
−3
0.4×10×1×10
−
200 1 − e 5

I max =
10  −
10×1×10−3 
 1 − e 5 
1 − e −0.8×10 
−3

I max = 20  −2×10−3

 1 − e 
I max = 8.0047A
Minimum value of load current from equation (2.20) with E = 0 is

 dRT 
V  e L − 1
I min =
R  RTL 
 e − 1 

 0.4×10×1×10 
−3

200  e 5
− 1
=I min =  7.995 A
10  10×1×510
−3

 e − 1 
 • Average load current
I +I
I dc = max min
2

8.0047 + 7.995
=I dc ≈8 A
2

Problem 2.8 : A chopper feeding on RL load is shown in figure 5.21. With V = 200 V, R = 5Ω,
L = 5 mH, f = 1 kHz, d = 0.5 and E = 0 V. Calculate

• Maximum and minimum values of load current

• Average value of load current
• RMS load current
• Effective input resistance as seen by source
• RMS chopper current.
Solution

V = 200 V, R = 5 Ω, L = 5 mH, f = 1kHz, d = 0.5, E = 0

1 1
Chopping period is T = = = 1×10−3 secs
f 1×10 3

Chopper
i0
+
R

v0
FWD L

E
−

Fig.: 5.21

Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min .

Maximum value of load current

 −
dRT

V 1 − e L − E
=I max
R −
RT  R
 1 − e L 

 0.5×5×1×10 
3
−
200 1 − e 5×10
−3

=I max −0
5  −
5×1×10−3
 1 − e 5×10−3 
 
 1 − e −0.5 
= =
I max 40  1 − e −1  24.9 A
 

Minimum value of load current is

 dRT 
V  e L − 1 E
=I min −
R  RTL  R
 e − 1 

 0.5×5×1×−10 
−3

200  e 5×10 − 1
3

=I min −0
5  5×1×10−3
−3

 e 5×10 − 1 
 

 e0.5 − 1 
= =
I min 40  e1 − 1  15.1 A
 

Average value of load current is

I1 + I 2
I dc = for linear variation of currents
2

24.9 + 15.1
=
Therefore I dc = 20 A
2

Refer equations (2.24) and (2.25) for RMS load current and RMS chopper current.

RMS load current from equation (2.24) is

1
 2 ( I max − I min ) 2
2

I O( RMS ) =
 I min + + I min ( I max − I min ) 
 3 

1
 ( 24.9 − 15.1) 2
2

I O( RMS ) =
15.1 +
2
+ 15.1( 24.9 − 15.1) 
 3 

1
 96.04 2
I O( RMS ) =  228.01 + + 147.98 = 20.2 A
 3 

RMS chopper current from equation is (2.25) is

I ch = d I O( RMS ) = 0.5 × 20.2 = 14.28 A

Effective input resistance is

 V
Ri =
IS
I S = Average source current
I S = dI dc
I S = 0.5 × 20 = 10 A
Therefore effective input resistance is
V 200
R=i = = 20Ω
IS 10
Problem 2.9: A 200 V dc motor fed by a chopper, runs at 1000 rpm with a duty ratio of 0.8.
What must be the ON time of the chopper if the motor has to run at 800 rpm. The chopper
operates at 100 Hz.

Solution

Speed of motor N1 = 1000 rpm

Duty ratio d1 = 0.8 , f = 100 Hz
We know that back EMF of motor Eb is given by
φ ZNP
Eb =
60 A
Where N = speed in rpm
φ = flux/pole in wbs
Z = Number of Armature conductors
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths
Therefore Eb α φ N
Eb α N if flux φ is constant
Chopper
Ia
+
Ra

V Vdc +
M Eb
−
−
Fig. 2.27
E=
b Vdc − I a Ra
where I a = Armature current
Ra = Armature Resistance
 Since Ra is not given, I a Ra drop is neglected.
Therefore E=
b1 V=
dc1 200 volts
Vdc1 = d1V
Vdc1
Supply, V=
d1
200
V=
0.8
V = 250 Volts
Eb1 α N1
200 α 1000 ... ( 2.30 )
Now speed changes hence ‘d’ also changes.
Given N 2 = 800 rpm Eb2 = ?
Eb 2 α N 2
Eb2 α 800 ... ( 2.31)
Dividing equation (2.30) by equation (2.31) we get
200 1000
=
Eb2 800
800 × 200
Eb2 = = 160 V
1000
But E=
b2 V=
dc2 d 2V
Vdc2 160
=
d2 = = 0.64
V 250
Chopping frequency f = 100 Hz
1 1
T= = = 0.01 sec
f 100
T = 10 msecs
tON
= d2
T
ON time of chopper
tON = d 2T
tON= 0.64 ×10 ×10−3
tON = 6.4 msecs
MULTIPHASE CHOPPER
A multiphase chopper consists of two or more choppers operating at the same frequency but
with a proper phase shift. This type of operation enables the load and power supply to be
subjected to an effective frequency which is a multiple chopping frequency. As a result, the
supply harmonic current and ripple reduce.
A two chopper configuration is shown in fig 5.22.

Fig 5.22 Two phase chopper

The main operating modes of multiphase chopper are
1) In-phase operating mode and
2) Phase shifted operating mode
In in-phase operating mode, all the parallel connected choppers are ON and OFF at the same
time instant whereas in the phase-shifted operating mode, the choppers are ON and OFF at
different instants of time. Inductance L in series with each chopper is sufficiently large so that
each chopper operates independent of each other.
Fig: 5.23(a) shows the input current waveforms for in-phase operation for a duty cycle of 30%.
Load current I0 is assumed to be ripple free.

Fig 5.23(a) In-phase operation with α=30°.

As shown, both choppers CH1 and CH2 are ON and OFF at the same instant. Also, the input
current is, which is sum of currents iCH1 and iCH2, is seen to be doubled. The in-phase operation
corresponds to the case of single chopper operation.
Fig: 5.23(b) shows the input current waveforms for phase-shifted operation for a duty cycle of
30%.

Fig 5.23(b) Phase-shifted operation with α=30°.

As shown, the conducting periods of two chopper units never overlap. The choppers are
operated at the same frequency and duty-ratio but with a phase difference of 180°. In this mode,
chopper CH1 id ON for 0.3T from t=0, whereas chopper CH2 is made ON such that the input
current obtained as sum of currents iCH1 and iCH2 is periodic in nature.
It is clear from fig 5.23(a) and (b) that for phase-shifted operation, the frequency of input
current is doubled and its ripple current amplitude is halved as compared to the in-phase
operation of the chopper. In case of in-phase operation, frequency of harmonics in the input
current is equal to switching frequency of each chopper, whereas in case of phase-shifted mode,
frequency of harmonics in the input current is twice the switching frequency of each chopper.
As the frequency of harmonics in the input is twice the switching frequency, the size of filter
is reduced in the phase-shifted chopper. Hence this mode is usually preferred.
Multiphase chopper is used where load requirement is large. The main advantage of the
multiphase chopper over a single chopper is that its input current has reduced ripple amplitude
and increase ripple frequency. Thus size of the filter is reduced.
 CYCLOCONVERTERS

Traditionally, ac-ac conversion using semiconductor switches is done in two different ways: 1-
in two stages (ac-dc and then dc-ac) as in dc link converters or 2- in one stage (ac-ac)
cycloconverters (Fig. 1). Cycloconverters are used in high power applications driving induction
and synchronous motors. They are usually phase-controlled and they traditionally use
thyristors due to their ease of phase commutation.

Fig.1 Block diagram of a cycloconverter

There are other newer forms of cycloconversion such as ac-ac matrix converters and high
frequency ac-ac (hfac-ac) converters and these use self-controlled switches. These converters,
however, are not popular yet.

Some applications of cycloconverters are:

• Cement mill drives
• Ship propulsion drives
• Rolling mill drives
• Scherbius drives
• Ore grinding mills
• Mine winders

1. Operation Principles:
The following sections will describe the operation principles of the cycloconverter starting
from the simplest one, single-phase to single-phase (1φ-1φ) cycloconverter.

1.1. Single-phase to Single-phase (1φ-1φ) Cycloconverter:

To understand the operation principles of cycloconverters, the single-phase to single-phase
cycloconverter (Fig. 2) should be studied first. This converter consists of back-to-back
connection of two full-wave rectifier circuits. Fig 3 shows the operating waveforms for this
converter with a resistive load.

The input voltage, vs is an ac voltage at a frequency, fi as shown in Fig. 3a. For easy
understanding assume that all the thyristors are fired at α=0° firing angle, i.e. thyristors act like
diodes. Note that the firing angles are named as αP for the positive converter and αN for the
negative converter.

Consider the operation of the cycloconverter to get one-fourth of the input frequency at the
output. For the first two cycles of vs, the positive converter operates supplying current to the
load. It rectifies the input voltage; therefore, the load sees 4 positive half cycles as seen in Fig.
3b. In the next two cycles, the negative converter operates supplying current to the load in the
reverse direction. The current waveforms are not shown in the figures because the resistive
load current will have the same waveform as the voltage but only scaled by the resistance. Note
that when one of the converters operates the other one is disabled, so that there is no current
circulating between the two rectifiers.

a a

b b

Fig. 2 Single-phase to single-phase cycloconverter

 Fig. 3 Single-phase to single-phase cycloconverter waveforms
a) input voltage
b) output voltage for zero firing angle
c) output voltage with firing angle π/3 rad.
d) output voltage with varying firing angle
The frequency of the output voltage, vo in Fig. 3b is 4 times less than that of vs, the input
voltage, i.e. fo/fi=1/4. Thus, this is a step-down cycloconverter. On the other hand,
cycloconverters that have fo/fi>1 frequency relation are called step-up cycloconverters. Note
that step-down cycloconverters are more widely used than the step-up ones.

The frequency of vo can be changed by varying the number of cycles the positive and the
negative converters work. It can only change as integer multiples of fi in 1φ-1φ
cycloconverters.
With the above operation, the 1φ-1φ cycloconverter can only supply a certain voltage at a
certain firing angle α. The dc output of each rectifier is:

where V is the input rms voltage.

The dc value per half cycle is shown as dotted in Fig. 3d.
Then the peak of the fundamental output voltage is
Equation 2 implies that the fundamental output voltage depends on α. For α=0°,

V01 =Vdo × =Vdo where . If α is increased to π/3 as in Fig. 3d, then Vo1 =Vdo
×0.5 .

Thus varying α, the fundamental output voltage can be controlled.

Constant α operation gives a crude output waveform with rich harmonic content. The dotted
lines in Fig. 3b and c show a square wave. If the square wave can be modified to look more
like a sine wave, the harmonics would be reduced. For this reason α is modulated as shown in
Fig. 3d. Now, the six-stepped dotted line is more like a sinewave with fewer harmonics. The
more pulses there are with different α's, the less are the harmonics.