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Milk Analog: Plant based alternatives to conventional milk, production,

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Milk Analog: Plant based alternatives to

conventional milk, production, potential and
health concerns

Anna Aleena Paul, Satish Kumar, Vikas Kumar & Rakesh Sharma

To cite this article: Anna Aleena Paul, Satish Kumar, Vikas Kumar & Rakesh Sharma (2019): Milk
Analog: Plant based alternatives to conventional milk, production, potential and health concerns,
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

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CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.1674243

REVIEW

Milk Analog: Plant based alternatives to conventional milk, production, potential

and health concerns
Anna Aleena Paula, Satish Kumara, Vikas Kumara, and Rakesh Sharmab
a
Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India; bDepartment of Food
Science and Technology, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Himachal Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Nutraceutical and functional food market are one of the fastest-growing food segments in the Conventional milk;
newer food product development category. In the recent past, focus of beverage industry has uneconomic production;
shifted towards making food more nutritious and functionally enriched. To load the food with lactose intolerance; milk
analog; production
nutraceutical functionality, herbal sources having target functional compounds are either directly technology; functional
used as food or for separation of target compounds. Among beverages, milk is considered as a compounds;
wholesome complete food providing macro (fat, proteins, and carbohydrates) and micronutrients future potential
(calcium, selenium, riboflavin, vitamin B12, and pantothenic acid vitamin B5) in balanced propor-
tions. However, limited access to milk in some regions of globe, low availability of certain minerals
(iron), vitamins (folate), and other biomolecules (amino acids) compounded with issues like milk
allergy, lactose intolerance, and hypercholesterolemia have forced some specific population
groups to search for better milk alternatives which are more or at least equi-nutritional to conven-
tional milk. Plant-based wholesome or blended milk analogs are better studied as inexpensive
alternates to conventional milk for people who are in search of better alternates for one or other
reason. The market of milk analogs is currently dominated by soya bean milk, oat milk, coconut
milk, hemp milk, cocoa milk, multigrain milk etc. most of which are produced by controlled
fermentation which owes to their functional bioactive composition. Such analogs are appreciated
for their functionally active components which are often correlated to their health-promoting and
disease-preventing properties. One major advantage of analogs over conventional milk is that the
energy input per unit of milk produced is much less compared to animal milk while there is
always an opportunity to manipulate their composition based on demand. However, the major
limiting factor in the acceptance of such non-conventional beverages is their challenging produc-
tion technology and poor sensory profile which is true particularly for beverages derived
from legumes. These challenges provide an opportunity for both industries and research personals
to put in major concerted efforts in the field of functional bioactive food segment to produce
tailor-made novel beverages which are nutritional, economic and have improved functionality.
Keeping in view the potential of plant-based milk alternates and associated challenges the aim
of the present review is to give a scientifically comparative and conclusive overview of the present
status, market potential, and health concerns of plant-based nondairy milk beverages.

Introduction such as iron, and vitamins like folate and some other
biomolecules (amino acids) restricts its recommendation as
There is a rapid increase in the consumption pattern of milk
a complete food for infants older than 12 months (Vanga,
and milk products around the globe with an expected future
Singh, and Raghavan 2015; Tables 1 and 2). Further, lactose
shift in the same direction as in indicated by the underlying
forces driving this shift. Cow’s milk is usually consumed by intolerance is a continuously growing disease throughout the
the majority of the population and is well thought as a developed world especially in the old age population groups
wholesome complete food providing major nutrients like fat, restricting the use of milk and milk products, especially by
proteins, and carbohydrates (Plant Based Foods Association the elder population. Additionally, limited availability of
2016). Besides these macronutrients, milk also contains milk in some specific geographic locations (arid regions),
numerous nutrients (micro & macro) such as calcium, selen- high price and presence of some potent pathogens
ium, riboflavin, vitamin B12 and pantothenic acid (vitamin (Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157:H7) which can
B5) which significantly contributes towards the overall cause disease outbreaks and some specific health problems
growth and maintenance of the body system (M€akinen et al. (Vanga and Raghavan 2018) like cholesterol, cow’s milk
2016). Though milk is considered to be a complete food yet allergy mainly seen among some infants and children, anti-
limited availability or near absence of certain minerals biotic residues, vegetarianism and vegan diets may be

CONTACT Satish Kumar [email protected] Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara,
Punjab 144411, India.
ß 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 2
A. A. PAUL ET AL.

Table 1. Comparative overview of amino acid profile of bovine milk with commercially available nondairy plant-based milk substitutes.
Amino acid (mg/100g)


Type of milk Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine References
Bovine milk
15.00–26.00 25.00–62.00 90.00–108.0 49.0–96.0 17.0–27.0 38.0–56.0 23.0–41.00 Not reported 33.0–53.0 Rafiq et al. 2015
Soy bean 0.55–1.49 1.41–2.47 2.94–4.24 0.88–3.92 0.31–0.85 1.86–2.79 0.87–2.09 0.30–0.80 1.32–2.59 Carrera
(3.66–5.73) (5.64–3.98) (3.26–3.92) (1.79–4.08) (1.82–3.15) (4.89–4.98) (3.78–5.09) (4.0–4.87) et al. 2011
Almond 21.80–25.70 29.8–39.0 83.20–83.00 36.20–57.4 27.10–27.95 50.90–50.55 30.20–43.40 13.90–13.98 38.30–73.60 e Silva et al.
(145.33–98.85) (119.12–62.90) (92.44–76.85) (73.88–59.79) (159.41–103.51) (133.94–90.27) (131.30–105.85) (116.06–138.87) 2014; Freitas
et al. 2012
Oat 2.85–3.68 4.15–4.41 7.89–9.17 3.79–3.91 1.73–1.93 5.46–5.48 3.25–4.30 3.61–4.09 5.34–6.01 Mickowska et al.
(19.0–14.15) (16.6–7.11) (7.76–8.49) (7.73–4.07) (10.17–7.15) (14.37–9.78) (14.13–10.49) (16.18–11.34) 2016; Sterna,
Zute, and
Brunava 2016
Rice 186.6–206.6 232.1–275.8 496.9–585.2 118.4–179.4 155.6–168.9 393.3–448.5 194.0–226.6 Not reported 306.2–375.2 Mota et al. 2016
(1244.0–794.61) (928.40–444.83) (552.11–541.85) (241.63–186.87) (915.29–625.55) (1035.0–800.89) (843.48–552.69) (927.88–707.92)
Cocoa nibs 20.00–24.00 21.42–21.46 72.50–72.20 42.02–42.20 9.90–10.00 28.61–28.80 29.93 6.39–8.49 32.10–32.40 Bertazzo et al.
(133.33–92.31) (85.68–34.61) (80.55–66.85) (85.75–43.96) (58.23–37.04) (75.29–51.43) –30.00 (97.27–61.13) 2011;
(130.13–73.17) Adeyeye
et al. 2010
Kidney bean 2.00–2.10 9.63–9.80 19.16–19.06 15.30–15.43 2.80–2.88 13.13–13.23 9.33–9.40 Not reported 11.53–11.67 Singh et al.
(13.33–8.07) (38.52–15.81) (21.28–17.65) (31.22–16.07) (16.47–10.66) (34.55–23.62) (40.56–22.93) (34.94–22.02) 2017; Arija
et al. 2006
Peanut 27.73–27.20 25.41– 64.50–64.30 36.75–36.70 Not reported Not reported 30.02–30.30 14.03–14.50 32.63–32.79 Freitas
(184.86–104.61) 25.50 (71.66–59.53) (75.0–38.23) (130.52–73.90) (98.87–61.13) et al. 2012
(101.64–41.12)
Coconut 1.80–1.90 2.80–4.10 3.90–6.50 3.50–5.10 1.20–2.90 2.70–5.90 3.20–3.30 Not reported 3.50–7.50 Patil and
(12.0–7.31) (11.2–6.61) (4.33–6.02) (7.14–5.31) (7.06–10.74) (7.10–10.53) (13.91–8.05) (10.61–14.15) Benjakul 2018
Hemp 2.80–3.10 3.90–4.40 6.50–7.10 4.00–4.60 2.10–2.80 4.6–4.90 2.60–3.90 0.70–0.90 5.00–5.70 Russo and
(18.66–11.92) (15.6–7.09) (7.22–6.57) (8.16–4.79) (12.35–10.37) (12.10–8.75) (11.30–9.51) (15.15–10.75) Reggiani 2015

Figures presented in the parenthesis (in the same row) are standard amino acid values considered as 100% for bovine milk.


Figures presented in the parenthesis are percentage values of amino acid in comparison to bovine milk the values for which are considered as 100%.
Table 2. Comparison of nutritive potential of bovine milk with commercially available nondairy plant-based milk substitutes.
Minerals (mg/100g)
Carbohydrate
Type of milk (g/100g) Protein (g/100g) Fat (g/100g) Fiber
(g/100g) Energy (K Cal) Fe Ca K Na P Literature cited
Bovine milk
3.20–5.40 2.90–6.00 3.40–6.40 Not reported 69.0–118.0 0.07– 0.08 122.0–134.0 152.0–181.0 41.0–58.0 119.0–121.0 Park 2017; Guetouache
et al. 2014; Wijesinha-
Bettoni and
Burlingame 2013
Soy milk 4.64–4.92 3.82–3.98 3.1–4.3 0.64–0.74 51.5–52.5 0.50–0.66 4.0–5.4 (3.28–4.03) 141.0–215.0 2.20–12.0 49.0–62.60 Alozie and Udofia 2015;
(144.99–91.11) (131.72–66.33) (91.17–67.19) (74.64– 44.49) (714.28–825.0) (107.80–118.78) (5.36–20.69) (41.17–51.73) Nti et al. 2016;
Mazumder and
Begum 2016
Almond milk 4.30–4.70 2.50–1.90 3.20–3.60 1.15–1.35 55.00–55.90 1.35–1.45 13.05–13.15 65.03–65.00 6.38–6.60 75.03–75.33 Alozie and Udofia 2015
(134.37–87.04) (86.21–31.66) (94.11–56.25) (79.71–47.37) (1928.57–1812.5) (10.69–9.81) (46.1–35.91) (15.65–11.38) (63.05–62.25)
Oat milk (fresh) 27.30–50.01 9.70–17.30 5.20–12.40 11.53–20.07 576.56–607.10 6.40–7.40 84.30–85.60 669.20–671.60 3.11–3.21 672.30–816.32 Sterna, Zute, and
(853.12–926.11) (334.48–288.33) (152.94–193.75) (835.59–514.49) (9142.85–9250.0) (69.09–63.88) (474.61–371.05) (7.58–5.53) (564.95–674.64) Brunava 2016
Rice milk 9.41–12.70 0.28–1.26 (9.65–21.0) 0.97–1.11 0.30–0.65 47.00–112.0 0.20–0.96 118.0–121.35 26.34–27.00 39.20–40.59 55.91–56.86 Chalupa-Krebzdak et al.
(294.06–235.18) (28.53–17.34) (68.12–118.0) (285.71–1200.0) (96.72–90.56) (18.68–14.92) (95.61–69.98) (46.98–46.99) 2018; Pineli et al 2015;
Sousa and Kopf-
Bolanz 2017
Cocoa milk 44.00–55.00 12.00–19.00 20.00–25.00 25.00–35.00 225.0–325.0 10.00–15.00 100.0–180.0 1500.0–2000.0 Not reported 750.0–1000.0 Rucker 2009
drink (fresh) (1375.0–1018.52) (413.79–316.66) (588.23–390.62) (326.09–275.42) (14285.7–18570.0) (81.97–134.32) (1063.82–1104.97) (630.25–826.45)
Kidney bean milk 53.20–59.65 17.95–26.80 0.66–2.49 6.40–7.20 127.10–132.0 1.50–1.80 31.30–36.20 344.0–356.2 11.0–11.8 68.10–72.01 Hayat et al. 2014
(1662.5–1104.63) (618.96–446.66) (19.41–38.91) (184.20–111.86) (2142.8–2250.0) (25.65–27.01) (243.97–196.79) (26.83–20.34) (57.23–59.51)
Peanut milk (fresh) 21.51–16.10 25.80–26.37 47.22–49.20 8.00–8.50 462.78–567.0 2.26–4.58 54.00–92.00 501.00–658.0 6.00–64.23 76.00–358.0 Sandefur et al. 2017;
(672.19–298.15) (889.65–439.50) (1388.82–768.75) (670.69–480.51) (3228.57–5725.0) (44.26–68.66) (355.32–363.53) (14.63–110.74) (63.86–295.87) Settaluri et al. 2012;
Mustapha et al. 2015
Coconut milk 3.75–9.41 0.59–2.00 4.12–6.00 5.30–5.98 50.00–92.00 3.90–4.01 176.0–178.1 631.0–639.02 36.00–38.36 240.0–256.35 Chalupa-Krebzdak et al.
(117.19–174.26) (20.34–33.33) (121.17–93.75) (72.46–77.96) (5571.43–5012.5) (144.26–132.9) (447.52–353.05) (87.80–66.14) (201.68–211.86) 2018; Patil and
Benjakul 2018
Hemp milk 2.50–20.00 0.83–4.00 1.25–3.00 Not reported 19.00–21.06 4.89–6.58 12.03–20.25 110.00–126.58 85.69–140.01 54.84–63.98 Chalupa-Krebzdak et al.
(78.12–370.37) (28.62–66.66) (36.76–46.87) (27.54–17.84) (6985.71–8225.0) (9.86–15.11) (78.01–69.93) (209.0–241.39) (46.08–52.88) 2018; Russo and
Reggiani 2015;
Vahanvaty 2009

Figures presented in the parenthesis (in the same row) are standard amino acid values considered as 100% for bovine milk.


Figures presented in the parenthesis are percentage values of amino acid in comparison to bovine milk the values for which are considered as 100%.
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION
3
4 A. A. PAUL ET AL.

assumed as the possible reasons for conceptualization milk accounts for the largest share by-product in 2017 with
and development of milk alternatives/milk substitutes/ 58.0% of global production while, almond, rice, coconut
milk analogs. milk, etc. are also significant contributors and are utilized as
Expectations of present consumers for more healthy and plain, flavored (mainly vanilla and chocolate) and sweetened
palatable food choices have driven the dairy industry to or unsweetened nondairy milk beverages.
expand their knowledge beyond conventional milk products Fermentation is an old method adopted throughout the
for the production of various plant-based non-conventional ancestral period till present in order to prepare and preserve
beverages with health benefits equating milk with consump- and make different foods and beverages (Sharma, Joshi, and
tion at recommended levels (Grant and Hicks 2018). Abrol 2012). Fermentation of food is understood as conver-
However, questions arise regarding the category to which sion of complex carbohydrates such as starch and sugars to
these substitutes belong for the reason that they don’t meet simple products like alcohols and acids with concurrent pro-
the traditional definition and nutritional content of the duction of carbon dioxide by using yeast and/or bacteria,
milk. Nevertheless, recent studies have well established vital under anaerobic conditions, where the microbial biomass
role of these plant-based beverages in improving or manage- used in process determines the process of fermentation and
ment of immune system, have potential antimicrobial effects, production of various molecules from pilot plant methods
helps in reducing risk of cardiovascular and gastro-intestinal to large-scale industry (Worku and Sahu 2017). Though
diseases with improved physiological functions, decreased such nondairy based milk beverages are not always fer-
risk of low bone mass and very high levels of antioxidants mented yet fermentation is given more emphasis as it leads
with free radical scavenging properties which have been dis- to the production of secondary metabolites of our interest.
cussed in Table 3. Since plant-derived milk or extracts Further, some other treatments like ultrasonication are also
mostly undergo fermentation (natural/controlled) which helpful in extraction of the biomolecules and improving the
stimulates the activity of bioactive compounds. Besides, phytochemical profile of the products as monoculture of
incorporation of certain valuable and nutritionally signifi- Lactobacillus acidophilus is observed to have more stability
cant components also enhances the quality of the product regardless of the varying conditions in ultrasonic treatment
by mainly enriching protein quality, the bioavailability of applied than the mixed culture of Streptococcus thermophiles
minerals and some important elements (Akin and Ozcan and Lactobacillus bulgaricus (Ojha et al. 2018). This review
2017). Legumes (the poor man’s meat), cereals and oilseeds has been compiled keeping in mind the primary health con-
due to their rich nutritional profile are the major target for cerns related to various dairy products and the potential,
the production of different milk substitutes, improvising production technology and applications of non-conventional
milk quality with specific bioactive components when com- dairy substitutes of plant origin along with their present sta-
pared to usual animal milk. tus and future prospectus.
World market of the dairy industry has always main-
tained the top position due to high demand. However, pro- Types of milk analogs and their
duction of milk through the use of animals puts far more production technology
strain on the environment than other kinds of food produc-
tion. Due to the fact that most feed for livestock is used up Soy bean milk
by the animal’s metabolic processes as well as for bone Increased responsiveness of health-conscious masses towards
growth and so on, only a small proportion of the feed is health potentials of herbal milk substitutes have significantly
transformed into muscle tissue i.e. meat, eggs or milk. This contributed to their better consumption and people have
leads to a much higher demand for land to produce the been showing their interest in such functional beverages to
same amount of e.g. milk when compared to e.g. plant- exploit specific health benefits. Soy and soy products suc-
based milk alternatives for direct human consumption. This ceeded to take up its position among vegetarians due to its
has just given a way to nondairy analogs in the market and high protein content (36.49 mg/100g) according to USDA
recently, nondairy beverage industry (mainly based on soy, (United States Department of Agriculture) Food
almond, and other vegan sources) is trying to mark its fin- Composition Databases. Soy milk contains 7 g of protein per
gerprints and as a result, it is rapidly gaining market share 8 ounces (236.6 ml) which is comparable with dairy milk
both in the refrigerated dairy sector and in shelf-stable ver- (Krans 2017). Soy milk contains essential monounsaturated
sions of these products. Studies showed that milk substitutes and polyunsaturated fatty acids in very high amount which
have an appropriate 6% rise than conventional milk and are sometimes correlated with cardiovascular health. Soya
milk products, capturing the attention of startups as well as milk is an inexpensive, refreshing and nutritional beverage
the food companies (White Wave Foods, Blue Diamond with different functionally active component responsible for
Growers, Native Forest, etc.), where Western and European its beneficial interactions inside the body. Isoflavones prehis-
market is ruling currently, followed by North America. The torically are well recognized for their protective effect
optimistic approach of consumers and government policies against some most important health conditions like cancer,
to improve the agriculture sector are likely to increase raw cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis. Additionally, it
material availability and initiative steps by the manufacturers contains isoflavones (genistein, daidzein and glycitein) in
offering novel food products with better quality, attractive great quantity and good amount of fiber, minerals (mainly
packaging and a positive impact on market growth. Soy iron, calcium and zinc), B vitamins and unsaturated fatty
Table 3. Some major milk analogs, their production methodology, bioactive components, associated health potential and shelf life.
Health Potential
Product Method of production Bioactive Components Advantages Limitations Shelf life References
Bovine milk Obtained from healthy IgG, IgA - Considered as wholesome complete - Lactose- intolerance Ambient condition: 24 hrs Vanga and Raghavan
lactating animals Casein food - Cow’s milk allergy in infants Refrigerated condition 2018; M€akinen et al.
Lactoferricin - Antimicrobial activity - Near absence of minerals like (4  C): 24–120 hrs 2016; Vanga, Singh,
Casoxins - Helps in overall growth and iron and vitamins like folate and and Raghavan 2015;
Casocidin maintenance of the body system some amino acids Plant Based Foods
Casokinins - Antiappetizing property - Limited availability Association 2016;
- Helps in decrease blood cholesterol - Presence of pathogens Ziyaina et al. 2018;
level due to the presence of (Salmonella spp. and Escherichia Millogo et al. 2015;
hypocholesterolemic peptides. coli O157:H7) Park 2009
- High price
Soy milk Controlled Fermentation: Genistein - Decrease blood pressure level - Formation of hormone-responsive Ambient condition: 90 Marazza et al. 2012; do
Lactobacillus rhamnosus Daidzein - Hypolipidemic effects tissues days Refrigerated Amaral Santos, da Silva
Lactobacillus Glycitein - Effective against chronic disease - Eating soya foods upset condition (4  C): Libeck, and Schwan
acidophilus - Recommended against osteoporosis hormonal balance or reduce 170 days 2014; Sanjukta et al.
Enterococcus faecium - Higher bone density and lower rates testosterone concentrations in 2015; Dai et al. 2017;
LAB Bacillus of fracture men Singh and Vij 2018;
subtilis (SSF) - a-Galactosidase activity - Activation effects in the central Sidhu and Singh 2016;
nervous system Katz 2018
- Beany flavor due to action of
lipoxygenase
Almond milk Mostly mechanical Beta-sitosterol, campesterol - Powerful antioxidant - Limited cariogenic properties in Refrigerated condition Bernat et al. 2015; Gorji
extraction and stigmasterol folate, - Low-calorie presence of sucrose (4  C): 170 days et al. 2018; Sethi et al.
Controlled Fermentation: vitamin E (mainly - high in vitamin E - Very low-protein 2016; Lee al. 2018;
Lactobacillus reuteri a-tocopherol), niacin (B3) - Prebiotic properties - Supports growth of pathogenic Iorio et al. 2019;
Streptococcus thermophilus Arabinose micro-organisms Chhabra et al. 2017;
- Almond allergy Alozie and Udofia 2015
Oat milk Controlled Fermentation: b-glucan - Hypocholesterolaemic - Lacks calcium content Refrigerated condition Bernat et al. 2015; Zhang
Lactobacillus reuteri Phytochemicals: - Reduce blood glucose level - Poor emulsion stability (4  C): 28 days et al. 2017; Sang and
Streptococcus Avenanthramides (AVAs) - Increases solution viscosity and - Contain potential allergens Chu 2017; Sethi
thermophilus LAB Avenacosides A and B can delay gastric emptying time et al. 2016
Lactobacillus plantarum - Anti-pathogenic effect
Bifidobacterium
animalis
Rice milk Controlled Fermentation: a-tocopherol - Lowers cholesterol and hypertension - Lacks b-carotene Refrigerated condition Sethi et al. 2016; Lau and
Lactobacillus c-oryzano - Best choice for people with multiple - Least protein quality (4  C): 12 days Latif 2019; Amini
acidophilus b-sitosterol allergies - Unstable emulsion due to high et al. 2019
Bifidobacterium Thiamin - Anti-inflammatory starch content
animalis Lactobacillus Niacin - May contain large amount of
plantarum Lactobacillus Pyridoxine added sugar
fermentum Natural
Fermentation: LAB
Cocoa milk drink Controlled Fermentation: Theobromine and caffeine - Anti-aging - High in caffeine and not Ambient condition Yuliana and Rangga 2010;
Lactobacillus - Alertness and provide good mood suitable for pregnant and (25–37  C): 21 days Fonseca Maciel, Felıcio,
acidophilus lactating women Refrigerated condition and Hirooka 2017
Lactobacillus bulgaricus (5–10  C): 3 months
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

Streptococcus.
Thermophiles
(continued)
5
Table 3. Continued. 6
Health Potential
Product Method of production Bioactive Components Advantages Limitations Shelf life References
Kidney bean Mechanical Extraction Dietary fibers c-aminobutyric - Anti-oxidant property - Beany flavor owing to activity – Limon 2015; Kumar
Controlled acid (GABA) - b-glucosidase activity of lipoxygenase et al. 2013
Fermentation: Bacillus - Presence of inhibitors
subtilis (solid-state - Nasobronchial allergy
fermentation) - Allergic Rhinitis
A. A. PAUL ET AL.

Lactobacillus plantarum
(liquid-state
fermentation)
Peanut milk Mechanical Extraction Resveratrol - Protects from diseases like coronary - Peanut allergy Refrigerated condition Sethi et al. 2016; Arya
Controlled Niacin heart disease, stroke, etc. - Dietary restrictions (4  C): 30 days et al. 2016; Fleischer
Fermentation: LAB Vitamin E - Functioning of the digestive systems, during pregnancy et al. 2019; Arya et al.
Arginine skin, nerves 2015; Zaaboul
- Helps in conversion of food to et al. 2019
energy
- Arginine stimulates the immune
system by increasing the output
of T-lymphocytes
Coconut milk Aqueous Enzymatic Lauric acid - Promotes brain development - Heart disease due to LDL Refrigerated condition Sethi et al. 2016; Katz
Extraction Process Vitamin E - Boosts immune system content (high fat and low (4  C): 30 days 2018; Agarwal and
(AEEP) Viscozyme - Maintains the elasticity of the blood protein) Bosco 2014; Mauro and
- L enzyme method vessels-medium - Frail and weak bones Garcia 2019
- Chain triglycerides, are linked with
weight loss
- Anti- ageing property by providing
skin nourishment
Hemp milk Ultrasonic treatment Linolenic acid Linoleic acid - reduce both motion- and toxin- - High dosage can induce toxicity Refrigerated condition Teh and Birch 2014;
High-pressure c-tocopherol Cannabidiolic induced vomiting and act against inhibiting (4  C): Stable up to Crescente et al. 2018;
homogenization acid Lignanamides - anti-thrombotic -anti-vasoconstrictive inflammatory 3 days Zhou et al. 2018; Wang
(HPH) extraction -anti-inflammatory -anti-neuro- cytokines production et al. 2018
inflammatory activity
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 7

acids (Rizzo and Baroni 2018). Phytochemicals such as (Grundy et al. 2016). They are used as a key ingredient in
phytic acid (1.0–2.2%), sterols (0.23–0.46%) and saponins baked food products, confectionery items, granola bars,
(0.17–6.16%) increases its potential health benefits (Kang breakfast cereals, etc. Almonds are a well-recognized source
et al. 2010). On fermentation, isoflavones glucosides in the of anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-tumoral and
presence of glucosidases get hydrolyze to form aglycones in antioxidant substances (Barreira et al. 2008).
the small intestine and are then metabolized into other Almond is very rich in fatty acids and has a major in the
metabolites (equol and O-desmethylangolensin) in the large growth of pathogenic microbes (E. coli O157: H7 and L.
intestine by microflora (Yu et al. 2016). monocytogenes) (Iorio et al. 2019). Even though thermal
Conversely, isoflavones or phytoestrogens resembled as processing methods can minimize the pathogens but both
weak estrogens can negatively affect gestation and infancy can cause a considerable reduction in nutritional value (Van
(ovary, uterus, mammary gland and prostate, early puberty, Impe et al. 2018). Further, almonds allergy is a common
reduced fertility, disrupted brain organization, and repro- tree nut allergy (ranked as fourth among other tree nuts by
ductive tract cancers) (Katz 2018). Additionally, the absence the United States) and the effects can be as mild as simple
of a-galactosidase in human intestinal tract makes oligosac- oral allergy and can be as complex as fatal anaphylaxis.
charides like stachyose and raffinose indigestible and thus Amandin, an almond major protein, legumin (11S), prunin,
leading to gas production due to the interaction between the and prunin (Pru du 6) are recognized as major seed storage
sugars and GI-resident bacterial communities (Janpaeng protein (approximately 65%) which are also the important
et al. 2018). Thereby more systematic again studies are allergen in almond (Chhabra et al. 2017).
required regarding the health aspects of soy bean particu- Commercially, almond undergoes processing by roasting,
larly the effects of its bioactive components on wellbeing blanching, crushing reduction and oil extraction (Grundy et al.
(Canadian Paediatric Society 2009). Also, the study shows 2016). The allergen Pru du 6 (amandin) is highly resistant to
that about 14% of people who consumes cow’s milk are heat treatments but sensitive to pepsin enzyme (Mandalari and
allergic to soy milk also (Jeske et al. 2017). Mackie 2018). Using mechanical treatments and fermentation
Fermentation helps to reduce antinutritional factors (protein- treatments they can be removed easily and almond milk is
ase-inhibitors, phytic acid, urease, oxalic acids) and increase the making its position among other plant-based milk substitutes
bioavailability of bioactive components as the micro-organisms in the market. Moreover, patients who are suffering from lac-
break down complex organic substances to simpler molecules, tose-intolerance are advised to consume almond milk instead
increasing the number of free isoflavones and peptides in soy of soy milk, except sweetened with sucrose especially for people
fermented products (Sanjukta et al. 2015). The efficiency of fer- who are concerned with cariogenic problems (Lee et al. 2018).
mentation regarding the functionality of the hydrolyzed product
solely depends on the cultures used for the process (Rai et al.
2017). Soybean fermented with B. subtilis MTCC5480 resulted Oat milk
in a higher degree of protein hydrolysis and free amino acids, In a continuously expanding market of conventional and
whereas using Rhizopus oligosporus and B. subtilis increases Glu non-conventional milk and milk products oat milk occupies
and Asp and also smaller peptides content without effecting the an important position and is competing really hard among
essential amino acids (Sanjukta and Rai 2016). Additionally, the various substitute and with dairy milk. Nutritional compo-
same B. subtilis increase the free radical scavenging property nents including the presence of phenolic compounds,
to an appreciable level and inhibits angiotensin I-converting avenanthramides (2–289 mg/Kg), saponins (avenacoside A-
enzyme (ACE) resulting in decreasing blood pressure level. 290 mg/Kg and avenacoside B-110 mg/Kg) (Sang and Chu
However, total isoflavones concentration increases with further 2017), phytic acid, sterols, and many others make oats and
fermentation of the soymilk with L. rhamnosus CRL981 produc- its products a good antioxidant. According to American
ing approximately 40 times more b-glucosidase than using Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC), dietary fiber is
Streptococcus thermophilus strain (Marazza et al. 2012). defined as “the edible part of a plant or analogous carbohy-
drates that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the
human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation
Almond milk
in the large intestine. It includes polysaccharides, oligosac-
Almonds are considered as one of the “brain-foods” (while charides, lignin, and associated plant substances. Dietary
others are hazelnut and walnut) as they ensure a healthy fibers promote beneficial physiological effects including
brain by promoting mental alertness, concentration, recall laxation and/or blood cholesterol attenuation and/or blood
skills, memory and helps to get good sleep when taken at glucose attenuation” (American Association of Cereal
night (Gorji et al. 2018). This is a good source of vitamin E Chemists (AACC) 2001). Oats are rich in antioxidants and
(25.87 mg/100 g a-tocopherol), vitamins B complex compris- polyphenols with macromolecules in different proportions
ing B1 (0.24 mg/100 g), B2 (0.8 mg/100 g), B3 (4 mg/100 g), B5 i.e. highest proportion of starch (60%) with a relatively
€
(0.3 mg/100 g) and B6 (0.13 mg/100g) (Ozdemir, Y€
ucel, and balanced protein content (11–15%) and lipids (5–9%)
Okay 2016), protein (16–23 g/100g), monounsaturated fats besides, oats are also a good source of dietary fibers
(31–35 g/100g) pre-dominating oleic acid, total dietary fibers (2.3–8.5) and calcium content (0.54%) (Rasane et al. 2015).
(11–14 g/100g), total phenolic compounds (260–350 mg/ Oat b-glucan are anti-cancerous, as they are reported to
100g) and good amount of minerals (Ca, Mg, P, and K) reduce compounds which are the causative agents of colon
8 A. A. PAUL ET AL.

cancer with a significant reduction in blood cholesterol level removed during the processing of rice into milk. Hence
blood pressure. The recommended dose of b-glucan for a fortification of rice milk with iron is required. But industries
single food is 0.75 g/serving (Rasane et al. 2015) in general are now focusing on the production of Rice Bran Milk
while, the Presence of essential amino acids oleic acid (RBM) due to their underutilization and high nutrient pro-
(45.60 g/kg), linoleic acid (36.2–40.4%) and linolenic acid file. Studies found that rice bran milk is having lower TSS
(38.4-41.6%) (Sterna, Zute, and Brunava 2016) also increases value and viscosity than soy milk (Issara and Rawdkuen
the importance of oats in daily diet. 2014). Also, soaking is effective in increasing the minerals
Fermentation with Monascus anka on oats also helps to and vitamins (B6 and B12), insoluble fiber and bioactive
increase the phenolic compounds (free, conjugated and components. This is kept for natural fermentation, where
bound) significantly along with the rise in glucosamine con- lactic acid bacteria will break down the anti-nutritional fac-
tent, resulting in the enhancement of free radical scavenging tors and enhance the calcium, magnesium, iron content,
property of oats (Bei et al. 2017). Despite many potential which increases the beneficiary bacteria that helps in diges-
health benefits, oat milk is a poor source of calcium an tion and immunity of other internal organs (Sharma and
essential nutrient for the growth and development, which is Gayathri 2018).
commercially fortified in oat milk before its consumption
(Sethi et al. 2016). Fermentation serves as an important tool
Cocoa milk
in oat milk production however, it is not always beneficial
as some important phytochemical may get utilized as Cocoa is rich in polyphenols (12–18%), mainly flavonoids
a substrate for the process while there may be a concurrent (flavan-3-ols, epicatechin, and catechin) has a potential to
production of some important secondary metabolites i.e. act as cardio-protective, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity,
phenolic compounds like chlorogenic acid and quercetin anti-carcinogenic and neuro-protective actions (Rodrıguez-
which were detected in oats after fermentation by Monascus Lagunas et al. 2019). Cocoa is thought to have first been
anka. On the other hand, some compounds may be lost used by the Maya civilization of Central America and its
in the process e.g. sinapic acid a major component of consumption began from the mid-16th century in America,
unfermented seeds was not detected in fermented oats (Bei and then it started to spread further. The western diet
et al. 2017). This again signifies the importance of standard included high energy chocolate, where dental caries, obesity,
fermentation procedures which can affect the product both high BP, and diabetes were the most common diseases.
ways i.e. benefit the process or can adversely affect it. While, lactose intolerance, a much serious problem surged
the search of a suitable alternate which was halted after the
establishment of cocoa milk as the most suitable analog to
Rice milk
conventional milk. Suppressive effect of cocoa on lactose
According to the Global Rice Science Partnership (Global intolerance has been demonstrated and is well established
Rice Science Partnership (GRiSP) 2013), about half of the now. Cocoa consumption can reduce risk of CVD, with
world’s population have been using rice as their staple food improved cardiovascular health by an effective reduction in
and mainly by the South-East Asian countries. However, blood pressure (BP), improvement of vascular function,
more recently western countries have also observed an modulation of lipid and glucose metabolism and reduction
increase in the consumption of rice and hence an escalation of platelet aggregation. Major potential mechanisms respon-
in production is found (Kelly 2016). Rice is highly rich in sible for the health benefits of cocoa are activation of nitric
starch (nearly 90%), whereas protein (about 10%) content is oxide (NO) synthase, increased bioavailability of NO as well
least, lacking threonine and lysine (Jiang et al. 2016) with as antioxidant properties (Ludovici et al. 2017). Recently,
significantly appreciable amount of ferulic acid, sinapic acid it has been reported that cocoa flavanols can slow down
and p-coumaric acid (Shao and Bao 2015), where sinapic carbohydrate digestion and absorption in the gut with a sig-
acid with carbon dioxide gets reduced along with p-hydrox- nificant improvement in insulin secretion. It also stimulates
ybenzoic acid (Goufo et al. 2014). sugar uptake from the blood into the muscle thus, can be an
Rice is deficient of vitamin A precursor (b-carotene), effective tool for the management of diabetes (Ramos et al.
which is synthesized with the help of plant enzymes 2017). Native Indians consumed cocoa as the unsweetened
(phytoene synthase (PSY), phytoene desaturase, b-carotene drink of raw or powdered form providing antioxidant prop-
desaturase, and lycopene b-cyclase) to convert geranylgeranyl erties by polyphenols (flavan-3-ols, anthocyanins, flavonols,
diphosphate to b-carotene (Lau and Latif 2019). Though these phenolic acids, stilbenes, and N-phenylpropenoyl-L-amino
enzyme systems are fully functional in stalk leaves but are acids (NPAs) (Oracz et al. 2019).
lacking in the grains. Furthermore, rice is suggested to take
along with the bran as it contains the beneficial polyphenols
Kidney bean milk
(phenolic acids, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins consisting
of catechin and epicatechin) (Shao et al. 2018). However, this Kidney bean is considered as rich source of complex
is rarely possible, especially for products like rice milk, to carbohydrates (50–60%), dietary proteins (20–30%), vitamins
achieve a good sensory profile. and minerals (vitamin K1, folate, molybdenum, iron, copper,
Iron, an essential element, present in rice, where more manganese, potassium and phosphorus) (Jayamanohar et al.
than 85% is seen in the bran (Ishimaru et al. 2010), which is 2019), phenolics (45.7 mg/g DW), polyphenols (cyanidin
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 9

3,5-diglucoside (0–0.04 mg/g DW), cyanidin 3-glucoside stability, high foaming, water retention, and solubility, and
(0–0.12 mg/g DW), delphinidin 3-glucoside (0-2.61 mg/g thus can also provide a new high protein food ingredient
DW), petunidin 3-glucoside (0–0.17 mg/g DW), pelargonidin product formulation and protein formulation in the food
3-glucoside (0–0.59 mg/g DW) in seed coats of kidney industry (Wu et al. 2009). All these properties make peanut
beans), phytosterols (134 mg/100 g DW) (Singh et al. 2017). protein a good ingredient for its incorporation into noodles,
Among various starchy foods, kidney bean provides a low infant formulas (Arya et al. 2016).
glycaemic index which is not more than 27, thus usually In contrast, peanut allergy is an inevitable issue that has
recommended for diabetic patients (Leterme 2002). to be faced even in the peanut milk industry. Till date, no
The allergens in kidney bean are reported to cause naso- prevention methods have been effective regarding the allergy
bronchial and allergic rhinitis and are classified into four: and was suggested in 2015 by a study conducted that early
lectin (phytohemagglutinin), phaseolin, a-amylase inhibitor consumption of peanut protein can reduce the effect to a
precursor, and group 3 late embryogenesis abundant pro- certain extent (Fleischer et al. 2019). Eight peanut allergens
teins. Also, 20-kDa polypeptide, a basic subunit of legumin, are Arachis hypogaea (Ara) h 1 to h 8 (Burks 2008). Among
are found which are thermally stable along with other five these peanut allergens, Ara h 2 and Ara h 6 are the potent
pepsin-resistant proteins (approximate molecular weight 45, allergens (Chen et al. 2016). Moreover, peanut being a leg-
29, 24, 20, and 6.5 kDa) (Kumar et al. 2013). Raffinose, ume contains phytic acid that lowers the bioavailability of
stachyose, and verbascose act as a prebiotic for bifidobacte- other nutrients and has insoluble fibers (Arya et al. 2016).
rial and lactobacilli in the colon and presence of soluble and Extraction methods include defatting, roasting, alkali
insoluble dietary fibers make kidney bean an important soaking, steaming, grinding, sometimes heating or ferment-
part of the diet. However, anti-nutritional factors (phytic ing, followed by filtration with have been found effective to
acid, trypsin inhibitor, lectins, and some oligosaccharides) various extents to reduce the anti-nutritional factors and the
are major health concerns due to their adverse effect on content of different food allergens to some extent (Adegoke
digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients (Los et al. 2018). and Falade 2016). The peanut milk produced by the grind-
Bean milk is prepared primarily by rinsing and then ing method is used either by removing fat to obtain a yellow
soaking until it swells completely, followed by ‘soaked bean’ liquid (closely fat-free and rich in protein) or can be fer-
processes like grinding and boiling. Supernatant as a result mented by LAB (Arya et al. 2016). One major problem
of centrifugation is taken as the milk (Chen et al. 2019). To encountered during production of peanut milk is its poor
reduce the anti-nutritional factors and allergenicity, solid stability due to high-fat content and to improve the stability
and liquid state fermentation is adopted with Bacillus subtilis emulsifying agents (alginates, gelatin, or vegetable gums 1%
usually as a starter strain that can improvise antioxidant (w/w) may be added to stabilize the emulsion during proc-
activity by enhancing the production of isoflavone aglycones, essing, transportation, and storage.
whereas LAB is naturally present (Lim on et al. 2015).
Various enzyme, gaseous treatment (CO2) and fermentation
(with lactic acid bacteria) helps to boost c-aminobutyric Coconut milk
acid (GABA), a non-proteinogenic amino acid, which has Coconut is considered as a nutritious fruit and every part is
a significant role in prevention of cancer cell proliferation, used for different purposes and is grown in 92 countries
alcohol-related chronic diseases and reduction of hyperten- mainly Indonesia, Philippines, South Asia, East Africa and
sion and blood cholesterol level (Nikmaram et al. 2017). the Caribbean, etc. (FAO & APCC 2013). Milk obtained
Consumption of 10 mg GABA daily (from fermented milk) from coconut is used world-wide for confectionaries, bak-
for 12 weeks has been reported to decrease blood pressure eries, biscuits, ice-creams, etc. Countries like India, Sri
by approximately 17.4 mm Hg in hypertensive patients Lanka, and other Asian countries widely use coconut cream
(Inoue et al. 2003). and milk for cooking purpose. Presence of medium-chain
triglycerides makes coconut milk an easily digestible non-
dairy substitute. Unlike other milk analogs containing long-
Peanut milk
chain fatty acids, coconut contains medium-chain fatty acids
Peanut products like peanut milk and butter have a nutri- (MCFAs) that can be easily absorbed and metabolized by
tional significance as they are rich in protein, minerals and the liver to convert into ketone compounds, which are use-
essential fatty acids such as linoleic and oleic acids, valuable ful in brain functioning and to relief from memory impair-
components in human nutrition (Abou-Dobara et al. 2016). ment like Alzheimer. Along with MCFAs, soluble and
Among total fat (49.24 g/100g), presence of monounsatu- insoluble fiber content increases the nutritional value of
rated fatty acids (MUFAs-50%) has a vital role in cholesterol coconut with various anti-oxidant properties (Fernando
level as the amount of LDL consumed is comparatively less. et al. 2015). The milk also contains a fairly good amount of
The concentrations of campesterol and stigmasterol are very minerals and vitamins.
high in peanuts (198.3 and 163.3 mg/g) (Maguire et al. According to Environmental Nutrition magazine, coconut
2004). Peanuts contain almost all 20 amino acids and are milk contains the highest amount of fat and the least
significant source of arginine (USDA 2014). Peanut proteins amount of protein among the nondairy milk. Furthermore,
(25.80 g/100g) have superior functional properties and when approximately 87% of this fat is saturated with lauric acid
incorporated in food presents good emulsification with (44%) followed by caprylic and capric acids (13%), which
10 A. A. PAUL ET AL.

can conversely increase the bad cholesterol levels (LDL) of these chemicals. To overcome this issue, high-pressure
while calcium level in coconut milk is comparatively very homogenization method is performed in which protein is
low (4% of the total recommended level) making it a cal- adsorbed on the lipid droplet surface, and can thus reduce
cium deficit nondairy milk beverage (Katz 2018). Coconut rancidity. Homogenization pressure determines the mechan-
milk is usually prepared by mechanical method starting with ical energy provided to disrupt the oil droplets and create
shelling the nut and separating the meat, which is cleaned new interfaces (Wang et al. 2018). Ultrasonic treatment can
and grated. Mixing with water (warm) is done to extract the be used for the optimization of the polyphenols, where the
oil, milk, and aromatic components (Belewu and Belewu technique helps industries economically and environmentally
2007). Factors, for instance, grinding time, incubation period to reduce the usage of chemicals and extraction time and
and Viscozyme-L enzyme have a major effect on the yield of enhance shelf-life. Alternatively, longer extraction can give
coconut milk production. To be precise, effect of grinding a similar effect of increased DPPH activity and total
time is indirectly proportional to the yield; slightly effective phenolics approximately 17.18% and 123.70% respectively
due to the interaction between the enzyme and incubation with comparatively less yield (The and Birch 2014).
period (Agarwal and Bosco 2014).
Recent innovations and trends in the production
Hemp milk and quality improvement of milk analogs
Hemp seeds are considered to be as one of the richest sour- Continuous research efforts are underway to improve the
ces of poly-unsaturated-fatty acids such as a-linolenic acid organoleptic, nutritional and functional properties of the
and linoleic acid and are advisable in many health condi- plant-based milk alternates. Four major focus areas viz.
tions while, various products like oil, meal, flour, protein stability, removal of off-flavor, inactivation/removal of
powder derived from hemp seeds are commercially available inhibitors and shelf-life improvement of plant-based milk
in the market (Andre et al. 2016). Along with all essential beverages have been identified crucial in the production and
amino acids and fatty acids, it contains lipids (25–35%), improvement of milk analogs. Stability of such beverages
proteins (20–25%), carbohydrates (20–30%), insoluble is a function of the size of the dispersed phase particles
fibers (10–15%), vitamin E (90 mg/100 gm) and minerals (fat globules, solid material particles, proteins, etc.) which
(phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, sulfur, lead to a sandy, gritty or chalky body of the beverages on
calcium, iron, and zinc) (Frassinetti et al. 2018). Its low fresh consumption and results in phase separation during
allergenicity and high nutritional value makes it a good storage to form sedimentation at the bottom of the pack-
alternative over dairy and also soy and other nuts milk. ages. The off flavor may develop with the course of time
Linoleic acid and a-linolenic acid (ALA) are the predom- during storage or may be inherent due to the presence of
inant fatty acids (80–90 g/100g of their total fatty acids) unsaturated fatty acids and lipoxygenases (Maestri et al.
provide prostanoids and leukotriene with anti-thrombotic, 2000). Inactivation of enzymes by physical and chemical
anti-vasoconstrictive and anti-inflammatory properties. treatments have been in use since long while, some recent
Moreover, cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) is the most predomin- interventions like high pressure processing, pulse electric
ant bioactive constituent present (Crescente et al. 2018). It field, ohmic heating, cold plasma, supercritical fluid extrac-
provides health benefits against chronic diseases such as tion and solid-phase microextraction have been used as
obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, effective tools to remove off-flavors from different beverages
and Alzheimer’s disease. Among various antinutritional fac- (Sidhu and Singh 2016; Varghese and Pare 2019; Han et al.
tors, phytic acid (inositol hexaphosphate, IP6) and trypsin 2019 and Chang et al. 2019). Trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid,
inhibitors have a major contribution. Hemp seeds show lectins, tannins, protease inhibitors, saponins etc are major
anti-neuroinflammatory activity due to presence of lignana- antinutritional factors present in most of the plant-based
mides by inhibiting the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain- milk beverages. Different physical treatments (boiling, soak-
enhancer of activated B cells (NF-jB) signaling pathway. ing, sprouting, steam injection), chemical methods (b-cyclo-
Nevertheless, phenylpropionamides plays a vital role anti- dextrin entrapment) and bioprocessing and biotechnological
neuroinflammatory activity however, very high dosage of interventions (fermentation, enzyme processing) have been
total phenylpropanamides (TPA) have been reported to employed to remove antinutritional factors (Obadina et al.
cause toxicity to counteract its effect on inhibiting inflam- 2013; Vagadia et al. 2018; and Yuan and Chang 2010).
matory cytokines production (Zhou et al. 2018). Overall stability and shelf life of plant-based milk beverages
Hemp milk is an oil-in-water emulsion and hence is is mainly dependent on the production process and various
highly unstable and have a tendency to flocculate, coalesce, process parameters involved. All important aspects of the
and generate cream which is a challenge in industry as it production process with some recent innovative technologies
leads to losses in the quality and shelf-life. Emulsifiers or have been summarized in Table 4.
stabilizers are often used to counter this situation; however,
usage of these chemical substances is not economical as it
The success story of milk analogs
increases the cost of production and also some health con-
cerns such as chronic inflammatory diseases, obesity-associ- Medical complications (lactose intolerance, allergens,
ated diseases, and metabolic disorders do not permit the use negative association of bovine milk fat with cardiovascular
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 11

Table 4. Challenges in production of milk analogs along with their specific reasons and innovations to overcome these challenges.
Potential
concerns Specific reasons Innovations in production process Supportive findings
Poor Stability Stability is affected by, size of Milling (colloid mill)  Pistachio kernel ground into a fine paste using a colloid mill
the particle (fat globules), which crushed all fibrous materials and facilitated easy release
formation of an emulsion, of reduced particle size of protein and fat components
undistracted starch granules (Shakerardekani, Karim, and Vaseli 2013)
and solubility of proteins Heating (pasteurization and  Higher extraction temperature increased extractability of fat,
sterilization) denaturation of proteins with reduced solubility and yield of the
proteins (Chauhan, Yadav, and Agrawal 2003)
 At a temperature of 143  C/60 s, single-step ultra-high
temperature process can produce a commercially sterile soy milk
with trypsin inhibitor activity inactivation, highly acceptable colour
and flavor, and thiamin retention between 90 and 93% (Kwok
et al. 2002)
Emulsifiers and novel food-based  lecithin, xanthan gum and propylene glycol alginate stabilized
stabilizers (Oleosins, food-based colloidal suspension of peanut beverage with improved
particles and microgels) physicochemical/rheological properties (Gama et al. 2019)
 Many studies on responsive-microgels have used synthetic
polymers such as poly N-isopropylacrlyamide (NIPAM) having
a well-known temperature response, particle bridging, depletion
flocculation and/or droplet coalescence,
Ultra high-pressure  UHPH (350 MPa and 85  C) treatment inactivated microorganisms
homogenization (UHPH) and enzymes with fragmentation of particles of dispersions into
Nano emulsion and resulted in stabilization of almond milk
(Briviba et al. 2016)
 Mildest conditions of UHPH (200 MPa with 55  C) reported no
bacterial growth after incubation of samples at 30  C during
20 day (Valencia-Flores et al. 2013)
 High pressure homogenization treated lupin-based beverage
(175 MPa and pass number 2, 4 and 6) had better flavor, texture,
colour, taste, and longer shelf life (Xia et al. 2019)
 Lentil based drink treated with high-pressure homogenization
(900 bar at 85  C) resulted in highly stable nano-emulsion with
great colloidal stability, appearance and viscosity similar to cow’s
milk (Jeske et al. 2019)
Ultrasonic homogenization High-  High shear homogenization at 2,000 g for 30 min followed by
Intensity ultrasound irradiation sonication with 13 mm sonication probe (20 kHz and input power
500 W) resulted in particles of sub-micron range with reduced
creaming index and free fat content of coconut milk (Abdullah
et al. 2018)
 High-intensity ultrasound irradiation (power 50–55 W cm2,
frequency, amplitude and pulse duration set as 20 kHz, 40 % and
on time 2 sec þ off time 2 sec, respectively) resulted in shear
thinning of the coconut milk exhibiting strong pseudoplasticity,
increased dynamic viscoelasticity with excellent liquid fluidity (Lu
et al. 2019).
 High-intensity ultrasound processing of chocolate milk beverage
(0.3–3.0 kJ/cm3), compared to HTST pasteurization (72  C/15 s)
resulted in superior microbiological and physicochemical
characteristics of the beverage (Monteiro et al. 2018)
Removal of Presence of unsaturated fatty Inactivation of enzymes  High pressure processing (207 and 276 MPa pressure, 121 and
off-flavor acids and lipoxygenases (lipoxygenases, aldehyde, 145  C exit temperatures, and 0.75 and 1.25 L/min flow rates)
dehydrogenase) by Rapid- inhibited lipoxygenase activity in soy milk (Sidhu and Singh 2016)
hydration grinding process, high  The activity of soybean lipoxygenase was reduced with inhibition
pressure processing, pulse of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus with PEF treatment
electric field, ohmic heating, having electric strength 40 kV/cm for 1,036 μs ( Li et al. 2013)
cold plasma.  Ohmic heating (220 V, 50 Hz for 3 min efficiently inactivates
trypsin inhibitor activity to 13% compared to 19% in induction
cooker and electric stove. (Lu et al. 2015).
 Microwave treatment of power 675W, target temperature 80  C
and stirring speed 160 RPM was optimized with desirability
(Varghese and Pare 2019)
 Cold plasma has been extensively studied for the inactivation of
various enzymes, including peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase,
lysozyme, a chymotrypsin, alkaline phosphatase, and pectin
methylesterase (Han et al. 2019)
Deodourization  A brominated polystyrene adsorbent (SEPABEADS SP207) and a
zeolite (HSZ-360HUD) adsorbent removed about 60–70% hexanal
from soy protein isolate (Inouye et al. 2002)
Masking of off-flavor by addition  Addition of artificial or natural flavorings (diacetyl, isoamyl
of artificial or natural flavorings acetate, benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, methyl anthranilate,
limonene, allyl hexanoate etc)
Modification of traditional  Blanching is required to inactivate trypsin inhibitors and
processing steps like steam lipoxygenase that would produce off-flavours in soy milk and
distillation, roasting, blanching peanut milk (Jain et al. 2013)
(continued)
12 A. A. PAUL ET AL.

Table 4. Continued.
Potential
concerns Specific reasons Innovations in production process Supportive findings
and soaking in  Roasting of the raw material enhances the aroma and flavor of
alkaline conditions the final product, but heating decreases the protein solubility and
extraction yield (Chauhan, Yadav, and Agrawal 2003)
 In lentil protein isolate ethanol and isopropanol treatments
(at 75% v/v) effectively removed off-flavours with increased
commercial viability (Chang et al. 2019).
Supercritical fluid extraction  Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) containing 5% ethanol in
was found most effective in removal of off-flavors from soybean
protein isolate (Maheshwari et al. 1995)
Solid-phase microextraction  The most common off-flavor compounds that cause musty, earthy
off-flavors (haloanisoles, halophenols, geosmin and
methylisoborneol) and medicinal off-flavors (phenolic compounds,
sulfur-containing compounds, carbonyl compounds, alcohols, fatty
acids, esters and amines which are removed by solid-phase
microextraction (Jelen 2006).
 Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME)/gas
chromatographic technique successfully employed for quantitative
analysis of thermally derived off-flavor compounds (Vazquez-
Landaverde et al. 2005)
Inactivation/ Trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, Physical treatments (boiling,  Microwave processing (2.45 GHz at 70  C, 85  C and 100  C for 2,
removal lectins, tannins, Protease soaking, sprouting, steam 5 and 8 min for 10, 20 and 30 min) reduced trypsin inhibitor
of inhibitors inhibitors, saponins etc injection, blanching, UHT activity to 1% compared to 10% in raw soybean (Vagadia
treatment, microwave treatment et al. 2018)
ultrafiltration, autoclaving etc)  Roasting in rotary drum dryer, saltbed roasting and conventional
grain dryer at temperatures varying between 110–170  C,
inactivates trypsin inhibitors at least by 85% (Vagadia et al. 2017)
 Thermal treatment in the oven at 200 C for 20 min, reduced
trypsin inhibitors activity in whole soybean flour (Andrade
et al. 2016)
 96% reduction in trypsin inhibitor activity was reported in
autoclaved soybeans at 121 C for 60 min (Osman et al. 2002)
 Soymilk processed by steam injection at 100 C for 20 min,
blanching at 70-85 C for 30 sec and UHT at 135  C–150  C for
10–50 sec reduced trypsin inhibitory levels of 13%, 50% and 10%
respectively (Yuan and Chang 2010)
b-Cyclodextrin-based methods  Use of b-cyclodextrin (bCD) to extract flavor precursors and flavor
compounds form different foods is an recent approach as it forms
complexes with organic compounds, including carbonyl
compounds (Reineccius et al. 2002), fatty acids (Alahverdjieva
et al. 2005), and phospholipids (Funasaki et al. 2002; Nishijo
et al. 2000).
Bioprocessing and biotechnology  Fermentation of soybean milk using using Lactobacillus bulgaricus
(fermentation, germination, and Streptococcus thermophilus reduced the beany and soapy
enzyme processing, flavor (Obadina et al. 2013)
selective breeding)  Enzymatic treatment with a-chymotrypsin and trypsin for 1–3 h
effectively reduced Ara h 1 and Ara h 2 in peanut by up to 100%
and 98% (Yu et al. 2011)
 Conventional breeding involves crossing of hypoallergenic
varieties to produce a variety that is more hypoallergenic. Perkins
et al. (2006) crossbred peanuts that were missing either an Ara h
2 or Ara h 3 isoform and produced a variety lacking
both isoforms
 Germination of 28 h affected three classes of bioactive
components responsible for off flavor development in soy milk,
namely, trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid and total phenolics, and
resulted in significant decrease in their concentration (Jiang
et al. 2013)
Shelf life High nutritional status Thermal treatment  Combination of a mild thermal treatment (55  C, 15 min) with the
improvement particularly sugars and presence citral and linalool (40 or 60 mL/L) inhibited or delayed
fatty acids microbial growth (wild Saccharomyces cerevisiae) probability
(spoilage probability (P ¼ 0.58 and P ¼ 0.93, respectively) and
resulted in more stability (Belletti et al. 2010)
Ultra high-pressure  UHPH-treated tiger nuts’ milk beverages (at 200 and 300 MPa,
homogenization with inlet temperature of 40  C) had a microbiological stability
against psychrotrophic bacteria, lactobacilli, enterobacteria and
molds during storage at 4  C with the shelf-life extended from
3 to 25, 30 and 57 days by applying UHPH treatment (Codina-
Torrella et al. 2018)
 Hemp milk (4% protein, 5% fat) without pH shift, at
homogenization pressure (up to 60 MPa) resulted in a more
uniform distribution of emulsion droplets (2.2–2.7 μm) which were
stable, showing negligible phase separation within 3-day storage
at 4  C (Wang et al. 2018)
(continued)
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 13

Table 4. Continued.
Potential
concerns Specific reasons Innovations in production process Supportive findings
 High pressure homogenization (172 MPa) of almond and hazelnut
milks combined with low heat treatments (85  C/30 min) resulted
in greatest stability of the beverages (Bernat et al. 2015)
 Homogenization pressure (210 MPa), protein concentration and
phase fraction resulted in modification of the secondary structures
of soy protein isolate in nanoemulsions (<200 nm) and enhanced
the stability of such system (Atalar 2019)
Pulsed electric field processing  PEF treatment of apple juice with 400 pulses allows storage of
juice for 72 h under refrigeration, while 300 pulses ensures
microbiological stability for 48 h with inhibition of all mesophilic
bacteria, microscopic fungi and yeasts (Dziadek et al. 2019)
 Microchip-pulsed electric field (350 V, 0.15 ms, 7 mL/min) resulted
in better microbiological, physicochemical properties, flavor and
shelf life of freshly squeezed blueberry juice for at least 30 days
at 4  C (Zhu et al. 2019).
 PEF (34 kV/cm, 60 μs) affected the microbiological and
physiological shelf life of smoothie stored at 4  C and extended it
over mildly pasteurized (72  C, 15 s) by 21 vs. 14 days (Walkling-
Ribeiro et al. 2010)
Ultrasound processing  Almond milk treated with ultrasound at 20 kHz (frequency) 130 W
acoustic energy (higher power: 80%, 8 min and pulse at 6 sec)
inhibited Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes
improved storability up to 2 weeks at 4  C (Iorio et al. 2019)
 Physical properties which affects the stability and shelf life (Brix,
physical stability, lightness, yellowness, viscosity and particle size)
of almond milk were improved by ultrasonic treatment for 4.9 min
up to 14 days at 5  C (Maghsoudlou et al. 2016).
 Ultra-sonication (US) treatment (400 W) of freshly extracted
peanut milk resulted in extended shelf life and retained quality
during storage (Salve et al. 2019)
 Ultra-sonication (20 KHz for 15 min.) resulted in better stability,
rheological and physicochemical properties of coconut milk with
improved emulsion stability index (Indu et al. 2019).
Hurdle technology  Tiger nut milk was subjected to hurdles like thermal treatment at
60  C for 30 min, HHP at 500 MPa for 120 s, and UV-C at 45.2 mJ
cm2 to achieve the target 5-log reduction in Salmonella
Typhimurium with improved stability (Zhu et al. 2019)
 Tiger nut drinks were prepared using three spices namely, ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc), galic (Allium sativa) and ehuru (Monodor
amyristica) followed by pasteurization at 72  C for 15 mins and
subsequent stored at room (28  C) and refrigerated temperature
(4  C) retained storability at least for a period of three weeks
(Joy and Rosline 2018)

diseases) with conventional milk or some lifestyle-related of well-being by healthy food choices (Jeske et al. 2018).
issues (High protein requirement, balanced amino acid pro- Such concerns have significantly resulted in increased con-
file, probiotic beverages) have resulted in, consumers more sumption of plant-based milk beverages due to associated
interested in vegan diets over normal mammalian milk. health claims e.g. high number of vitamins, fiber, and virtu-
Though the market for milk analogs is governed by specific ally free from cholesterol which alongside the negative per-
choices and influenced by various opinions developed over ceptions associated with bovine milk is pushing the market.
time yet the preference for milk analogs is not out of neces- The global nondairy plant milk-based market is projected
sity, but is out of search for cheaper and more efficient food to reach revenues of more than $38 billion by 2024 and is
sources. The consumption of plant-based nondairy beverages expected to grow at a current annual growth rate (CAGR)
have been reported in early civilizations all over the world of over 14% during 2018–2024 (Non-dairy milk market -
with limited availability to the local market, preparation at a global outlook and forecast 2019–2024). Among various
traditional gathering or home scale (Jeske et al. 2018). The forms of milk analogs available, soya milk is still the most
presence of plant-based milk beverages is highly diverse preferable choice with dominance in the market and a global
around the globe including some famous formulations like market size of USD 7.30 billion which is still predicted to
rice-based beverages (Asia); Sikhye (Korea); Amazake increase further in years to come (Global market insights
(Japan); Atole (Mexico); Chicha (Andes); Bushera (Uganda); 2019). In a research report published by Mordor intelligence
Boza (Bulgaria); Albania (Turkey and Romania); tiger-nut (2019) the global rice milk market is expected to register a
milk Horchata (Spain) etc. (Cortes et al. 2005; Blandino CAGR of above 15%, during the forecast period between
et al. 2003). With continuous efforts of the research person- 2018 and 2023. While, grand view research, Inc. (2019)
als and industrial experts to put these plant proteins under recorded global almond milk market size worth USD 5.2 bil-
direct food use the concepts of nutritional needs are trans- lion in 2018 with a projected growth of USD 13.3 billion by
formed from survival and hunger satisfaction to overall state 2025 at an expected annual growth rate of 14.3%. Further,
14 A. A. PAUL ET AL.

hemp milk is another delight significantly growing in milk commercialization of these products. However, simple proc-
analog category with about 50 countries across the globe essing methods like cleaning, roasting, soaking, sprouting,
producing and exporting significant volumes of hemp milk. germination, fermentation various thermal and non-thermal
In a recent report published by Zion market research (2019) treatments have been standardized in order to reduce anti-
global hemp milk market was valued at USD 185 million in nutritional factors. For improvement of sensory profile forti-
2018 with an expected revenue generation of USD 527 mil- fication using appropriate technology, different additives,
lion by 2026, at a CAGR of around 15.5% between 2019 and stabilizers or emulsifiers are added and to improve the sus-
2026. Whereas, coconut milk represents another important pension, microbial stability and shelf-life, they are pasteur-
sector of milk analogs with the global market expected to ized or given ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment. The
grow at CAGR of 14.61% and reach USD 2,350.8 million till nondairy industry holds a great potential especially due to
2023. The liquid coconut milk is expected to reach a worth complications faced by the dairy industry such as lactose-
of USD 1,550.5 million while, powdered coconut milk seg- intolerance, milk allergy in infants, presence of pathogens
ment is expected to witness the fastest CAGR of 14.78% and lack of some essential nutrients. However, conclusive
owing to its increased shelf-life by the end of 2023 (Market research trials should be conducted on the direct involve-
research future 2019). These figures provide an insight of ment of various bioactive phytochemicals in management or
the commercial market potential of nondairy based milk improvement of various health-related issues and the role of
beverages which has attracted a lot of attention of some different plants for the development of novel products which
commercial multinational players to invest in this sector. are economic and nutritionally equivalent to bovine milk.
Some of the major market competitors in the soy milk Also, to meet consumer’s acceptability with a continuously
industry are Eden Foods, Pureharvest, Vitasoy international changing behavior towards novel food products, progressive
holdings Ltd., Organic valley, Pacific foods of oregon, Inc., efforts towards improvement in the product quality through
etc. Rice milk market is dominated by Vitasoy Australia research and development activities and technological inter-
products Pvt Ltd, Campbell soup company, The Hain celes- ventions is indeed expected from the scientific community.
tial group, Pureharvest, Panos brands, LLC), White wave Conclusively, it seems that plant-based milk alternatives will
foods. Major world producers of almond milk include Daiya continue to be a major research area in the newer product
foods Inc., Hain celestial group, Whitewave foods; sunopta development category of food science and technology.
Inc., Blue diamond growers; Galaxy nutritional foods, Inc.
Some key players operating in the global hemp milk market
are Healthy brands collective, Drink daily greens, Pacific References
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