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CHAPTER 1. fundamentals of steel

structures
Theory Questions :
Q.1) State the advantages & disadvantages of steel as construction material. [S-13, 15, 17 W-
10,12,13]
Ans:- Advantages :-

1. Steel members have high strength per unit weight.

2. Steel has many good mechanical properties like ductility, malleability, strength.

3. Steel structure has long life.

4. Properties of steel mostly not changes with respect to time.

5. Steel can be reused & recycled.

6. Variation in steel properties is less as it is manufactured under strict supervision.

7. Time required for steel construction is less.

Disadvantages :-

1. Steel is a very costly material.

2. Steel structure are subjected to corrosion hence required frequent painting.

3. It requires skill labour for erection.

4. Steel requires fire proof treatment.

5. Long steel members are subjected to buckling.

Q.2) Enlist different I.S. code used. [S-10]

Ans:- 1. For Steel:

(A) Structural Steel as per

IS: 226, IS: 2062, IS: 3502, IS: 1977, IS:961, IS:8500

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(B) Steel for reinforced concrete

IS: 432, IS:1139, IS:1786, IS:2090

(C) Steel for bars, rivets etc.

IS: 1148, 1149, 1570, 2073, 7383, 4431, 4432 and 5517

(D) Steel for tubes and pipes

IS : 1239, 1914, 1978

2. For Code of Practice for Design of Steel Structures:

IS : 800 – 2007

3. For size of weld and stresses in weld:

IS : 816 – 1969

4. For code of practice for design loads:

IS: 875-1987

Part 1 :Dead loads – Unit weights of building materials and stored materials

Part 2 : Imposed loads

Part 3: Wind loads

Part 4: Snow loads

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Part 5 : Special loads and load combinations

Q.3) Write the function of steel towers, roof trusses, steel bridges, crane girders. [W-15]

Ans:-

A) Steel towers:-

Steel towers are used to support transmission lines, radio & television antennas, tanks, bridges etc.

B) Roof trusses:-

Roof trusses provides supports for the roof coverings.

C) Steel bridges:-

Bridges are built for transportation of highway or railway traffic across natural or artificial

obstacles like rivers, railways etc.

D) Crane girders:-

Crane girders are used in workshop & factories to lift & move the heavy materials & machinery

from one place to the other over entire floor area of the building.

Q.4) Enlist the component & corresponding function for gantry girders & steel water tank. [W-16]

Ans:-

A) Gantry girders:-

The function of gantry girder is to lift & move the heavy materials & machinery from one place to

other.

Components:-

 Crane wheel:- It can move in longitudinal direction.

 Crane girder:- Crane girders are used in workshop & factories to lift & move the heavy

materials & machinery from one place to the other over entire floor area of the building.

 Crab:- load can be lifted & shifted across the shop.

 Rail:- Rail is mounted on girder.

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B) Steel Water tank:-

The function of water tank is to contain material.

Components:-

 Roll steel section stays:- at the junction of plate.

 Mild steel cleats:- supported by columns.

 Steel beams:- support to tank & to distribute load.

 Top tier:- supported to bottom tier.

Q.5) What are the types of loads to be considered while designing the steel structure? [S-15, 16,17 W-
10,16]
Ans:-

A) Dead load:- IS 875 ( part 1) - 1987

 Self-weight of the structural members is considered as dead load.

 Dead loads are loads which are constant in magnitude & fixed in position.

B) Live load:- IS 875 ( part 2) - 1987

 Live loads are loads which vary in magnitude & position.

 Live load includes any external load imposed upon the structure when it is serving its

normal purpose.

C) Wind load:- IS 875 ( part 3) - 1987

 Wind exerts pressure on the structure.

 Hence wind load is considered while designing the structure.

 It depend upon the geographical location & height of structure.

D) Snow load:- IS 875 ( part 4) - 1987

 In the region of snow fall snow load is taken into consideration.

 Snow load depend upon shape of roof & its capacity to retain snow.

E) Seismic load:- IS 1893-2002 ( part 1)

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 Seismic load is load on the structure due to earthquakes

Q.6) Define limit state & state its different types. [S-15,16,17 W-16]

Ans:-

Limit state:- The acceptable limit for the safety & serviceability requirements before failure occurs is called
limit state.

A) Limit state of strength:-

It is associated with failure under the action of probable & most unfavourable combination of loads on
the structure using appropriate partial safety factors which may endanger the safety of life & property.
It includes:
 Plastic collapse.
 Stability against sway, overturning, sliding
 Fatigue
B) Limit state of serviceability:-
It is reated to the satisfactory performance of the structure at working load. Four major types of
serviceability limit states are
 Deflection
 Durability
 Vibration
 Fire resistance

Q.7) Define partial safety factors for material strength & load. [W-15]

Ans:-

A) Partial safety factor for material strength:-

The partial safety factors for material strength allows for uncertainty of element behaviour and probability of
strength reduction due to fabrication and tolerances, variation of member sizes, uncertainty in calculation of
strength and imperfection in materials.

Sr. No. Definition Partial Safety factor

(i) Resistance governed by yielding, γmo 1.1
(ii) Resistance of member to buckling, γmo 1.1
(iii) Resistance governed by ultimate stress, γm1 1.25
(iv) Resistance of connections Shop fabrication Field fabrication
(a) Bolts friction type γmf 1.25 1.25

(b) Bolts bearing type γmb 1.25 1.25

(c) Rivets γmr 1.25 1.25

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(d) Welds γmw 1.25 1.25

B) Partial safety factor for loads:-

The partial safety factor for loads allows for possible deviation of loads, reduced possibility of all loads acting
together, inaccurate assessment of load, and uncertainty in assessment of effects of loads.

Q.8) State the objectives & factors to consider by designer in designing steel structures. [W-14,]

Ans:-

A) Objectives:-
 Safety
 Serviceability
 Durability
 Economy
 Aesthetics
B) Factors:-
 Stability
 Strength
 Brittle facture
 Fire
 Durability

CHAPTER 2. design of steel connections

Theory Questions :
Q.1) What are the different types of bolts? Why drilled holes are preferred over punched holes? [W-
15,16]

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Ans:-

Black Bolt :-

 Black bolts are made from mild steel rods with a square or hexagonal head and nuts as shown in Fig.

 Black bolts are ordinary, rough unfinished and commonly used bolts.

 They are least expensive bolts.

 They are mainly used for light structures and are not recommended for connections subjected to impact,
fatigue or dynamic loads.

High Strength Bolts:

 High strength bolts are made from the medium carbon steel.

 The bolts of property class 8.8 and 10.9 are commonly used in steel construction.

 They are identified by class identification symbol 8.8S, 10.9S etc. which is embossed on the head of these
bolts.

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 The suffix ‘S’ denotes a high strength bolts with a hexagon head.

 The bolts with induced initial tension are called High Strength Bolts.

 In high strength bolt initial pretension in bolts develops clamping force at the interfaces of elements being
joined.

 High Strength Grip (HSFG) bolts are commonly used in practice.

 It is used when loads are transferred by friction only.

 They are used when slip in limit state of serviceability is to be avoided.

Drilled holes are preferred over punched holes because punching of holes reduces ductility & toughness & it
may lead to brittle failure.

Q.2) In steel construction why bolts of grade 4.6 is used? What do you mean by grade 4.6? [W-15]

Ans:- Grade 4.6 used because of reason:-

 This create very tightly fitting bolt.

 Slip is negligible.
 Higher stresses can be used.
 Limited corrosion.

Meaning of 4.6 grade:-

 The first digit relates to the ultimate strength of the material.

 Second digit relates to the ratio of yield stress to ultimate strength.
 Grade 4.6 have ultimate strength of 400 N/ mm2 & yield stress of 240 N/ mm2

Q.3) State the different types of bolted joints & types of failure in case of bolted joints. [S-15]

Ans:-

Types of bolted joints:-

A) Lap joint:-
 When one member is placed over the other & both the members are connected by means of
bolts the joint is known as the lap joint.

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 The lap joint have single row chain bolting or staggered bolting as shown in fig.
 i) Single line bolting.
ii) Double line bolting.

B) Butt joint:-
 In butt joints the plates to be connected shall butt against each other & connected by providing
a cover plate on one side or on both sides of the joint.
 If cover plate is placed on one side it is known as single cover butt joint & when cover plates
are provided on both sides it is called as double cover butt joint.
 i) Single cover butt joint.
ii) Double cover butt joint.
A) Shear failure mode:

 Plates bolted together and subjected to tensile load may result in the shearing of bolts.

 In case of lap joint when the shearing of bolt occurs at one cross – section, the same is referred to as single
shear failure Fig.

 If it occurs at two cross – sections, as in the case of but joint with two cover plates, it is called as double
shear failure.

 When the strength of the plate is less than the shearing strength of bolt, the tearing failure of plate may
occur. To avoid this type of failure minimum edge distance shall be provided.

Failure of bolted joints:- [S-17]

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B) Tension failure:

 The bolt subjected to tensile force fails if factored tensile force is greater than the tensile capacity of the
bolt.

 The tensile capacity depends upon tensile strength of the bolt and minimum cross – sectional area of the
threaded length of the bolt

C) Bearing failure:

 Normally the bolt material is of much higher strength than that of steel plate through which the bolts passes.

 As a result bearing failure takes place in the plate material.

 The bolt may deform due to high local bearing stresses between the bolt and the plate Fig.

Q.4) State advantages & disadvantages of welded joints over bolted joints. [S-15, 16,17 W-10]

Ans:-

ADVANTAGES OF WELDED CONNECTIONS:-

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1. As no holes are required for welding, the gross-sectional area of member is effective,

hence more effective in taking loads.

2. Welded joints provide rigidity and strength.

3. Welded structures are comparatively lighter than same type of bolted structures.

4. A welded joint has a better finish and appearance.

5. No noise is produced in the welding process as in case of bolting process.

6. Welded joints are often economical as less labour and material are required for a joint.

DISADVANTAGES OF WELDED CONNECTIONS:-

1. Skilled labour and electricity are required for welding.

2. Internal stresses and warping are produced due to uneven heating and cooling.

3. Inaccuracies are caused by the deposition of weld metal in excess.

4. It is difficult to inspect a welded joint as compared to inspect a riveted joint.

5. Welded joints are more brittle and therefore their fatigue strength is less than the bolted
joints

Q.5) Draw the sketch of fillet weld & state following properties with IS code provisions.

1) Size of weld, 2) Throat thickness, 3) Minimum length of weld [S-15, 16, W-10]

Ans:-

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 Size of weld– The size of normal fillet weld is taken equal to its minimum leg length.

 Throat thickness of fillet weld (t) – It is perpendicular distance from the root of fillet

weld to line joining its toes.

t = k x size of weld (s)

k = 0.7 for right angle fillet weld

t = 0.7 x s

 Minimum length of weld – Effective length of fillet weld is taken equal to its actual

length minus twice the weld size. The effective length of fillet weld should not be less

than four times the size of weld

CHAPTER 3. analysis & design of singly

reinforced rectangular sections

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Theory Questions :
Q.1) Define R.C.C. [W-09]

Ans:-

1. Reinforced Cement Concrete ( R.C.C ) is a composite material made of concrete and steel.
2. Plain cement concrete high compressive strength but of steel reinforcement.
3. Thus, the concrete is strengthened ( i.e. reinforced ) by steel and the resultant composite mass is known
as Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C)

Q.2) State the functions of reinforcement.

Ans:- Functions Of Reinforcement

1. To Carry direct or bending tension : In case of slabs, beams ad walls of water tanks, reinforcement
is mainly provided to carry direct or bending tensile stresses and hence, It is called main steel. It is
provided on tension face of the member and away from the neutral axis.
2. To strengthen the concrete to resist compression : In case of columns the steel is provided to resist
the direct compressive stresses as well as bending stresses if any. The steel provided for this purpose is
know as main or longitudinal steel.
3. To resist diagonal tension due to shear : In case of beams stirrups are provided to resist the diagonal
tension due to shear and to hold the main steel in position.
4. To prevent buckling of main bus in columns : The steel is provided in the form of rectangular,
circular lateral ties or spirals to prevent buckling of main bars in columns.
5. To resist spiral cracking due to torsion : The box type mesh of reinforcement is provided to resists
torsion

Q.3) Advantage of reinforced concrete.

Ans:-

Advantages Of Reinforced concrete

1 The constituents of R.C.C are easily available.
2 Concrete can be easily moulded to any desired shape.
3 It is possible to make the concrete of desired strength by proper proportioning of mixture.
4 It can be made water tight.
5 It is durable.
6 It is fire resisting.
7 Its maintenance cost is practically nil.

Q.4) Definition of Limit State & state the type of limit states. [S-15,16 W-15,16]

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Ans:-

 Limit state may be defined as “ the acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability of the structure
before failure occurs.”
 The two limit states are as follows:
1 Limit state of collapse.
2 Limit state of Serviceability.

1. Limit State of Collapse

 The limit state of collapse is reached when the structure as a whole or part of the structure collapses.
 Collapse may occur due to the rupture of one or more members or on accounts of formation of
mechanism or due to elastic or inelastic stability of from loss of equilibrium etc.
 The limit state corresponds to :
a) Flexure, b) Shear and c) torsion.

2. Limit State of Serviceability ( W-10, S-11 )

 The limit state of serviceability is related to the satisfactory performance of the structure at working
loads.
 This limit state of serviceability is mainly categorized into two types :
a) Deflection , b) Cracking
 Excessive deflection poses number of problems to the structure and hence it should be ensured that the
actual deflection is less the maximum allowable deflection.
 Excessive cracking spoils the appearance of exposed surfaces, creates leakage problems reduces
stiffness of members etc.

Q.5) Define Characteristic Strength & Characteristic loads [S-15,16]

Ans:-

 Characteristic Strength:- Characteristic strength of a material is the value of material below which not
more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.

 Characteristic loads:- Characteristic loads means those loads which have 95% probability of not being
exceeded during the life time of the structure.

Q.6) Define Partial safety factor & state its value for steel & concrete. [S-15,14]

Ans:-

Partial Safety Factor:-

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 The concept of limit states acknowledges that there can be variations in both loads and material
strength.
 Thus, the safety of the structure depends on each of the two principal design factors load and material
strength.
 Hence, two different safety factors one for load and the other for material strength are used. Because
each of the two safety factors contribute partially to safety, they are known as partial safety factors.

1. Partial safety factor for Material strength:- ( S-16,13 W- 10,11,16 )

 The partial safety factor for material strength is introduced to account for constructional faults, bad
workmanship and supervision, interior material etc.
 Partial safety factors for Material strength (γ m)

Material Limit state of

Collapse Serviceability
Concrete 1.5 1.0
Steel 1.15 1.0

2. Partial Safety factor for Loads:-

 Partial Safety factor for loads (γ f )is a load factor which when multiplied by characteristic load gives
the design load.
 Partial safety factor for loads taken, info account the variations in loads due to unforeseen increase in
loads, constructional inaccuracies, different loading .combinations, secondary effects and type of
limit state.

Q.7) State four assumption made in the theory of singly reinforced section. [W-15, 16 S-15, 16]

Ans:- Design for the limit state of collapse in flexure shall be based on the assumptions given below:

a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.

b) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fiber is taken as 0.0035 in bending.
c) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
d) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from representative stress – strain curve for the type
of steel used.
e) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be less than :
fy
+ 0.002
1.15 Es

Where, fy = Characteristic strength of steel , and

Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel.

Q.8) Explain the terms balanced, over reinforced & under reinforced in bending. Draw related diagram
[W-15, 16 S-15]

Why over reinforced sections are disallowed [S-13,16 W-12,15]

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Ans:-

1. Balanced sections :-
 When the ratio of steel in concrete is such that maximum strain in steel are maximum strain in steel &
maximum strain in concrete reach their maximum value simultaneously, the section is referred to as
balanced section or critical section.
 For balanced section
Pt = Pt,lim
Xu = Xu,max
2. Over reinforced sections :-
 If percentage of steel provided in section is more than balanced section. Then section is known
as over reinforced section.
 In such types of section compressive stress in concrete reaches its maximum permissible value
while steel is not fully stressed to maximum permissible value.
 Therefore beam will initially fail due to overstressing in concrete.
 Over reinforced section does not give us any prior warning before failure & they suddenly fails
due to crushing of concrete.
 Hence over reinforced sections are disallowed in LSM.
 For over reinforced section
Pt ¿ Pt,lim
Xu ˃Xu,max

3. Under reinforced sections :-

 If percentage of steel provided in section is less than balanced section. Then section is known
as under reinforced section.
 The under reinforced sections are prefferd because their failure take place by yielding of steel.
 This is a gradual type of failure & it is followed by widening of cracks & significant increase
in deflection.
 Hence necessary precaution can be taken before collapse takes place.
 For over reinforced section
Pt ˂ Pt,lim

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Xu ˂ Xu,max

Q.9) Compare under reinforced section with over reinforced section with respect to following point -
ultimate strain in steel, position of N.A , moment of resistance and nature of failure. ( S-12 )

Sr. Points Under-reinforced section Over-reinforced section

No.
1. Ultimate strain in steel fy fy
ε su = + 0.002 ε su < +0.002
1.15 E s 1.15 Es
2. Position of N.A ¿ ¿) X u < X u ,max X u > X u ,max
3. Moment of Resistance M u=0.87 f y A st (d−0.42 X u ) M u=0.36 f ck b
( M u) ¿ X u , max ¿
¿ M u ,lims
4. Nature of failure Gives warning before failure Failure is sudden. No Warning before
failure

Q.10) State minimum reinforcement for beam, slab, shear & column. ( S-10 )

Ans.

Minimum reinforcement :
1. Beam : A 0.85 bd
s=
fy

2. Slab : Mild steel = 0.15 % of Ag

Fe 415 and Fe 500 = 0.12% of Ag
Where, Ag – Cross – sectional area of concerts.

Asv 0.4
3. Shear : ≥
b . Sv 0.87 fy

0.4
Assuming equality , Asv=¿ b Sv
0.87 fy

4. Column : 0.8 % of Ag.

Maximum Reinforcement :

1. Beams and slabs :

Tension ≯ 0.04 bD
Compression ≯ 0.04 bD
2. Column : ≯6% Ag

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Q.11) Define nominal cover & state the purposes of providing cover. [S-11]

Ans:-

 Nominal cover is defined as the distance measured from the concrete surface ( without taking into
account the plaster or other decorative finishes ) to the nearest surface of the reinforcing bar .

 Purposes of providing cover

1 Prevent corrosion of steel by carbonation
2 Prevent penetration of moisture and air from the surface
3 Give the reinforcing bar the necessary embedment to be stressed without slipping

Q.12) Draw stress strain diagram for singly reinforced section in LSM State meaning of each term shown
in diagram. [S-10 W-16]

Ans:-

Q.13) Draw stress strain diagram for for mild steel & concrete. [W-11]

Ans:-

Stress strain diagram concrete.

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Stress strain diagram mild steel

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CHAPTER 4. Design of shear reinforcement

& bond
Theory Questions :
Q.1) State I.S. specification for minimum shear reinforcement in beam. [S-09,16 W-15,16 ]

Ans:-

Minimum Shear Reinforcement

 Minimum shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups shall be provided such that:
0.4 b S v
A sv ≥
0.87 fy

Where, A sv = Total cross- sectional area of stirrup legs effective in shear.

Sv = Stirrup spacing along the length of the member.

b = Breadth of the beam or breadth of the web of flanged beam and

characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement in N/mm 2.

fy = Which shall not be taken greater than 415 N/mm 2 , ( that is, even for Fe 500, fy

in above relation shall be taken as 415 N/mm 2

Q.2) What is nominal shear stress? [S-16]

Ans:-

Nominal Shear Stress ( τ v )

The nominal shear stress τ v in beams of uniform depth shall be obtained by the following equation:

Vu
τ v=
bd

Where , V u = Shear force due to design loads

b = Breadth of the member ( shall be taken as the breadth of the web, ‘ ‘ in case of flanged

beams ).

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d = Effective depth

Q.3) State the various forms of shear reinforcement in beams. [ S-10,15]

Ans:-

Various Forms Of Shear Reinforcement

When τ v exceeds τ c given in table shear reinforcement shall be provided in any of the following forms:

a. Vertical stirrups,
b. Bent – up bars along with stirrups , and
c. Inclined stirrups

Q.4) State the reasons for providing minimum shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups. [S-12]

Ans:-

i. To prevent sudden shear failure with the formation of inclined cracking and impart invaluable
ductility to give the warning of failure.
ii. To prevent premature failure if the concrete cover bursts away and the bond to the main reinforcement
is lost.
iii. To keep the beam reinforcement in position while concreting so as to maintain the cover and spacing.
iv. To prevent longitudinal reinforcement from pressing down.
v. To confine the concrete and increase its strength.

Q.5) Why the contribution of bend up bar is restricted to 50% in shear resistance? [S-12]

Ans:-

The contribution of bend up bar is restricted to 50% in shear resistance is because of following reasons:-

1. Bent up bars tends to cause longitudinal cracking or crushing of concrete at bend points, as bars tries to
straighten due to tension.
2. They are unable to prevent pressing down of longitudinal reinforcement & consequent spitting of
concrete.
3. They fail to confine the concrete.
4. |bent up bars alone are not effective in preventing shear failure.

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Q.6) Define development length & state factors affecting development length. [S-14,15]

Ans:-

Development length:-

Development length is the length required to develop the stress in the bar from zero to max by transfer of stress
from concrete to steel.

Factors affecting development length:-

1. Grade of steel.
2. Grade of concrete.
3. Diameter of bar.
4. Design of bond stress.

Q.7) Define bond & state its types. [S-14,15]

Ans:-

Bond.

 In the other words, it is longitudinal shear stress acting on the surface between steel and concrete.
 Bond is due to the combined effect of adhesion , friction and bearing . The adhesion between concrete
and steel is provided by concrete during setting.
 The bond due to friction is provided by gripping of bars due to shrinkage.
 The friction gives considerable bond resistance. With increasing force in the bar, the adhesion is lost
first, then the friction between concrete and steel.

Types Of Bond

Bond stresses in reinforced concrete members are induced due to the following three distinct situations:

a. For transferring the force from the bar to the surrounding concrete before it is terminated. The bond
required to be developed is called Anchorage Bond.
b. The change in the bars force along its length is due to variation in bending moment in this length . The
bond force developed is called Flexural Bond. In fact Flexural bond is one type of development bond.
c. For transferring the force to the bar from surrounding concrete, the bond required to be developed is
called development Bond. The dowel bars used in footing is an example of Development bond.

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CHAPTER 5. Design of slab

Theory Questions :
Q.1) Draw detail diagram showing reinforcement details in case of cantilever slab. [W-16 ]

Ans:-

Q.2) Draw detail diagram showing reinforcement details in case of two way slab. [W-13]

Ans:-

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Q.3) Draw detail diagram showing reinforcement details in case of dog legged staircase. [W-16 S-
13,14]
Ans:-

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CHAPTER 6. Design of axially loaded short

columns & footing
Theory Questions :
Q.1) State design Formula For Short Axially Loaded Columns [S-12]

Ans:-

Pu=0.4 f ck . Ac +0.67 f y . A sc

Where, Pu = Axial factored load,

Ac = Area of concrete excluding steel,

A sc = Area of longitudinal reinforcement for columns,

f ck = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete, and

f y = Characteristic strength of compression reinforcement.

In above formula, Ac and A sc are expressed in terms of gross area A g .

For example, if 1% of steel is used, then

A sc= 0.01 A g

And Ac = A g −0.01 A g=0.99 A g .

Q.2) State I.S. specification for longitudinal reinforcement, cover & eccentricity in axially loaded column.
[S-12 W-16]
Ans:-

a. Longitudinal or Main Steel ( S- 12 )

1. Minimum percentage of steel = 0.8% of A g
2. Maximum percentage of steel = 6% of A g
3. Minimum diameter of bar = 12 mm.
4. Minimum number of bars
Rectangular column = 4
Circular column = 6

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5. Maximum spacing of bars = 300 mm , measured along the periphery of column.

b. Cover
1. Minimum cover = 40 mm

c. Eccentricity
Lo D
1. Emin = = but should not be more than 20 mm
500 30
Lo = unsupported length.
D = lateral dimension.

Q.3) State I.S. specification for pitch & diameter of lateral ties in axially loaded column. [S-12 W-16]

Ans:-

1. The spacing of the links should not exceed the least of the following :
a) The least lateral dimension of column.
b) Sixteen times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar.
c) 300 mm.
2. Diameter of the links should be at least one fourth of the longitudinal steel.
In any case ink should not be less than 6 mm in diameter.

Q.4) State necessity of lateral ties. [S-15]

Ans:-

Necessity of lateral ties:-

1. To prevent buckling of longitudinal reinforcement.

2. To confine to concrete.
3. To hold longitudinal reinforcement in position.
4. To prevent longitudinal splitting of concrete.
5. To resist diagonal tension due to transverse shear.

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