Mesopotamia

•  Ancient city of Babylonia

•  Ziggurats
•  Hanging gardens of Babylonia
City Planning
•  The Sumerians were the first society to construct
the city itself as a built form.
•  Growth of the city was partly planned and partly
organic
•  High city walls, high temple district, main canal
with harbor, and main street.
•  Finer structure of residential and commercial
spaces is the reaction of economic forces to the
spatial limits imposed by the planned areas
resulting in an irregular design with regular
features.
•  City divided into residential, mixed use,
commercial, and civic spaces.
•  Temple at the city centre, always sited slightly off
of the geographical center. This high temple
usually predated the founding of the city and was
the nucleus around which the urban form grew.
•  Districts adjacent to gates had a special religious
and economic function.
•  The city always included a belt of irrigated
agricultural land.
•  A network of roads and canals connected the city
to this land. The transportation network was
organized in three tiers: wide processional
streets , public through streets, and private blind
alleys.
•  The public streets that defined a block varied little
over time while the blind-alleys were much more
fluid. The current estimate is 10% of the city area
was streets and 90% buildings. The canals;
however, were more important than roads for
transportation.
Ancient City of Babylonia
Ancient City of Babylonia
Zigguruat at Ur, Babylonia
Zigguruat at Ur, Babylonia
Choga Zanbil Zigguruat
Choga Zanbil Zigguruat
Hanging gardens of Babylyon
Building Materials in Mesopotamia Climate, where temperature fluctuations are extreme, mud bricks were
In southern Mesopotamia, stone and wood for construction were used as an excellent isolating material. To increase, the isolation,
scarce. When necessary, wood was imported from the mountains in the particularly thick walls were built.
north and east, and from Lebanon, which was known for its cedar forests. The brick size and shape changed from one period to another.
Instead of wood, the Mesopotamians used bundles of reeds that grew in Each period has its own characteristic bricks. The earliest bricks were
the rivers, and instead of stone, they used sun-dried mud or burned long and narrow. Since the fourth millennium BCE to the third
bricks, which they molded of silt, which was abundant due to the frequent millennium BCE, they were of a uniform rectangular shape – their
floods. length was twice their breadth. During the early dynasties, they had a
The most durable mud bricks were those burned in furnaces but curved shape and thus the walls had uneven surface. During the
due to lack of wood as burning material usually sun-dried bricks were Akkadian period, quadratic bricks were used. Changes in the design
used. The latter were not long-lasting as the burned, especially when they of bricks from one period to another help researchers to date
were exposed to rain floods. The best time to produce sun-dried brick was buildings.
in the summer when the temperature reaches 55 degrees Celsius in the A building built with sun-dried bricks without a strong roof and external
shade, which is why the first month of the summer was called "bricks' plaster walls would gradually turn into a mound called "tell". The more
month". durable buildings had to be repeatedly fixed after the winter rains.
The Mud bricks were formed in wooden templates of various sizes When too many improvements were required, the building would be
and shapes. Afterwards, the templates were removed and the bricks were destroyed and a new one would be built on the top of its ruins. This
left exposed to the heat of the sun, or transferred to an furnace. process of rebuilding repeated for centuries, and created tells which
Excavations in Uruk at the site of the temple of Inanna exposed kilns were scattered over the plain. Such tells became a distinctive feature
which were used for burning mud, with no residential buildings between of the Mesopotamian landscape
them. The archaeologists who discovered it called this area "industrial
area". Tells were created also as a result of the abandonment of the
Mud was often mixed with straw to improve the durability of the bricks. city by its inhabitants following wars, floods and disease. The
The advantage of bricks over other building materials was their being remaining buildings were demolished and turned into tells. On the
cheap and affordable. Another advantage was the ease of their ruins of the destroyed city, a new city was founded and the city's level
production, which allowed each family to build the house on her own rose.
without the help of professional builders. The latter dealt with the Due to the lack of flammable materials in southern
construction of public buildings. Mesopotamia, only the most important buildings were built of bricks
Mud usually served as mortar, both for mud bricks dried in the sun and burnt in furnaces. In Babylon burnt bricks were connected to each
bricks burned in a kiln. In order to protect the outer walls from weather other by bitumen cement and lime, and were used on an
damages they were covered with burnt bricks coated with plaster and unprecedented scale. These Babylonian bricks were of high quality.
bitumen, ("pitch" in the Bible) which is actually old asphalt. This is an oil- They were large, and an official seal intended for public monuments
like material, waterproof, located along the rivers of Babylon in Iraq, where was embedded in each of them.
it is leaking to the surface and creates a sticky black layer. Presence of Except for the city of Eridu, where limestone was quarried locally,
this material on the surface is closely related to oil being in the Sumerian cities were all built of mud-bricks. Using this perishable
subsurface. material for building led to the surviving of very few works of
As a waterproof material, bitumen was mainly used to pave the way for architecture in Mesopotamia except for the foundations. Therefore,
running water. Sometimes bitumen was used in a construction phase, our knowledge of this architecture is based on fragments of the
when mixed with clay to create cement to glue the bricks to one another. remains.
 Construction of doors and passages for houses in Mesopotamia set a
In Mesopotamia stone was rarely used. When the stone had to be challenge to the builders. They solved it by using the post and lintel
brought from far away in most cases it was the volcanic rock basalt. method. Two vertical columns supported a horizontal beam. The largest
Limestone and Alabaster were found in Assyria and were used in opening's length was just as long as the longest beam available,
sculpture building and as secondary building materials for temples and practically meaning the tallest tree trunk, or the largest stone slab
palaces. Alabaster stone which was used in Assyria is known today as quarried. However, too hard pressure on the beam might cause it to
Mosul marble. It was easy to obtain it in local quarries and large blocks. crack or collapse. Apart from the large openings there were also small
However, there was no substitute for mud-brick as the main building ones in the upper parts of the walls, which were designed to create
material in Assyria and Babylon. ventilation in the buildings. Such vents have been found in houses from
Less common building material was imported wood. Royal writings as early as the Ubaid period and maybe even sooner.
testify that the wooden walls were brought from Lebanon or Elam. Cedar In order to enable construction of very large openings and spaces,
tree was the most expensive. arches and vaults of various types were built. Two types of arches were
Ceramics, whose invention is ascribed to the Babylonians during developed: corbel arch (formed of rows of horizontal stones one on the
the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II, also served for architectural design. The top of the other, leaving an open arch), and a standard arch (stones
most prominent example is Ishtar Gate arranged in a radiant shape with a keystone, so that their mutual
Ground plans of temples, as well as programs of other public buildings, pressure makes them support one another). As early as the fourth
were conducted according to the king's initiative. The king gained fame andmillennium BCE corbel arches were built by the Sumerians.
glory as the builder who planned and financed the monuments, while the Building vaults enabled roofing a large area without the need for
architects remained anonymous. Local legend has it that God Ningirsu, the interim supports to alleviate the weight of the ceiling, because the walls
patron deity of Lagash, appeared in the dream of Prince Gudea and have provided support from the sides. Massive vaults and arches were
passed him the temple's program. built in palaces, probably in coronation rooms, to judge by the thick
Perhaps in order to plan the temple, a model was first built in a small enough walls to support the vaults. The Greek geographer Strabo (63
scale. This is probably indicated by the miniature bricks, which were found BCE - 23 CE) wrote that all the houses in Babylon had vaults. In the old
in one of the ancient temples. city of Nippur there were arches with keystone built of burnt bricks. The
The limitations of building materials in Mesopotamia influenced the roofs were usually flat and separated from the vaults by a layer of mud
construction plan. Sun-dried bricks require thick walls and small openings bricks. To support those heavy vaults it took particularly thick walls.
to ensure durability. As a result, narrow rooms were built or halls with many Mud brick walls were usually built, without first laying foundations.
supporting columns. A system of canals drilled into the walls ensured full This construction method was dangerous because the walls were prone
drying of the heart of thick walls built of semi-dried bricks. Such channels to collapse. There were structures which were built with burnt brick
were found by archaeologist Leonard Woolley (1880-1960), in the ziggurat foundations. To ensure the strength of the steps of the ziggurats which
built by King Urnamu in Ur, but he referred to them as drainage channels. were built with sun-dried bricks, burnt bricks were used for coating
Researchers have found the Egyptian builders implemented the same them. Sometimes the steps were built upon an arch.
method when they used sun-dried mud bricks. For rainwater drainage, Assyrian palaces were built of mud bricks on stone construction.
burnt mud-brick gutters were built. These were found in ziggurats in Ur, Stone slabs decorated with low reliefs served as walls.
Uruk, and Nippur. Since the 13th century BCE the Assyrians began using enamel for
To produce cement the same materials used for creating bricks were coating mud bricks. Evidence to this is found in contemporary texts. The
used, mixed with chopped straw. Often bitumen was added to the mixture. earliest archaeological evidence testifying to the use of enameled bricks
Lime and plaster cement have been found starting from the new is from the ninth and eighth centuries BCE. In Babylon the three
Babylonian kingdom. The thickness of cement layer used varied, but entrances in the main courtyard leading to the Royal Coronation room
usually it was an inch thick. were decorated with enamel-coated panels.
The city of Babylon Like in Babylon, in twelve other cities throughout Mesopotamia
The word "Babel" originates in the words Bab-ilu - literally in Akkadian: temples were rebuilt. Nebuchadnezzar was in some cases an
gate of God. Babylon was one of the most important cities in the Middle archaeologist as well. This finds its expression in his description of
East when Hammurabi made it the capital of the kingdom of Babylon, the restoration of the temples. Referring to the construction of
which he ruled. It is hard to imagine how it looked then, because in 689 temples, he repeatedly tells how he searched for their ancient
BC it was totally destroyed, including its walls, palaces and temples, by foundations.
the Assyrian king Sennacherib. During the period of Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonian city wall
The descriptions of the city of Babylon written by Herodotus (5th century extended more than eight kilometers. Structures in the city were
BCE) are not based on appearances, since he visited there after the lined with a few colors, and the exterior walls were painted yellow.
destruction. He wrote that it had an exact square shape. A deep moat The gates were blue, the palaces were yellow and red, and the
where water flowed from the Euphrates, surrounded the city. The wall that temples were white with gilded domes. Reliefs of bulls, dragons and
surrounded it had 100 gates, 25 gates on each side that were locked lions adorned the walls and gates.
every evening. This wall was the outer wall, which served as the primary Nebuchadnezzar decorated and glorified the city with temples,
defense of the city. There was also a less thick inner wall, but no less blooming gardens and the famous street processions, leading
resilient. The king's palace and the temple of the god Marduk in the city of through the Ishtar Gate to the temple and the ziggurat associated
Babylon, were also surrounded by walls. The streets were arranged in an with the Tower of Babel, which rose to a height of 91 meters.
orthogonal network, leading from the gates at one end of the city to the
gates at the other end. Half of them were interrupted by a river, and a The city walls of Babylon, which had been built for years by various
boat was needed in order to cross them. Likewise, Herodotus tells that kings, were the best defense against threat of attacks from the
the houses were three or four stories high, and from this we can conclude outside. Its double wall was 26 meters thick. According to
that in Babylon there were apartment houses. This conclusion is Herodotus, the top surface of the wall was so wide as to have
supported by the words of the Greek geographer Strabo, who wrote (in enough room for a carriage drawn by four horses to turn around.
the 1st century BCE) that the Babylonians built tall buildings to solve the The western wall was built in the Euphrates River, to provide
problems of population growth. defense against invading armies and to create a colossal barrier to
Aristotle wrote in his book "Politics" that the perimeter of the city of protect the city from flooding. Above the wall the tower of Babel
Babylon was more like a country's perimeter than the perimeter of a city could be seen.
because it was told that when Babylon was conquered, the inhabitants of Excavations carried out in the city of Babylon have discovered the
a significant part of the city were aware of it that only three days later. In remains of no less than five walls. Three formed the outer ring, and
fact, not all the parts of the city were inhabited. Its big dimensions were two formed the inner ring. They were built with varying degrees of
designed to impress and serve as a symbol of power. thickness of burned and sun-dried bricks. Along the wall were
In the center of the city there was a religious compound, a large courtyard towers equidistant from each other. The space between the walls
of the ziggurat A-Temen Enki with the temple of Marduk – Esagila to its was filled with gravel, creating a wide-scale basis as that described
south. The temple functioned as a residence palace for the god, by Herodotus.
and accordingly, there was an area designated for visiting gods, kitchens,
storage and administration rooms. However, the ziggurat A-Temen Enki
which featured the statues of the god and served for holding special
ceremonies, had only a symbolic role.
There were eight fortified gates in the double wall of Babylon. All were
named after gods. The main gate of the city was the northern gate, Apart from religious purpose the avenue of processions had also a
Ishtar Gate (570 BCE). Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus, was considered strategic purpose serving as a trap for the enemy soldiers: when they
divine and omnipotent. This ceremonial gate is one of the most tried to attack the Ishtar Gate they were met with showered arrows
impressive buildings in Babylon. from the surrounding walls.
Like the city wall, this gate was also double. It consists of a pair of huge High walls surrounded the city of Babylon along the 8.4 kilometers,
arches standing one after the other. The arches are flanked by square and the towers of the gates rose above the walls. The two parts of the
towers about 23 meters in height. Burned clay bricks were used to city of Babylon were connected by a bridge, 130 meters in length,
construct the gate and tar was used as glue. The fact that the gate has raised above the Euphrates River. It was one of the oldest stone
survived even after the destruction made by the Persians in the 6th bridges, and was considered one of the wonders of the East.
century BCE, testifies to the strength of its structure. Small farms and gardens were watered by trenches which regulated
Ishtar Gate demonstrates a real sense of urban decoration. For the first the flow of the Euphrates. A Large dam was built to keep the surplus
time entering the city is so decorative. The outer wall of the gate was water in times of flooding and increase the water supply when the
decorated with low relief ceramic tiles painted individually. 575 reliefs water level in the rivers was low.
show lions (symbolizing the goddess Ishtar), Dragons (symbolizing the Archaeologists have uncovered in Babylon roads arranged in straight
god Marduk) and bulls (symbolizing Adad, the god of light). The animals lines that cut each other at right angles, an innovation indicating a
are equidistant from each other, creating an impression of tough planned city and a strong centralized government. It turned out that 24
symmetry. streets in Babylon were parallel or perpendicular to a river. These
A wide impressive paved avenue led from the ziggurat to Ishtar Gate. To streets were narrow and in various width; they were built of raw earth
the east of this avenue stood the temple of Ishtar and to the west of it and were not paved. Exceptions were the main streets which were
stood the temple of Nebo. This boulevard that led to the festival house paved.
outside the walls was used in processions. These were held every year The level of the streets of Babylon rose as a result of the accumulated
in spring, when the Babylonian New Year (the first day of the lunar rubbish which was thrown out by the residents to the street and was
month Nissan, the spring equinox, when day and night are of equal covered with layers of mud. Thus, the homes were built on elevated
length), was celebrated in honor of the god Marduk. The statues of the land.
gods would be brought from all the important cities. When they reached Palaces, forts, docks, streets, gates and bridges were decorated with
the river, they were transferred in boats, and for eleven days rituals such the most precious materials - gold, silver, lapis lazuli and hard wood.
as purification, sacrifices and colorful processions were held. In the New Their construction testified to a special attention that was paid to the
Year's festival a ceremony of the "Wedding of the Gods" took place and durability of buildings. There was no precedent for building such a
the event culminated in the wedding of the god Marduk and his wife great amount of buildings made of burnt bricks and using such large
Sarpanitum in the sacred room crowning the ziggurat. quantities of cement, lime and bitumen.
The avenue of processions was paved with hard limestone tiles and red Apart from magnificent buildings, Babylon also had magnificent
marble. Its width was about 25 meters and on either side were high walls gardens. Due to its hanging gardens (which are ascribed to the period
seven meters thick, above which were rising square towers. These walls of Nebuchadnezzar's rule) Babylon was considered one of the most
were decorated with ceramic life size reliefs of lions on a dark blue beautiful cities of the ancient world. Its glorious period did not last long.
background. Their original color was probably white or yellow (today the Less than one hundred years have passed until the city fell into the
color is green) with red mane. As mentioned above, lions symbolized hands of the Persians, Greeks and Romans, who ruled it in
Ishtar, but they were also intended to drive away hostile unnatural succession.
forces.
Ziggurat or The Mesopotamian Temple the city Eridu dated to the fifth millennium BCE. In this temple there
In every city, there was a monumental temple that served as the was one room sized approximately 4x5 square meters and in its center
residence of its chief god. The temple was the tallest structure in the stood a table offerings. On the wall in front of it was a niche with a base
city sticking out in the skyline and seen from afar. Ancient Sumerian of the statue of god. Access to the sacred room was through a simple
texts described the temples as similar to mountains linking heaven and opening.
earth. During the fourth millennium BCE, larger temples were built and their
In Sumer in every city were built several temples, which formed the inner space was divided into a central hall and a series of rooms to the
basis of social organization and strengthened the local pride of the sides of this hall. The outside walls were supported by external
residents. The main god was the owner of the most important temple, supports. The temple stood on a platform and the access to it was via a
but also the other gods, who were considered his relatives or staircase. There were times when the platform reached a height of 13
associates, had temples. From the archaeological remains we can meters and even more.
learn that the rulers in Mesopotamia saw in the defense of their capital Temples were repeatedly repaired and renewed. When too many
cities and in the maintenance of the temples of their gods a paramount repairs were required, they had been demolished and new were built
importance to preserve their eternal glory. on their ruins. Thus, they gradually rose above the surface around
According to the Sumerian theology, every temple was considered them.
the private estate of the god who lived in it. The god was the owner of In one city, there were several temples. Sometimes they were
the temple, the buildings, and the property in his compound. The interconnected by courtyards, thus creating a large complex of temples.
temple of the god, apart from being primarily a center of religious The largest temple was usually dedicated to the patron god of the city.
activity, was also a social and economic organization dominating the There were cities where a special temple was built outside the city
industries of the city. The temple served as the bank, granary, and walls. Temples of this type were used as destinations of religious
storage space. The property of the temple, as being owned by the god, processions celebrating the New Year.
also included the out of town land, animal farms, tools, crops, vines The corners of the temple were directed to the four winds with an
and more. Today it is estimated that one-third of the fertile lands entrance on one side only, established in the northeast or southeast of
surrounding the cities belonged to the temples. Thus the income of the the Temple.
temple, was significant. With time, the number of platforms above which the room of the
In ancient times, the temple built of mud bricks, stood on a platform to god was built increased, and the result was step tower called ziggurat -
which a ramp was leading. It included a shrine – a rectangular room the most characteristic structure of religious worship in Mesopotamia,
where an altar of bricks or a table of offerings to the god to whom the which was the great achievement of the Sumerians. The word
temple has been devoted was placed. The shrine was connected to "ziggurat" is etymologically related to the verb "zaqaru " in Akkadian. In
rooms, which were designated for priests and priestesses, who Hebrew, it corresponds to the root ‫ זקר‬, (zkr) meaning "sticking up".
conducted daily public ceremonies of sacrifices and bringing offerings The ziggurat was built high above the surrounding surface and was
to the gods. encircled by a courtyard enclosed by a double wall. It was shaped as a
Unlike present day worship centers, the interior of the temple was not rectangular or square-based step pyramid (the base side length was
intended to contain the crowd of believers. It was rather intended to usually about 50 meters), and each floor was a step (of the pyramid)
serve as the seat of the statue of the god and as the residence of the with sloping exterior walls without openings. The number of floors
priests. During religious occasions, a crowd of believers gathered in (steps) was not fixed. The horizontal lines of the ziggurat were
the courtyard of the Temple, rather than in the interior of the building. characterized by a light curve. The outer walls were covered with
The oldest temple in Mesopotamia to date is the temple in the south of painted and glazed mud tiles.
Ziggurat structures were built during the years 2150-500 BCE, and the Some of the names given to ziggurats - "The Mountain House", "World
remains of more than 30 of them are still standing today. Their shape, Mountain House," "the House of Connection between Heaven and
representing ascending to heaven, shows man's effort to create Earth "- attest to symbolic cosmological architecture. In all cases the
architecture, which touches the sky and gets him closer to the house of ziggurat's name indicates a link between heaven and earth, and starts
the god. with E (literally in Sumerian: house, Temple (.
The ziggurat, like the temples that preceded it, had included a central In the city of Borsippa, located about 20 km southwest of Babylon, was
temple or a central inner room in which the god's statue stood, and built a ziggurat named E-Ur-Imin-An-Ki (literally in Sumerian: the
rooms for priests, whose job was to supply all the needs of the gods. house of the seven leading in heaven and on earth) - a clear indication
At the top of the ziggurat was a small holy room, which only the priest to the seven spheres where moved the seven planets that were known
and a few other people were allowed to enter. The god's statue stood at this time in Mesopotamia. Each floor-step of the ziggurat was
in a niche in which there were always a bed and fresh food stored, painted with the color associated with the planet which it represented.
ready for the god who was thus invited to descend to the ground. The The first floor was painted black and was associated with the planet
prevalent belief was that on the New Year day the god came down to Saturn (God Nirig also known as Ninip).
his room, and the sacred wedding ceremony was celebrated at the
festival in his honor. Some think that the room was also an The second floor was painted in red (some contend that it was painted
observatory. in blue) and was associated with the planet Mercury (the god Nebo),
Most of the ritual was held outside the temple, in courtyards, beside writing, and wisdom.
purification fountains and altars of offerings. The construction of the The third floor was painted white (some say that it was painted orange)
temple was a religious act. All the participants in the construction and was associated with the planet Jupiter (the god Marduk).
process were required to be good and worthy people. During the The fourth floor was painted in blue (some say yellow) and was
construction, often offerings were devoted to the gods and, when the associated with the planet Venus (Ishtar ), the goddess of fertility, love
construction was completed, a great celebration that lasted several and war.
days was held. The fifth floor was painted in yellow (some say red) and was
The Sumerians prettified the ziggurats with protruding supports and associated with the planet Mars (god Nergal), the war god.
walls carved with concentric rectangles into the depth of the wall. In The sixth floor was coated with gold and was associated with the sun
addition, they also made use of mud-brick pillars attached to the walls (god Shamash), the god of justice.
and pilasters decorated with zigzag, diagonal, and triangle patterns. The seventh floor was painted silver or gray and was associated with
The interior walls were decorated with frescoes depicting human the moon (the god Sin).
figures, animals, and geometric motifs There is no consensus among scholars about the color attributed to
The ziggurat may reflect nostalgia to mountainous area. It is estimated some of the planets, but they all agree that there is a connection
that such an area was the place of origin of the Sumerians, who tried between the planets and the floors and colors representing them.
to provide a suitable accommodation to their gods by creating an Presenting the floors and colors as representing planets is related with
artificial mountain. Some believe the structure of the ziggurat the use made of the ziggurats as observatories. The priests, who were
symbolizes the idea that mountain peaks are the place of residence of also astrologers, would watch the stars to guide them in matters of
the gods, from where they rule the world. Ascribing holiness to policy. The relationship between the temples and ziggurats, and
mountains appears in various cultures in human history. Sinai, where structure of the cosmos is reflected also in the four corners of the
Moses received the Tablets of the Law, Mount Olympus, which serves ziggurat which were set according to directions of the compass.
as the abode of the gods according to Greek mythology, are examples The prototype of ziggurat had already been built 3,500 years BCE.
of this.
This was the temple of the city of Eridu, which was established in honor of Ea Built with two or three terraces, faced with kiln baked bricks, their
the patron god of the city. This temple, built of mud bricks on an artificial colossal facades panelled and recessed, these huge structures
platform, was a new architectural design of a temple and served as a model dominated the Mesopotamian scene centuries before the neo-
for the future temples. Babylonian kings instituted a great building programme to restore
The Babylonians, who worshiped the gods of the Sumerians, also adopted them to their former glory.
their ziggurats. They believed that they had to please the god and not to
irritate him, so that he would not move to a foreign country. Processions of Ur itself and the great cities of Eridu, Kish, Uruk, Nippur and, later,
priests would march in anticipation of the god to descend from heaven to the during the Cassite period, Dur Kurigalzu (Aqarqaf) all had
shrine in his temple. This was the customary way to ensure prosperity and ziggurats, the ruins of some of them standing to this day. The
fertility to the city. ziggurat of Ur-Nammu can be reconstructed from the remains of
It is difficult to study the structures by examining their remains, that none of the building of the neo-Babylonian kings, as shown above.
them survived with the original height. The ziggurat of Lagash has no trace,
and even its whereabouts are unclear. Ruins of the ziggurats however, It is possible that the ziggurat was intended as a "stairway to
survived the in Nipur, Larsa, Erech, and Mari. In fact, these are the main heaven" and that the worshippers believed the gods descended
remains discovered in these cities. from heaven to this "halfway house" meeting place.
Sources helping us to restore the ziggurats are reliefs depicting ziggurats,
which were found on monuments, written descriptions of ziggurats, which Choghā Zanbīl, also spelled Tchoghā Zanbīl, or Choga Zambil,
were found in Babylonian literature, and references to them in the writings of ruined palace and temple complex of the ancient Elamite city of Dur
Herodotus (460 BCE). Untashi (Dur Untash), near Susa in the Khūzestān region of
During the period of Hammurabi, the temple, apart from being a worship southwestern Iran. The complex consists of a magnificent ziggurat
center, also served as a commercial and banking center. Here people signed (the largest structure of its kind in Iran), temples, and three palaces.
contracts, lent money, and redeemed prisoners from slavery. The temples The site was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 1979.
have also expanded their economic activities and added facilities for Heavy rainfalls have a harmful effect on the mud-brick outer walls
artisans. Thus, worship, entertaining, activities of priests, writers, artisans, and temples of the complex, despite the application of protective
soldiers, merchants, musicians, slaves, and even prostitutes were coverings. In the mid-1990s, it was noted that the brick walls of the
incorporated into the temple. The temple also participated in agricultural and ziggurat had shifted slightly, raising concerns about future structural
commercial activities for which warehouses and silos were required. The damage.
latter were included in the temple compound. In many ways, the temple
resembled a modern corporation, whose general manager is the high priest.
The Ziggurats and the 'Tower of Babel’
Procession Street led from the Ishtar Gate, through the centre of Babylon
to the main temple enclosure, Etemenanki, the "Building of the Foundation
of Heaven and Earth", where stood
Marduk's "ziggurat", or "the House that lifts up its Head".
This ziggurat, popularly known as "the Tower of Babel", in fact has no real
relation to the Bible story. The only connection is that the Babylon ziggurat
is a late imitation of the very early staged temple towers built in most of
the Mesopotamian dynastic cities.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
During the Hellenistic period Babylon was famous for having one of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World - the Hanging Gardens to whose existence proof has never been found. Some
researchers contend that they were located on the east bank of the Euphrates River (about 50
km south of Baghdad). According to these researchers, large stone terraces, supported by
arches, raised a huge staircase 100 meters in height. The whole structure was supported by a
surrounding wall, about seven meters thick. The gardens were watered by the Euphrates River
using a sophisticated irrigation system.
Researchers are still arguing about the location of the hanging gardens within the remains
of the city of Babylon, their dating, irrigation method, and shape. In tablets discovered from the
period of Nebuchadnezzar the Hanging Gardens are not mentioned, though the palace, the
city of Babylon and the walls are described. Greek historians who describe the Hanging
Gardens had never seen them. The soldiers of Alexander the Great, who returned from Babylon
full of admiration, told of its amazing gardens, the palm trees of Mesopotamia, the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar and the ziggurats.
Some identify the Hanging Gardens with gardens, which were planted on the roofs of
houses of pleasure, whose layers of lead and bitumen made them waterproof. Others believe
that the Greeks when describing the Hanging Gardens, actually described the gardens of
Nineveh (the modern city of Mosul in Iraq) which were irrigated by aqueducts. Another theory
ascribes the construction of of the gardens to Sennacherib who preceded Nebuchadnezzar in
100 years or so. Recently new evidence associates the hanging gardens with the northern
palace of Nebuchadnezzar.
Herodotus and Roman historians attributed the Hanging Gardens to Semiramis, the
legendary Assyrian Queen, about whom it was told that she conquered the entire Middle East
and invaded India and Ethiopia. Perhaps they meant the Queen Sammuramat from the 9th
century BCE, who served as the regent of her son, but did nothing of the things attributed to
Semiramis.
Berossus, (contemporary of Alexander the Great) Babylonian priest who became
Hellenistic historian wrote in 280 BCE his book "Babylonica", in which he attributes to
Nebuchadnezzar the construction of the Hanging Gardens by creating terraces that looked like
mountains, and on which grew trees of various kinds. Berossus also indicates that
Nebuchadnezzar planted the gardens because his wife, who passed her childhood years in
Media, missed the mountain environment.
The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE), provides a detailed description of the
Hanging Gardens attributing them to a "Syrian king." According to his version, the king wanted
to please one of his mistresses, who was Persian, and missed the mountains asking the king to
artificially imitate the landscape in her homeland.