Human Physiology

(Excretory Products and Their Elimination)

The component structural and functional units of the bodies of all organism are cells which have been looked
as “miniature chemical factories” because of continuous metabolism taking place in these. It yields certain
waste products which are, not only useless, but harmful to the cells and the body.
Cells, therefore, throw out these wastes, by diffusion, into their surrounding medium. Finally, these
wastes are eliminated by the body into its external environment. This is, thus an important vital activity of all
organism. It is called excretion.

Depending on excretory product organisms divided into following types :-

(i) Aminotelic (Amino acids as excrete product):
These are end products of protein digestion absorbed into the blood from small intestine.
Example :- invertebrates, like some molluscs (Eg. Unio, Limnae, etc.) and some echinoderms
(Eg. Asterias) excrete excess amino acids as such.
This is called aminotelic excretion or aminotelism.
(ii) Ammonotelic (ammonia as excrete product) :
Ammonia is highly toxic and highly soluble in water. Its excretion as such, therefore, requires a large
amount of water.
That is why, most of the aquatic arthropods, bony and freshwater fishes, amphibian tadpoles,
turtles, etc excrete ammonia.
This type of excretion is called ammonotelic excretion or ammonotelism.
(iii) Ureotelic (urea as excrete product) :
This is less toxic and less soluble in water than ammonia. Hence, it can stay for some time in the body.
Example :- Many land vertebrates (adult amphibians, mammals) and such aquatic animals which
cannot afford to lose much water (Eg. elasmobranch fishes) marine bony fish, adult frog, earthworms,
nematodes, turn their ammonia into urea for excretion.
This type of excretion is called ureotelic excretion or ureotelism.
(iv) Uricotelic (Uric acid as excrete product) :
Animals living in dry (arid) conditions, such as land gastropods (snails) , most insects, land reptiles
(snakes and lizards), birds and kangroo rat (mammal) etc have to conserve water in their bodies.
These systhesize crystals of uric acid from their ammonia. For the formation of uric acid xanthine
oxidase enzyme is necessary. Uric acid crystals are nontoxic and almost insoluble in water.
Hence, these can be retained in the body for a considerable time before being discharged from the body.
Uric acid is the main nitrogenous excretory product discharged in solid form.
This excretion is called uricotelic excretion or uricotelism.

(1) Other waste products of protein metabolism

Trimethylamine oxide : Certain marine molluscs, crustaceans and teleost fishes first form trimethy-
lamine from their ammonia by a process known as methylation. Then, the trimethylamine is oxidised to
trimethylamine oxide for excretion.This oxide is soluble in water, but nontoxic.
Guanine : Spiders typically excrete their ammonia in the form of guanine. Some guanine is also formed
in unio, penguin, birds and it is insoluble in water. Hence, no water is required for its excretion.
(2) Waste products of nucleic acid metabolism
As a result of nucleic acid digestion, nitrogenous organic bases – purines (adenine and guanine) and
pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine and uracil) – are absorbed from intestine into the blood. Most of these

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 1

 are excreted out. About 5% of the total excretion of body accounts for these substances.
In man, purines are changed to uric acid for excretion.
In most other mammals, nitrogenous organic bases are excreted in the form of allantoin.
Insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds also excrete these bases in the form of uric acid.
Some freshwater molluscs and crustacean arthropods excrete these in the form of ammonia.
(3) Some sundry excretory substances (Others excretory products)
(i) Hippuric and ornithuric acids :
Sometimes food of rabbit and other mammals may contain traces of benzoic acid, or this acid may be
formed in small amounts during fat metabolism.
It is highly toxic. As it is absorbed in blood, it is combined with glycine and changed into less toxic
hippuric acid for excretion.
In birds, benzoic acid is combined with ornithine and changed into ornithuric acid for excretion.
(ii) Creatine and creatinine :
Muscle cells contain molecules of creatine phosphate, which are high energy molecules and serve for
storage of bioenergy like ATP.
It is synthesised by 3 amino acids (G.A.M.) (Glycine, Arginine and Methionine).
Excess amount of this phosphate is, however, excreted out as such, or after being changed into creatinine.

Ex cre tory orga ns of diffe re n t org a nism s

Excre to r y/os m o r e gulator y Org an/Or gan e lle and

S.No. Phylu m Functio n Exam p le
Pr incipal N2 -w as te

A mmonotelic, A moeba
1 Protoz oa Contractile v ac uole , A mmonia
Os moregulatory
Paramec ium
2 Porif era General surf ace of body A mmonotelic Sycon, Leucon
3 Coelenterata A mmonia, General surf ace of body A mmonotelic Hydra
flame cells (=Solenoc y tes)
4 Platy helminthis A mmonotelic Taenia, f asc iola, planaria
form the protonephridial s ystem
5 Nematoda H-shaped excretory organ, Renette c ells A mmonotelic A s caris
Nephridial sy s tem,
6 A nnelida A mmonotelic Pheretima
(Metameric), v arious ty pes
7 A rthropoda

(i) Clas s-Insec ta Malpighian tubule, Nephrocy te, Uricos e gland ; Uric acid Uricotelic Periplaneta, Hous e fly, mosquito

(ii) Clas s crus tac ea A ntennary (=green) gland, Hepatopanc reas ; Uric acid Uricotelic Palaemon

Coxal glands , Malpighian tubule, Uricotelic , Guanine and

(iii) Class A rachnida Xanthine in small Spider, Sc orpion
Hepatopanc reas , Nephroc y tes
amount
(a) Kidney s or organs of Bojanus Guanine Unio
(b) Keber's organ Guanine Unio
A mmonotelic in aquatic
(c ) Renal organs Pila
8 Mollusc a & uric otelic in terrestrial
(d) Renal sac s Guanine
A mmonia in aquactic c ondition A mmonotelic Pila , Limax , Sepia
Exc rete uric ac id in terres trial condition Uricotelic
Dermal branchiae (primitiv e gills ) tube f eet, Cucumaria
9 Echinodermata A mmonotelic mainly
body surf ace (A mmonia), coelomocy tes A s terias (A minotelic)
10 Hemichordata Glomerulus or probos cis gland A mmonotelic Balanoglossus s acc oglos ses
11 Uroc hordata Neural gland, Nephroc yte ; Xanthine + uric ac id Uricotelic Herdmania
(a) Protonephridia
(b) Solenocy tes
12 Cephaloc hordata (c ) Brow n f unnel A mmonotelic A mphiox us (Branc hiostoma)
(d) Renal papilla
(e) Hats chek nephridia

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 2

Mammalian (human) urinary system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureter, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
3.1 Kidneys :
The kidneys are dark-red, bean-shaped organs about 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide and 2-3 cm thick,
Each weight about 120-170 gm.
They are placed against the back wall of the abdominal cavity just below the diaphragm, one on either
side opposite the last thoracic and first three lumber vertebrae (T12 - L3) .
The 11th and 12th pairs of ribs protect them.

Human Urinary System

The kidneys are covered by peritoneum on the front (ventral) side only. thus, they are retroperitoneal.
In man left kidney occurs at a slightly higher level than the right one, because right side has prominent
right liver lobe.
In mammals, the kidney is concavo convex. The center of
concave inner surface is called as hilum or hilus which gives
out a ureter. From this hilus surface the renal artery enters
into the kidney, the renal vein comes out and the renal
nerves enter into the kidney.
3.2 Structure of kidney :
The kidneys are metanephric in mammals.
The kidney is divisible into two parts outer-cortex and
inner-medulla.

Renal pyramids or medullary pyramids : The medulla is subdivided into 8 to 18 conical masses – the renal
pyramid, each having broad base towards the cortex and a narrow end called renal papilla towards the
pelvis.
Path of urinary drainage : Collecting duct Papillary duct in renal pyramid Minor calyx
Major calyx Renal pelvis Ureter Urinary bladder
Renal columns of bertini : Between the pyramids, the cortex extends into the medulla or renal
columns of bertini.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 3

 Calyx : Each renal papilla projects into the cavity of a minor calyx, minor calyx join to form major calyx. The
major calyx open into a wide funnel like structure, the pelvis. The latter leads into the ureter.
3.3 Histology of kidney :
Histologically a kidney is made of innumerable thin, long, much convoluted tubular units called uriniferous
tubule or nephron.
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney. One human kidney may contain about one million
(10 lac nephron) nephron
3.4 Structure of nephron : A nephron or uriniferous tubules consist of two parts :
3.4 (i) Malpighian body / Renal Corpuscles :
The proximal end of each nephron forms a blind or closed, enlarged and double walled cup, the Bowman’s
capsules in the cortex. (name Bowman’s capsule is based on english physiologist and histologist William
Bowman).
Each capsule contains a network of blood capillaries the glomerulus
which receives blood through afferent arteriole and the blood
comes out through the efferent arteriole. The diameter of the
efferent arteriole is comparatively lesser.
Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus receives about 20 – 25% of the
cardiac out put (blood) at rest.

The composite structure of Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus is

known as Malpighian body or Malpighian corpuscles after the
Italian microscopist Marcello Malpighi.
(ii) Tubule :
The Bowman’s capsule opens into a proximal convoluted tubule (P.C.T.) the anterior part of the P.C.T. is more
coiled where as its posterior part is almost straight.
The P.C.T. opens into a Henle’s loop. The Henle’s loop is a U- shaped structure or makes hair pin turn, which
has a distinct descending limb and an ascending limb (With thin and thick segments). The ascending limb
opens in to the distal convoluted tubule.
The D.C.T. is a coiled structure. Many D.C.T. unit to form a collecting duct.
The collecting ducts of one pyramid unit to form a duct of Bellini. The duct of Bellini lead into the pelvis part.
3.5 Arrangement of nephron : The malpighian body and most of the P.C.T. and D.C.T. are situated in the
cortex. Henle’s loop and collecting ducts are found in the medulla.

Vasa recta : The efferent arteriole of juxta-glomerular nephron forms a peritubular capillary system around
the Henle’s loop which is called vasa recta.
Each of the vasa recta makes U turn at the inner most part of the medulla and return to the venous circulation
near the junction of medulla and cortex.
The efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries technically constitute a renal portal system. In all amniotes
as reptiles, birds and mammals have a this renal portal system of efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 4

 Diagram showing structure of Nephron

3.6 Types of Nephron : Nephrons are of two types cortical and juxtamedullary, with regard to their location in the
kidney.
The cortical nephrons form about 80% to 85% of total nephron. They lie in the renal cortex and have very short
loops of Henle that extend only little into the medulla.
Remaining 15 – 20% are juxta medullary nephron have their Bowman’s capsule close to (Juxta) the junction of
the cortex and the medulla and have very long loops of Henle, extending deep into the medulla. This type of nephron
is present in only birds and mammals.
The cortical nephrons control the plasma volume when water supply is normal. The juxtamedullary nephrons
regulate the plasma volume when water is in short supply (In adverse condition).

Distal convoluted tubule Renal capsule

Peritubular
Proximal
capillary net work
convoluted tubule

Malpighian
corpuscle Renal cortex

Cortical
nephron
Vasa recta

Branch of renal Juxtaglomerular

artery nephron
Pyramid of
Branch of renal vain renal medulla
Collecting
Thick segment of tubule
ascending limb of
henle's loop
Branch of collecting
Vasa recta tubule
Duct of bellini
Thin segment of ascending (=papillary duct)
limb of henle's loop Renal papilla
Descending limb of
henle's loop Pelvis

Diagram showing types of Nephron

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 5

3.7 Histology of nephron
(a) Glomerulus :
Glomerulus is a network of up to 50 parallel branching and anastomosing capillaries covered by endothelium,
basement membrane and epithelium made of podocytes which has slit pores that restrict passage of
colloids.
Small molecules and water can easily pass through them in to the P.C.T.
(b) Bowman’s capsule :
The podocytes forming the inner wall of the Bowman’s capsule.
The Bowman’s capsule have gaps (about 25 nm wide) the slit pores.
The outer wall of the Bowman’s capsule consists of unspecialized squamous epithelium (flattened).
(c) Proximal convoluted tube :
P.C.T. is made up of simple cuboidal epithelium. It has microvilli so it is also known as brush border
epithelium.
P.C.T. is most important site for selective reabsorption.
(d) Loop of Henle :
The epithelium of descending limb of loop of Henle is very thin and composed of squamous epithelium and
ascending limb is made up of two parts first is thin ascending limb lined by squamous epithelium and second
thick ascending limb lined by cuboidal epithelium.
The ascending limb is impermeable to water and permeable to NaCl.
(e) Distal convoluted tube :
D.C.T. is made up of cuboidal epithelium which is glandular in nature.
(f) Collecting ducts :
The collecting ducts are lined by cuboidal epithelium in different regions.
At intervals, the cuboidal cells are ciliated.

Kidney tubules (nephrons) arise in the embryo in a linear series from a special part of mesoderm called
mesomeare or nephrotome.
Number, complexity and arrangement of Nephrons are differ in different groups of vertebrates. A nephron
is differentiated into three parts – peritoneal funnel, tubule and malpighian body. Peritonial funnel (nephros-
tome) are normally present in embryos and larvae and considered as vestigeal organ of hypothetical
primitive kidneys.
(1) Archeonephros kidney : Archeonephros is the name given to the hypothetical primitive kidney of ancestral
vertebrate. It is also called as holonephros or complete kidney. (It extended entire length of coelom) It
tubules are segmentally arragned and nephrostome is present. Glomerulus is external (without capsule). It
duct is called as archeonephric duct. Eg. Larva of myxine and some apodan amphibians.
Modern vertebrates exhibits three different kinds of adult kidney Pronephros, Mesonephros and Metaneph-
ros.
(i) Pronephros : It originates from the anterior part of the nephrotome. It is also termed head kidney due to its
anterior position. There are only 3 pronephrine tubule (nephron) in frog embryo, 7 in human embryo, and
about 12 in chick embryo which are segmentary arranged. Nephrostome present, glomerulus is external
and unite to form glomus in some cases. Duct is pronephric duct or mullerian duct. A pair of pronephros
appear in all vertebrate embryos but they becomes functions kidneys in adult myxine and embryos of all
anamniotes (fish, amphibian). This kidney found as transitory kidney in all vertebrates embryos.
(ii) Mesonephros : It originates from the middle part of the nephrotome. Duct is mesonephric or Wolffian
duct. Nephrostome is absent except some embryos of anamniotes. Example – In amniotes (reptiles, birds
and mammals) mesonephros is functional only in the embryos, replaced by metanephros in the adult. In
anamniotes (fishes and amphibian) mesonephros is functional in both embryo as well as adults. Also found
in adult petromyzon.

In fish and amphibians, tubules extend through length of coelom behind pronephros and formed from entire
nephrotome left behind the pronephrus called opisthonephric kidney. The opisthonephric kidney
specially in males differentiated into anterior genital and post renal part.
NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 6
 In frog mesonephric duct is also known as Bidder’s canal which carry sperm and urine both.
(iii) Metanephros : It originates from the posterior part of the nephrotome. When metanephric tubules develop, all
the mesonephric tubules disappear except those associated with the testes in male and forming vasa efferentia.
Nephrostome absent. A thin, U-shaped loop of Henle forms between P.C.T. and D.C.T. which is incomplete in
Reptiles and Birds and well developed in mammals. Duct is metanephric or ureter. Reproductive duct is separate.
The kidney is highly compact which possesses innumerable nephrons. Example – All amniotes – Reptile, Birds
and mammal.

3.8 Ureters : From the hilum of each kidney emerges a whitish tube the ureter. The ureters are about 28 cm
long. Their wall consists of transitional epithelium surrounded by a layer of muscle fibres. Openings of
the two ureters in the bladder are separate, but closely placed. These are oblique, so that the urine
cannot regurgitate into the ureters when the bladder contracts. Peristalsis of ureters also cheeks
regurgitation of urine. Like kidneys, the ureters are retroperitoneal.
3.9 Urinary bladder and Urethra :
The urinary bladder is pear-shaped hollow muscular organ situated in pelvic cavity, which is made up of
smooth and involuntary muscles.
The muscles is also known as detrusor muscles (muscles that has the action of expelling a substance).
The lower part or neck of the bladder leads into the urethra.
The lumen of the urinary bladder is lined by transition epithelium which has great power of streaching.
The neck of bladder is guarded by two sphincters, inner is involuntary controlled by spinal reflex and outer is
voluntary controlled by cerebral cortex.
Mucosa of bladder with folds called rugae. (rugae also present is stomach and vagina).

Do You Know ?
A person feels the sensation of micturation when the quantity of urine in the bladder is about 300 c.c.
The average capacity of urinary bladder is 700 – 800 ml. In general, urinary bladder capacity is smaller
in females because the uterus occupies the space just superior to bladder.

3.10 Urethra :
The urinary bladder leads into the urethra.
In a female, it is quite short, only about 3 to 5 cm long, and carries only urine.
In a male urethra is much longer, about 20 cm and carries urine as well as spermatic fluid. It passes through
the prostate gland and the penis. It opens out at the tip of the penis by urinogenital aperture.
In males the epithelium of spongy urethra is stratified or pseudostratified columnar epithelia, except near
external urethral orifice, which is non keratinized stratified squamous epithelia.
The prostatic urethra lined by transitional epithelia, while membranous urethra lined by pseudostratified
columnar.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 7

 Physiology of excretion :
Major nitrogenous excretory substance in frog, rabbit and human is urea, i.e. these are ureotelic animals.
The excretory physiology in these animals may be considered under two phases, viz urea synthesis and
formation and excretion of urine.

Synthesis of urea in liver :

Urea is formed in liver by two processes.
(1) Deamination (2) Ornithine cycle
(1) Deamination : The amino acid is oxidised using oxygen. This result in removal of the amino group
and leaves pyruvic acid. the pyruvic acid can enter the Krebs cycle and be used as a source of energy
in cell respiration. The amino group is converted to ammonia during deamination. Deamination is also
known as oxidative deamination.

(2) Ornithine cycle or Urea Cycle (Kreb-Henseleit cycle) :

In liver one molecule of CO2 is activated by biotin and combines with two molecules of NH3 in the presence of
carbamoyl phosphate synthatase enzyme (C.P.S.) and 2 ATP to form carbamoyl phosphate and one molecule of
H2O release.
Carbamoyl phosphate react
with ornithine and form citrulline.
Citrulin combines with an-
other molecule of ammonia and
form arginine.
Arginine is broken into urea
and ornithine in the presence
of an enzyme arginase and
water.
Liver cells, thus, continuously
remove ammonia and some CO2
from blood and release urea into
the blood.
Kidneys continuously remove
urea from the blood to excrete it
in urine.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 8

 It involves three processes glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion.
4.1 Ultra filtration (Starling’s hypothesis)
It is passive process which takes place from the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule. The glomerular
epithelium has various micropores (diameter = 50 – 100 nm or 0.05 – 0.1 mm) which increase the rate of
filtration.
The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood through 3 layers, i.e., the endothelium of
glomerular blood vessels, the epithelium of Bowman’s capsule and a basement membrane between these
two layers.
The non colloidal part of the plasma as urea, water, glucose, salts, vitamin, minerals, nitrogenous waste are
forced out from the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule by the high pressure of the blood in
the glomerular capillaries.
The pressure and resistence is high because the glomerular capillaries are narrower than the afferent renal
arteries. Glomerular capillaries are about 50 times more permeable than capillaries elsewhere.
Pressure highest in glomerular capillaries than in capillaries else where, produce more filtrate.
The effective filtration pressure that causes ultrafiltration is determined by three pressures.
(i) Glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (G.B.H.P.) : Hydrostatic pressure is force that a fluid under
pressure exerts against the walls of its container.
G.B.H.P. = +70 mm Hg.
(ii) Blood colloidal osmotic pressure (B.C.O.P) :
The B.C.O.P. is the osmotic pressure created in the blood of glomerular capillaries due to plasma proteins
albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. It resists the filtration of fluid from the capillaries.
B.C.O.P. = 30 mm Hg.
B.C.O.P. in other body capillaries is 25 mm Hg
(iii) Capsular hydrostatic pressure (C.H.P) : C.H.P. is the pressure caused by fluid (filtrate) that reaches
into Bowman’s capsule and resists filtration.
C.H.P. = 20 mm Hg.
Effective filtration pressure (E.F.P.)/Net filtration pressure (N.F.P.) : E.F.P. is glomerular blood hydro-
static pressure minus the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood and capsular hydrostatic pressure.
E.F.P. = G.B.H.P. – (B.C.O.P. + C.H.P.) = 70 mmg – (30 mmg Hg + 20 mm Hg) = 70 – 50 = 20 mm Hg
Note : -
(i) Net opposing filtration pressure :
(N.O.F.P.) = B.C.O.P.+C.H.P. = 50 mm Hg.
(ii) Glomerular filtrate :
The plasma fluid that filters out from glomerular capillaries into Bowman’s capsule of nephrons is called
glomerular filtrate.
It is a non colloidal part and possess urea, water, glucose, amino acid, vitamins, fatty acid, uric acid,
creatin, creatinine, toxins, salts etc.
R.B.Cs, W.B.Cs, platelets and plasma proteins are the colloidal part of the blood and do not filtered out
from glomerulus.
Glomerular filtrate is isotonic to blood plasma.
Glomerular filtrate or Nephric filtrate = Blood – (Blood cells + Plasma protein)

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 9

 (iii) Glomerular filtration rate (G.F.R.) :
G.F.R. is the amount of filtrate formed per minute in all nephrons of the paired kidney. There is a sexual
difference. In male the rate is 125 ml/min, in female it is 110 ml/min.
G.F.R. is affected by volume of circulating blood, neural activity, stretch response to pressure of the wall
of the arteriole.
180 litre of filtrate is formed per day, out of it, only 1.5 litre of urine is produced per day which is 0.8% of
the total filtrate.
(iv) Renal plasma flow : About 1100-1200 ml (20% of cardiac output or total blood) blood circulates
through kidneys each minute and of this blood, about 670 ml is the plasma. The latter is called the renal
plasma flow (R.P.F.)
R.P.F. = 670 ml.
(v) Filtration fraction : This is the ratio of G.F.R. to R.P.F., and it is called filtration fraction.

G.F.R. 125
Filtration fraction = = 0.186
R.P.F. 670
4.2 Selective reabsorption : Discoverd by Richard and supporters
Nearly 99 percent of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules.
(i) Proximal convoluted tubule :
P.C.T. is the pivotal site for reabsorption.
Nearly all of the essential nutrients, and 70-80 per cent of electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this
segment.
Glucose, amino acid and Na+, K+ ions are reabsorbed by active transport.
Cl– are reabsorbed by passive transport following the positively charged ions.
Active uptake of ions reduces the concentration of the filtrate and an equivalent amount of water passes into
the peritubular capillaries by osmosis. (Here 80% water is reabsorbed by passive transport. It is also known
as obligatory water reabsorption).
Most of the important buffer bicarbonate (HCO3–) is also reabsorbed from the filtrate. P.C.T. absorb nearly 80–
90% of filtered bicarbonate. Some urea is reabsorbed by diffusion. The rest remain in the filtrate for removed
in the urine.

Do You Know ?
PCT also helps to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids by selective secretion of
hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the filtrate and by absorption of HCO3– from it.

(ii) Henle’s loop :

Reabsorption in this segment is minimum. However, this region plays a significant role in the maintenance of
high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid.
The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water but almost impermeable to electrolytes. This
concentrates the filtrate as it moves down.
The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of electrolytes actively or passively. There-
fore, as the concentrated filtrate pass upward, it gets diluted due to the passage of electrolytes to the
medullary fluid.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 10

 (iii) Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) : Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place in this segment.
DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3– and selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions and
NH3 to maintain the pH and sodium-potassium balance in blood.
(iv) Collecting Duct (CD) : This long duct extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the
medulla. Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed from this region to produce a concentrated urine.
This segment allows passage of small amounts of urea into the medullary interstitium to keep up the
osmolarity. It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH and ionic balance of blood by the selective
secretion of H+ and K+ ions

4.3 Tubular secretion : It occurs as under –

Creatinine, hippuric acid and foreign substances (pigments, drugs including penicillin) are actively se-
creted into the filtrate in the PCT from the interstitial fluid. Hydrogen ions and ammonia NH 3 are also
secreted into the PCT.
Potassium, hydrogen, NH4+ and HCO3– ions are secreted by active transport, into the filtrate in the DCT.
Urea enters the filtrate by diffusion in the thin region of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop.
Removal of H+ and NH4+ from the blood in the PCT and DCT helps to maintain the pH of the blood between
6 to 8. Any variation from this range is dangerous.
Tubular secretion probably plays only a minor role in the function of human kidneys, but in animals, such
as marine fish and desert amphibians which lack glomeruli and Bowman’s capsules, tubular secretion is
the only mode of excretion.
When the blood pressure, and consequently the filtration pressure, drop below a certain level, filtration
stops and urine is formed by tubular secretion only.

High threshold substances : Such substances are absorbed almost all. Example – Sugar, amino
acids, vitamins, HCO3– and Na+ etc.
Low threshold substances : They are absorbed in low concentration. Example – Urea, phosphate, uric
acid, H+, K+.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 11

 Non threshold substances : They are not reabsorbed. Example – Creatinine and hippuric acid.
Diuretic substances : Normally, the amount of urine formed depends on the intake of water, dietary constituents,
environmental temperature, mental and physiological states of the person. However, there are some substances
which increase the volume of urine to be excreted, these substances are called diuretic substances. Example
– Tea, Coffee, alcohol etc.

(Counter Current Mechanism) :

Mammals have the ability to produce a concentrated urine.
The Henle’s loop and vasa recta play a significant role in this.
The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop is in opposite directions and thus forms a counter current.
The flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa recta is also in a counter current pattern.
The proximity between the Henle’s loop and vasa recta, as well as the counter current in them help in
maintaining an increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmolL–1 in
the cortex to about 1200 mOsmolL–1 in the inner medulla.
This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl and urea. NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop
which is exchanged with the descending limb of vasa recta.
NaCl is returned to the interstitium by the ascending portion of vasa recta.
Similarly, small amounts of urea enter the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is
transported back to the interstitium by the collecting tubule.
The above described transport of substances facilitated by the special arrangement of Henle’s loop and vasa
recta is called the counter current mechanism
This mechanism helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium.
Presence of such interstitial gradient helps in an easy passage of water from the collecting tubule thereby
concentrating the filtrate (urine).

Do You Know ?
Human kidneys can produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.

Diagrammatic representation of a nephron and vasa recta showing counter current mechanisms
NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 12
 Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where it is stored till a voluntary
signal is given by the central nervous system (CNS).
This signal is initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with urine.
In response, the stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder send signals to the CNS. The CNS passes on
motor messages to initiate the contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder and simultaneous relaxation of
the urethral sphincter causing the release of urine.
The process of release of urine is called micturition.
Relaxation and contraction of the urinary bladder are caused by impulses from the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerve fibres.

The fluid and dissolved waste substances excreted by the kidneys constitute urine.
(a) Quantity :
An adult man normally passes about 1 to 1.5 litres of urine in 24 hours.
The volume of urine depends upon (i) the fluid intake, (ii) level of physical activity, (iii) type of food taken
and (iv) environmental temperature increase urine output.
Less fluid intake and profuse sweating due to heavy physical work and high temperature reduce urine
output.
Certain substances, such as tea, coffee and alcohol, increase urine output. These are said to be diuretic.
(b) Physical properties :
Urine is transparent yellowish fluid, but becomes turbid (cloudy) on standing, its colour depending on its
concentration.
Its colour is due to a pigment urochrome derived from the breakdown of haemoglobin from the worn-out
RBCs. Colour of the urine is altered by certain materials taken such as beet, vitamin B complex and some
drugs diseases.
It is hypertonic to blood plasma.
Its specific gravity ranges between 1.001 to 1.035, being slightly higher than that of water.
Its pH is 6. It depends on the diet.
High protein food and fruits increase acidity whereas vegetables increase alkalinity.
Urine has a characteristic unpleasant odour. If allowed to stand, urea is degraded by bacteria to ammonia
which imparts a strong smell to urine.
(c) Chemical composition :
Urine consists of water and organic and inorganic substances.
Water alone forms about 95% of it, other substances form only 5%.
The organic substances are mainly nitrogenous organic compounds include urea, uric acid, creatinine and
hippuric acid. Of these, urea is the principal component of human urine.
The non nitrogenous organic compounds include vitamin C, oxalic acid, phenolic substances include ammonia,
and mineral salts such as chlorides, sulphates and phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Sodium chloride is the principal mineral salt of the urine.
Urine also contains some other substances, such as pigments and drugs, and some epithelial cells, leucocytes,
mucin, enzymes, and hormones.
1. Water 96%
2. Urea 2%
3. Uric acid 0.2%
4. NH3 0.25%
5. Creatinine 0.5%
6. Hippuric acid 0.025%
7. Salt 1%

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 13

(d) Abnormal materials : Presence of proteins (albumins), bile salts, bile pigments, ketone bodies, blood, pus,
microbes and more than a trace of glucose in the urine is pathological condition. Presence of glucose,
protein, blood, ketone bodies and pus in the urine is called glucosurea, proteinuria, haematuria, ketonuria
and pyuria respectively.
(e) Renal threshold :
The highest concentration of a substances in the blood upto which it is fully reabsorbed from the glomerular
filtrate is called its threshold.
If its concentration in the blood exceeds its renal threshold, some of the filtered out substance is not
reasborbed and is excreted in the urine.
For example, the renal threshold of glucose is 180 mg. per 100 ml. of blood. If its blood level exceeds 180
mg., some of the filtered out glucose is not reabsorbed and is passed in urine.

The functioning of the kidneys is efficiently monitored and regulated by hormonal feedback mechanisms
involving the hypothalamus, JGA and to a certain extent, the heart.
Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body fluid volume and ionic
concentration.
8.1 Control by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) : ADH, produced in the hypothalamus of the brain and released
into the blood stream from the pituitary gland, enhances fluid retention by making the kidneys reabsorb
more water. The release of ADH is triggered when osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect an increase in
the osmolarity of the blood above a set point of 300 mosm L–1. In this situation, the osmoreceptor cells also
promote thirst. Drinking reduces the osmolarity of the blood, which inhibits the secretion of ADH, thereby
completing the feedback circuit.
8.2 Control by Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) :
(Low Blood pressure triggers the Renin-angiotension-Aldosterone system /pathway [R.A.A.S.])
The JGA plays a complex regulatory role.
A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood pressure/
GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin which
converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I and
further to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II, being a powerful
vasoconstrictor, increases the glomerular blood pressure
and thereby GFR.
Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to re-
lease Aldosterone.
Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from
the distal parts of the tubule. This also leads to an increase
in blood pressure and GFR.
This complex mechanism is generally known as the Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone pathway.
8.3 Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) :
An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
ANF can cause vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and thereby decrease the blood pressure.
ANF mechanism, therefore, acts as a check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism
8.4 Parathormone : The hormone increases blood Ca++ (Hypercalcemia) and decreases PO4 accordingly, it
increases absorption of Ca+, increases excretion of PO4.
8.5 Thyrocalcitonin : It increases excretion of Ca++ in the kidney.
8.6 Erythropoeitin : It is secreted by juxtaglomerular apparatus and plays an important role in erythropoeisis
(blood production).

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 14

9.1 Skin :
Many aquatic animals, such as Hydra and starfish, excrete ammonia into the surrounding water by diffu-
sion through the body wall. In land animals, the skin is often not permeable to water.
This is an adaptation to prevent loss of body’s water.
Mammalian skin retains a minor excretory role by way of its sudoriferous, or sweat glands and sebaceous,
or oil glands.
Primary function of sweat is to facilitate a cooling effect on the body surface.

9.2 Lungs :
Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products formed in respiration.
Lungs remove the large amount of CO2 (18 litres/day) and some water as vapour in the expired air.
Lungs have access to abundant oxygen and oxidise foreign substances, thus causing detoxification and
also regulate temperature.
9.3 Liver :
Liver is the largest gland in our body.
Liver changes the decomposed haemoglobin of the worn-out red blood corpuscles into bile pigments,
namely, bilirubin and biliverdin.
These pigments pass into the alimentary canal with the bile for elimination in the faeces.
The liver also excretes cholesterol, steroid hormones, certain vitamins and drugs via bile.
9.4 Large intestine :
Epithelial cells of the colon transfer some inorganic ions, such as calcium, magnesium and iron, from the
blood into the cavity of the colon for removal with the faeces.
9.5 Saliva :
Heavy metals and drugs are excreted in the saliva.
9.6 Gills :
Gills remove CO2 in aquatic animals. They also excrete salt in many bony fish.

10.1 Uremia : Uremia is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in the blood. It results from the
decreased excretion of urea in the kidney tubules due to bacterial infection (nephritis) or some mechani-
cal obstruction. urea poisons the cells at high concentration.
10.2 Kidney stone (Renal calculus) : It is formed by precipitation of uric acid or oxalate. It blocks the kidney
tubule. It causes severe pain (renal colic) in the back, spreading down to thighs. The stone may pass
into the ureter or urinary bladder and may grow, and cause severe pain of blackade. When in bladder, the
patient experiences frequent and painful urination and may pass blood in the urine. Surgery may be
needed to remove stone and relieve pain.
10.3 Glomerulonephritis : It is the inflammation of glomeruli. It is caused by injury to the kidney, bacterial
toxins, drug reaction, etc. Proteins and R.B.Cs pass into the filtrate.
10.4 Pyelonephritis : It is an inflammation of renal pelvis, calyces and interstitial tissue (G.pyelos = trough,
tub; nephros = kidney; itis = inflammation). It is due to local bacterial infection. Bacteria reach here via
urethra and ureter. Inflammation affects the countercurrent mechanism, and the victim fails to concen-
trate urine. Symptoms of the disease include pain in the back, and frequent and painful urination.
10.5 Kidney (Renal) failure (RF) : Partial or total inability of kidneys to carry on excretory and salt-water
regulatory functions is called renal or kidney failure. Result kidney failure leads to (i) uremia, i.e., an
excess of urea and other nitrogenous wastes in the blood (G.ouron = urine, haima-blood); (ii) Salt-water
imbalance; and (iii) stoppage of erythropoietin secretion.
Causes : Many factors can cause kidney failure. Among these are tubular injury, infection, bacterial
toxins, glomerulonephritis (inflammation of glomeruli) arterial or venous obstruction, fluid and electro-
lyte depletion, intrarenal precipitation of calcium and urates, drug reaction, heammorrhage, etc.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 15

10.6 Cystitis : It is the inflammation of urinary bladder (G.kystis = bladder, –itis = inflammation). It is caused
by bacterial infection. Patient has frequent, painful urination, often with burning sensation.

Artificial kidney, called haemodialyser, is a machine that is used to filter the blood of a person whose kidneys
are damaged. The process is called haemodialysis.
It may be defined as the separation of small molecules (crytalloids) from large molecules (colloids) in a
solution by interposing a semipermeable membrane between the solution and water (dialyzing solution).
It works on the principle of dialysis, i.e. diffusion of small solute molecules through a semipermeable membrane
(G. dia = = through, lyo = separate).
Haemodialyser is a cellophane tube suspended in a salt-water solution of the same composition as the
normal blood plasma, except that no urea is present.
Blood of the patient is pumped from one of the arteries into the cellophane tube after cooling it to 0 oC and
mixing with an anticoagulant (heparin).
Pores of the cellophane tube allow urea, uric acid, creatinine, excess salts and excess H+ ions to diffuse
from the blood into the surrounding solution. the blood, thus purified, is warmed to body temperature, checked
to ensure that it is isotonic to the patient’s blood, and mixed with an antiheparin to restore its normal clotting
power. It is then pumped into a vein of the patient.
Plasma proteins remain in the blood and the pores of cellophane are too small to permit the passage of their
large molecules.
The use of artificial kidney involves a good deal of discomfort and a risk of the formation of blood clots. It may
cause fever, anaphylaxis, cardiovascular problems and haemorrhage.
Kidney transplant is an alternative treatment.

Flow of Blood through an artificial kidney for haemodialysis

Osmoregulation :
The regulation of solute movement, and hence, water movement, which follows solutes by osmosis, is
known as osmoregulation. Osmosis may be defined as a type of diffusion where the movement of water
occurs selectively across a semipermeable membrane. It occurs whenever two solutions, separated by
semipermeable membrane (the membrane that allows water molecules to pass but not the solutes) differ in
total solute concentrations, or osmolarity. The total solute concentration is expressed as molarity or moles
of solute per litre of solution. The unit of measurement for osmolarity is milliosmole per litre (mosm L–1). If two
solutions have the same osmolarity, they are said to be isotonic. When two solutions differ in osmolarity, the
solution with higher concentration of solute is called hypertonic, while the more dilute solution is called
hypotonic. If a semipermeable membrane separates such solutions, the flow of water (osmosis) takes place
from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic one.
Osmoconformers :
They are the animals that do not actively control the osmotic condition of their body fluids. They rather
change the osmolarity of body fluids according to the osmolarity of the ambient medium. All marine
invertebrates and some freshwater invertebrates are strictly osmoconformer. Osmoconformers show an
excellent ability to tolerate a wide range of cellular osmotic environments.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 16

 Osmoregulators :
On the other hand, the animals that maintain internal osmolarity, different from the surrounding medium in
which they inhabit. Many aquatic invertebrates are strict or limited osmoregulators. Most vertebrates are
strict osmoregulators, i.e. they maintain the composition of the body fluids within a narrow osmotic range.
The notable exception, however, are the hagfish (Myxine sp., a marine cyclostome fish) and elasmobranch
fish (sharks and rays).
Osmoregulators must either eliminate excess water if they are in hypotonic medium or continuously take in
water to compensate for water loss if they are in a hypertonic situation. Therefore, osmoregulators have to
spent energy to move water in or out and maintain osmotic gradients by manipulating solute concentrations in
their body fluids.

By continuously eliminating metabolic wastes and other impurities, and even the surplus quantity of useful
materials from blood plasma in the form of urine, kidneys play a vital role in homeostasis. Kidneys also
operate certain other homeostatic regulatory mechanisms. Proper maintenance of the internal environment
is knows as homeostasis. All regulatory functions of kidneys can be enumerated as follows –
12.1 Osmoregulation : Being the universal solvent, water is the actual vehicle in ECF to transport materials
between various parts of body. Water volume in ECF tends to vary considerably due to several reason,
such as drinking, perspiration, diarrhoea, vomiting, etc. As described in previous pages, the kidneys
maintain the water balance in ECF by diluting or concentrating urine.
12.2 Regulation of osmotic pressure : Osmolality of cytoplasm is mainly due to proteins and potassium
and phosphate ions, whereas that of the ECF is mainly due to sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions.
Inspite of marked difference in chemical composition, the two fluids – intracellular (cytoplasm) and
extracellular (interstitium) – must be isotonic, because if ECF becomes hypotonic, cells will absorb
water, swell retaining apropriate number, mainly of sodium and chloride ions, kidneys maintain the
normal osmolality of ECF.
12.3 Regulation of pH : Concentration of hydrogen ions (NaH2 PO4) in ECF is to be regulated at a constant
value usually expressed as pH (minus log of H+). The normal pH of ECF is about 7.4. A low pH, i.e. a
high H+ concentration causes acidosis, while a high pH, i.e. a low H+ concentration causes alkalosis.
Both of these conditions severely affect cellular metabolism. Several special control systems, therefore,
operate in the body to prevent acidosis and alkalosis. These system are called acid-base buffer system.
Kidneys play a key role in maintenance and operation of these systems. Further, the kidneys regulate
hydrogen ion concentration in ECF by excreting acidic or basic urine.
12.4 Regulation of electrolyte concentrations in ECF : The kidneys regulate, not only the total concentra-
tions of water and electrolytes in ECF, but also the concentrations of individual electrolytes separately.
This regulation is complex and is accomplished by tubular reabsorption and secretion under the control
of hypothalamic and adrenal hormones.
12.5 Regulation of RBC-count in blood : In oxygen deficiency (hypoxia), kidneys secrete an enzyme into
the blood. This enzyme reacts with plasma globulin to form erythropoietin. The latter substance stimu-
lates bone marrow to produce more RBCs for enhancing O2-intake in lungs.
12.6 Regulation of renal blood flow : Through R.A.A.S.

Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of acute renal failures (kidney failure). A
functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor, preferably a close relative, to minimise its chances
of rejection by the immune system of the host. Modern clinical procedures have increased the success rate
of such a complicated technique.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 17

(1) KIDNEY (RENAL) TRANSPLANTATION
Meaning : Grafting a kidney from a compatible donor to restore kidney functions in a recipient suffering
from kidney failure is called renal transplantation.
History : First kidney transplant was performed between identical twins in 1954 by Dr. Charles Hufnagel, a
Washington surgeon, India’s first kidney transplant was done on December 1, 1971 at Christian Medical
College, Vellore, Tamilnadu. The recipient was a 35 years old person Shaninughan.
Eligibility : All patients with terminal renal failure are considered eligible for kidney transplantation, except
those at risk from another life-threating disease.
Donors : A living donor can be used in a kidney transplant. It may be in identical twin, a sibling, or a close
relative. If the living donors are not available, a cadaveric donor may be used (cadaver is a dead body).
Over half of the kidney transplants are from cadavers.
Success rate : A kidney transplant from an identical twin, called isogeneic graft or isograft, is always
successful. A renal transplant from a sibling or a close relative or a cadaver, termed allogeneic graft or
homograft, is usually successful with the use of an immunosupressant that prevents graft rejection by
body’s immune response. Many renal transplant recipients are known to have retained functional grafts for
over 20 years. Earlier, renal transplantation was limited to patients under 55 years. Now, however, with
better techniques, kidney grafting has been done in selected patients in the 7th decade of life.
Pretransplant preparation : It includes haemodialysis to ensure a relatively normal metabolic state, and
provision of functional, infection-free lower urinary tract.
Donor selection and kidney preservation : A kidney donor should be free of hypertension, diabetes, and
malignancy. A living donor is also carefully evaluated for emotional stability, normal bilateral renal function,
freedom from other systematic disease, and histocompatibility. Cadaveric kidney is obtained from previously
healthy person who sustained brain death but maintained stable cardiovascular and renal function. Following
brain death, kidneys are removed as early as possible, flushed with special cooling solutions, such as
mannitol and stored in iced solution. Preserved kidneys usually function well if transplanted within 48 hours.
Recipient-Donor Matching : Recipient and donor are tested for 3 factors :
(a) Blood groups : Recipient’s blood group should be compatible with donor’s blood group.
(b) Human leucocyte antigen (HLA) : It is a genetic marker located on the surface of leucocytes. A
person inherits a set of 3 antigens from the mother and three from the father. A higher number of matching
antigens increases the chances that the kidney graft will last for a long time.
(c) Antibodies : Small samples of recipient’s and donor’s blood are mixed in a tube. If no reaction
occurs, the patient will be able to accept the kidney.
Transplant procedure : Transplantation is done under general anaesthesia. Operation takes 3 or 4 hours.
Cut is given in the lower abdomen. Donor’s kidney is transplanted retroperitonealy in the iliac fossa. Artery
and vein of new kidney are connected to the iliac artery and vein of the recipient. Ureter of the new kidney
is connected to the urinary bladder of the recipient. Often the new kidney starts producing urine as soon as
blood flows through it, but sometimes it may take a few weeks before it starts working. A week’s stay in the
hospital is necessary to recover from surgery, and longer if there are complications.
The new kidney takes over the work of two failed kidneys. Unless they are causing infection or high blood
pressure, the old kidneys are left in place.
Immunosupression : Immunosupression means to depress the immune response of the recipient to graft
rejection. Prophylactic immunosuppressive therapy is started just before or at the time of renal transplantation.
An ideal immunosuppressant suppress immunity against foreign tissue but maintains immunity against
infection and cancer. The drug, named cyclosporin, in such an immunosupressant. Use of antiserum to
human lymphocytes is equally useful. It destroys T-cell mediated immune responses, but spares humoral
antibody responses.

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 18

(2) DISEASES RELATED TO KIDNEY
(i) Anuria – Failure of kidney to form urine.
(ii) Oligouria – is less urine output.
(iii) Haematuria – Presence of blood cells in urine.
(iv) Aminoaciduria – Urine with amino acids like cystine, glycine, etc.
(v) Dysuria – Painful urination.
(vi) Polyuria – Increased urine volume as in Diabetes insipidus and mellitus.
(vii) Nocturia – Increased volume of urine at night.
(viii) Diabetes mellitus – Sugar appear in urine due to hyposecretion of insulin.
(ix) Diabetes incipidus – Tasteless more urine passing due to hyposecretion of A.D.H.
(x) Cystitis – Inflammation of urinary bladder.
(xi) Gout – Painful great toe (arthiritis) due to deposition of uric acid.
(xii) Oedema – Increased volume of interstitial fluid.
(xiii) Polynephritis – Inflammation of large number of nephrons.
(xiv) Renal stone – Stone formation in the nephrons of kidney due to accumulation of mainly calcium
oxalates some phosphates and uric acid.
(xv) Bright disease – Characterised by nephritis caused by streptococal infection.
(xvi) Ptosis – Displacement of kidney.
(xvii) Nephrotic syndrome – Presence of massive amounts of proteins specially albumin causes
edema (accumulation of fluid in interstitial space) and hyperlipidemia (High blood level of choles-
terol, phopholipids and triglycerides).
(3) ABNORMAL CONSTITUENT OF URINE – (i.e. Not present in normal condition)
1. Protein – If protein is present in urine it may be due to infection or injury in kidney. (Mainly
albumin is filtered)
2. Blood – Due to infection and injury of kidney blood may appear in urine.
3. Sugar – In diabetes mellitus sugar appear in urine.
4. Bile or bile pigment – In jaundice bile pigment appear in urine.
5. Ketone bodies – In starvation and diabetes. Acetone, Aceto acetate, -hydropybutyrate.
(4) FILTRATION FRACTION – Ratio between GFR (glomerular filtration rate) and RPF (renal plasma flow).
(5) Allantoin and allantoic acid are nitrogenous excretory products formed during embryonic development
of amniotes with shelled eggs. Allantoin is also called embryonic waste by allantoic acid is stored in
allantois foetal membrane.
(6) Certain animals are both ammonotelic and ureotelic e.g. Ascaris, earthworm, lung fish (African
toad), etc.
(7) Chordate with flame cells is Branchiostoma (also called Amphioxus).
(8) The most frequent protozoan seen in urine is Trichomonas vaginalis, a cause of vaginitis in
females and urethritis in males.
(9) Both kidney and ureter are retroperitoneal organ.
(10) Urine gives a pungent smell if left for sometime. This smell is of ammonia formed by conversion
of urea into ammonia by bacterial action.
(11) A starving person will also excrete more urea because during starvation proteins are broken
down for energy production.
(12) Xanthine excretory product in Herdmania (urochordata)
(13) Nephrology : Specialized branch of medicine that deals with structure, functions and diseases
of male and female urinary system and male reproductive system.
(14) Urology : Branch of medicine related to male and female urinary system and male reproductive
system.
(15) Diuretics – Diuretic are drugs that increase the rate of urine flow. (Naturally occurring diuretic
include caffine in coffee, tea, and cola soda, which inhibit Na+ reabsorption and alcohol in bear,
wine and mixed drinks inhibits secretion of ADH).

NEET_Excretory Products and their Elimination - 19

Type (I) : Very Short Answer Type Questions : [01 Mark Each]
1. In which part of nephron filtration takes place ?
2. What differences is observed in the ascending and descending limb of Henle's loop with reference to permeability
of water ?
3. What is the pH of urine.
4. What is Malpighian body (renal corpuscle) ?
5. What is micturition?
6. What is meant by the term osmoregulation ?
7. In which nephron portion does the regulation of acidity and alkalinity of the plasma occur ?
8. What are podocytes ?
9. Besides water, name any two constituents of human sweat.
Type (II) : Short Answer Type Questions : [02 Marks Each]
10. How do lungs help in excretion ?
11. Why are most ammonotelic beings aquatic animals ?
12. How do embryos of placental mammals excrete nitrogen wastes ?
13. Give the scientific reasons of the following :
(i) Urine infection is more common in women than in men.
(ii) Frequency of urination increases after consuming alcoholic beverages.
14. Write the difference between Diabetes mellitus and Diabetes incipidus?
Type (III) : Long Answer Type Questions: [03 Mark Each]
15. Differentiate between the following :
(i) Cortical nephrons and Juxta medullary nephrons
(ii) Tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion
16. Name the following:
(a) A chordate animal having flame cells as excretory structures.
(b) Cortical portion projecting between the medullary pyramids in the human kidney.
(c) A loop of capillary running parallel to the Henle's loop.
17. Give two examples of each of the following :
(i) Ammoniotelic animals (ii) Osmoconformers (iii) Ureotelic animals
18. Which are the three hormones that participate in the regulation of the renal function ?
19. Name the excretory organ present in the following animals:
(i) Earthworm (ii) Centipedes
(iii) Prawn (iv) Star fish
(v) Man (vi) Flat worms
Type (IV) : Very Long Answer Type Questions: [05 Mark Each]
20. What is the role of counter current mechanism is excretory system of human ?
21. Describe renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS).
22. Give the diagrammatic sketch of structure of nephron.

NEET_ Excretory System - 20

 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

EXCRETORY WASTE PRODUCTS

1. Waste products of adenine and guanine metabolism are excreted by man as
(1) Ammonia (2) Urea (3) Uric acid (4) Allantois
2. A man takes large amount of protein. He is likely to excrete
(1) Water (2) Glucose (3) Urea and uric acid (4) Salts
3. Which of the following nitrogenous substance is highly toxic
(1) Urea (2) Uric acid (3) Amino acid (4) Ammonia
4. The chief nitrogenous waste in urine of rabbit or terrestrial mammals is
(1) Urea (2) Uric acid (3) Ammonia (4) None
5. Two examples in which the nitrogenous wastes are excreted from body in the form of uric acid are
(1) Birds and lizards (2) Mammals and mollusc
(3) Insects and bony fishes (4) Frogs and cartilaginous fishes
6. Uric acid is the chief nitrogenous component of the excretory products of
(1) Man (2) Earthworm (3) Cockroach (4) Frog
7. Reptiles are :
(1) Ammonotelic (2) Uricotelic
(3) Ureotelic in water and uricotelic on land (4) ureotelic
8. Which of the following are uricotelic animals
(1) Rohu and frog (2) Lizard and crow (3) Camel and frog (4) Earthworm and eagle
9. Uricotelism is found in
(1) Birds, reptiles and insects (2) Frogs and toads
(3) Mammals and birds (4) Fishes and fresh water protozoans

EXCRETORY ORGANS OF DIFFERENT ORGANISM

10. One of the following does the same work as is done by nephridia in earthworm
(1) Flame cells in liverfluke (2) Myotomes in fish
(3) Statocysts in prawn (4) Parotid gland in toad
11. The nephrostomes, in the kidneys, are functional in
(1) Rabbit (2) Adult frog (3) Tadpole (4) Cockroach
12. Correct order of excretory organs in Cockroach, Earthworm and Rabbit respectively
(1) Skin, malpighi tubules, kidney (2) Malpighi tubules, nephridia, kidney
(3) Nephridia, malpighi tubule, kidney (4) Nephridia, kidney, green gland
13. Intestinal excretory organs of Pheretima has a function of
(1) Locomotion (2) Respiration
(3) Water balance (4) Excretion of nitrogenous waste

NEET_ Excretory System - 21

14. Which of the following are enteronephric nephridia in earthworm
(1) Integumentary and Pharyngeal
(2) Septal and integumentary
(3) Pharyngeal and septal
(4) Integumentary only
15. In the urinogenital organs of rabbit which one of following part is present in male but not in female
(1) Urethra (2) Fallopian tube (3) Vagina (4) Vas deferens
16. Fresh water bony fishes maintain water balance by
(1) Excreting a hypotonic urine
(2) Excreting salt across their gills
(3) Drinking small amount of water
(4) Excreting wastes in the form of uric acid
17. Which one of the following statements is correct with respect to salt water balance inside the body of
living organisms
(1) When water is not available camels do not produce urine but store urea in tissues
(2) Salmon fish excretes lot of stored salt through gill membrane when in fresh water
(3) Paramecium discharges concentrated salt solution by contractile vacuoles
(4) The body fluids of fresh water animals are generally hypotonic to surrounding water
18. Green glands, present in some arthropods, help in
(1) Respiration (2) Excretion (3) Digestion (4) Reproduction
19. A terrestrial animal must be able to
(1) Actively pump salts out through the skin
(2) Excrete large amounts of salts in urine
(3) Excrete large amounts of water in urine
(4) Conserve water

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

20. Which one of the following blood vessels in mammals would normally carry the largest amount of urea
(1) Hepatic portal vein (2) Hepatic vein (3) Renal artery (4) Hepatic artery
21. Excretory waste of birds and reptiles are
(1) Urea (2) Urea and uric acid
(3) Uric acid (4) Ammonia and uric acid
22. Animal which excrete urea produced during metabolism of amino acids is
(1) Ureotelism (2) Uricotelism (3) Ammonotelism (4) Aminotelism
23. The most abundant, harmful and universal waste product of metabolism is
(1) CO2 (2) Uric acid (3) H2O (4) None of these
24. The main nitrogenous waste of Hydra is
(1) Ammonia only (2) Urea only
(3) Uric acid only (4) Both (1) and (3)

NEET_ Excretory System - 22

25. Refer the following diagram and identify the parts of a kidney indicated

(1) A=cortex, B=nephron, C=pelvis, D=medulla, E=ureter

(2) A=cortex, B=medulla, C=nephron, D=pelvis, E=ureter
(3) A=nephron, B=cortex, C=medulla, D=ureter, E=pelvis
(4) A=nephron, B=cortex, C=medulla, D=pelvis, E=ureter
26. "Columns of Bertini" in the kidney of mammals are formed as the extension of
(1) Medulla into cortex (2) Cortex into medulla (3) Medulla into pelvis (4) Pelvis into ureter
27. In mammalian kidney Henle's loop is present in
(1) Cortex (2) Caput epididymus (3) Medulla (4) Ureter
28. Other function performed by kidney apart from excretion is
(1) Osmoregulation (2) Temperature regulation(3) Hormonal regulation(4) Spermatogenesis
29. The vessel leading blood (containing nitrogenous waste) into the Bowman's capsule is known as
(1) Afferent arteriole (2) Efferent arteriole (3) Renal artery (4) Renal vein
30. In the diagram of excretory system of human beings given below, different parts have been indicated by
alphabets choose the answer in which these alphabets have been correctly matched with the parts
which they represent

(1) A = Kidney, B = Abdominal aorta, C = Ureters, D = Urinary bladder, E = Urethra, F = Renal pelvis

(2) A = Kidney, B = Abdominal aorta, C = Urethra, D = Urinary bladder, E = Ureters, F = Renal pelvis
(3) A = Kidney, B = Renal pelvis, C = Urethra, D = Urinary bladder, E = Ureters, F = Abdominal aorta
(4) A = Kidney, B = Abdominal aorta, C = Urethra, D = Urinary bladder, E = Renal pelvis, F = Ureters
31. All Bowman's capsules of the kidney are found in
(1) Cortex (2) Medulla (3) Pelvis (4) None of these

NEET_ Excretory System - 23

 URINIFEROUS TUBULE / NEHRONS
32. Each human kidney has nearly
(1) 10,000 nephrons (2) 50,000 nephrons (3) 1,00,000 nephrons (4) 1 million nephrons
33. Podocytes are the cells present in
(1) Bowman's capsule (2) Loop of Henle (3) Duct of Bellini (4) Distal convoluted tubule
34. Loop of Henle is meant for absorption of
(1) Potassium (2) Glucose (3) Water (4) CO2
35. If Henle's loop were absent from mammalian nephron, which of the following is to be expected
(1) The urine will be more dilute (2) There will be no urine formation
(3) There will be hardly any change in the quality and quantity of urine formed
(4) The urine will be more concentrated
36. Which one of he four parts mentioned below does not constitute a part of a single uriniferous tubule
(1) Bowman's capsule (2) Distal convoluted tubule
(3) Loop of Henle (4) Collecting duct
37. The portion of nephron which is relatively impermeable to water is
(1) Collecting tubule (2) Duct of Bellini (3) Distal tubule (4) Loop of Henle
38. Malpighian tubules remove excretory products from
(1) Haemolymph (2) Alimentary canal (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these
39. The basic functional and structural unit of human kidney is
(1) Nephron (2) Pyramid (3) Nephridia (4) Henle's loop

UREA FORMATION / ORNITHINE CYCLE

40. Which of the following cycles in liver is mainly responsible for the synthesis of urea
(1) Citruline cycle (2) Krebs cycle (3) Nitrogen cycle (4) Ornithine cycle
41. At which stage of ornithine cycle arginase is used
(1) Arginine - Ornithine (2) Ornithine - Citruline
(3) Fumaric acid - Arginine (4) Glycolysis - Urea

42. Which one of the following pair of waste substances is removed from blood in ornithine cycle
(1) CO2 and urea (2) Ammonia and urea (3) CO2 and ammonia (4) Urea and sodium salt
43. Ornithine an amino acid is found
(1) As an intermediate of urea synthesis (2) As an intermediate of methonine metabolism
(3) As a major fraction of the connective tissue (4) In bile salts

44. Ornithine cycle is related to

(1) Respiration (2) Nutrition (3) Excretion (4) Digestion
45. Transamination process takes place in
(1) Liver (2) Kidney (3) Heart (4) All the above

46. The end product of ornithine cycle is

(1) Urea (2) Ammonia (3) Uric acid (4) Carbon dioxide
47. In ureotelic animals, urea is formed by
(1) Ornithine cycle (2) Coris cycle (3) Krebs cycle (4) EMP pathway

NEET_ Excretory System - 24

 URINE FORMATION
48. The liquid which is collected in the cavity of Bowman's capsule is
(1) Concentrated urine (2) Blood plasma minus blood proteins
(3) Glycogen and water (4) Sulphates and water
49. What causes the liquid part of the blood to filter out from the glomerulus into the renal tubule
(1) Osmosis (2) High (hydrostatic) pressure
(3) Diapedesis (4) Dialysis
50. Which one of the following subsrances is actively secreted into the glomerular filtrate of the kidney
tubule
(1) Potassium ions (2) Amino acids (3) Sodium ions (4) Chloride ions
51. In the kidney, glucose is mainly absorbed in
(1) Loop of Henle (2) Proximal convoluted tubules
(3) Distal convoluted tubules (4) Bowman's capsule
52. Due to insufficient filtration in the Bowman's capsule, all are likely to happen except
(1) Accumulation of fluid in the body (2) Increase in blood pressure
(3) Increase in blood urea level (4) Loss of glucose through urine
53. Mechanism of uric acid excretion in a nephron is
(1) Osmosis (2) Diffusion (3) Secretion (4) Ultrafiltration
54. Reabsorption in the tubules of nephrons occurs by the process of
(1) Osmosis (2) Diffusion (3) Filtration (4) Active transport
55. The net pressure gradient that causes the fluid to filter out of the glomeruli into the capsule is
(1) 50 mm Hg (2) 75 mm Hg (3) 20 mm Hg (4) 30 mm Hg
56. Glomerular hydrostatic pressure is present in
(1) Tubule of kidney (2) Bowman's capsule
(3) Glomerulus of uriniferous tubule (4) Malpighian tubule
57. Filtration pressure in human kidneys is about
(1) + 15mm Hg (2) + 70mm Hg (3) + 45mm Hg (4) + 55 mm Hg
58. Ultrafiltration takes place in
(1) Blood capillaries (2) Tissue fluid (3) Glomerulus (4) Urinary bladder
59. Reabsorption of useful substances back into the blood from the filtrate in a nephron occurs in
(1) Proximal convoluted tubule (2) Loop of Henle
(3) Distal convoluted tubule (4) Collecting duct
60. Filtration fraction is the ratio of
(1) O2 and CO2 (2) HCO3 and H2CO3 (3) GFR and RPF (4) Hb and HbO2
61. Separation of amino acid into amino and carboxyl group is known as
(1) Deamination (2) Excretion (3) Amination (4) Egestion
62. The glomerular filtrate contains
(1) Blood minus cells and proteins (2) Blood minus cells
(3) Blood minus proteins (4) Plasma minus cells and proteins

NEET_ Excretory System - 25

63. Reabsorption of glucose from the glomerular filtrate in the kidney tubule is carried out by
(1) Active transport (2) Osmosis (3) Brownian movement (4) Diffusion
64. The glomerular filtration rate in a normal adult is nearly
(1) 200ml/minute (2) 250ml/minute (3) 120ml/minute (4)170ml/minute
65. Sodium, water and phosphate reabsorption is maximum in
(1) Loop of Henle (2) Proximal tubule (3) Distal tubule (4) Collecting tubule
66. When a person is suffering from poor renal reabsorption then which of the following will not help in the
maintenance of blood volume
(1) Decreased glomerular filtration (2) Increased ADH secretion
(3) Decreased arterial pressure in kidney (4) Increased arterial pressure in kidney
67. The substance which is completely reabsorbed from the filtrate in the renal tubule under normal condi
tions is
(1) Urea (2) Salt (3) Glucose (4) Water
68. Protein rich diet brings about relatively no change in one of the following constituents of urine
(1) Urea (2) Creatinine (3) Uric acid (4) Ammonium salts

REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION

69. Volume of urine is regulated by
(1) Aldosterone (2) Aldosterone, ADH and testosterone
(3) Aldosterone and ADH (4) ADH alone
70. Water reabsorption in the distal parts of kidney tubules is regulated by
(1) STH (2) TSH (3) ADH (4) MSH

MICTURITION
71. What will happen if the stretch receptors of the urinary bladder wall are totally removed
(1) Urine will not collect in the bladder (2) Micturition will continue
(3) Urine will continue to collect normally in the bladder
(4) There will be no micturition
72. The yellow colour of urine of the vertebrates is due to
(1) Cholesterol (2) Urochrome (3) Uric acid (4) Melanin

ROLE OF OTHER ORGAN IN EXCRETION

73. Stool of a person contains whitish grey colour due to malfunction of
(1) Liver (2) Spleen (3) Kidney (4) Pancreas
74. Kidneys are not the only organs of excretion, their work is supplemented by
(1) Liver (2) Skin (3) Heart (4) Large intestine

DISEASE RELATED WITH KIDNEY

75. A person is undergoing prolonged fasting. His urine will be found to contain abnormal quantities of
(1) Fats (2) Aminoacids (3) Glucose (4) Ketones
76. Which of these is not a ketone body
(1) Acetoacetic acid (2) Acetone (3) Succinic acid (4) Betahydroxy butyric acid

NEET_ Excretory System - 26

77. Diuresis is a specific pathological condition which leads to
(1) Increased volume of urine excretion (2) Decreased volume of urine excretion
(3) Increased glucose excretion (4) Decreased electrolyte concentration
78. The appearance of albumin in the urine is most likely due to
(1) Increase in the blood pressure (2) Decrease in the blood osmotic pressure
(3) Damage to the Malpighian corpuscles (4) Damage to the proximal convoluted tubules
79. A kidney stone is
(1) Blockage by fats
(2) Deposition of sand in kidney
(3) A salt such as oxalate crystallised in pelvis
(4) Blockage by proteins
80. Presence of RBC in urine is known as
(1) Proteinuria (2) Alkaptonuria (3) Haematuria (4) Uraethiasis

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is not a function of the mammalian kidney? (7thCBO)
(1) Water retention (2) Regulation of sodium in the blood
(3) Excretion of toxins (4) Synthesis of urea
2. Increased sympathetic nervous system stimulation of afferent arterioles results in : (NSO II L)
(1) Decreased filtrate production (2) Increased filtrate production
(3) No change in filtration rate (4) Increased kidney function
3. Which of the following statements are correct about excreted nitrogenous waste products ? (3thABO)
(I) Ammonia is more soluble in water than urea
(II) For each nitrogen atom urea requires more energy to be produced by animals than uric acid
(III) Birds and insects excrete uric acid
(1) (i) only (2) (iii) only (3) (i) and (ii) only (4) (i) and (iii) only
4. With respect to the blood the mammalian kidney does not have an important role in maintaining which of
the following ? (9thCBO)
(1) Water content (2) Osmotic concentration
(3) Blood pressure (4) Glucose levels
5. Which one of the following statements is correct? (3th NSO I L)
(1) Bowmans corpuscles + malpighian tubules constitute the glomerulus
(2) Malpighian corpuscles + glomerulus constitute the bowmans capsule
(3) Renal corpuscle and glomerulus constitute malpighian corpuscles
(4) Bowmans capsule and glomerulus together constitute renal corpuscles

NEET_ Excretory System - 27

 AIIMS CORNER
1. Ultrafiltration occurs in a glomerulus when : (AIIMS 1981)
(1) hydrostatic pressure exceeds osmotic pressure
(2) osmotic pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure
(3) capsular hydrostatic pressure exceeds glomerular hydrostatic pressure
(4) colloidal osmotic pressure plus capsular pressure remain less than glomerular hydrostatic pressure
2. The end product of ornithine cycle is : (AIIMS 1999)
(1) ammonia (2) uric acid (3) urea (4) CO2
3. Presence of urea in the blood is called : (AIIMS 2002)
(1) Uraemia (2) Haematuria (3) Diurea (4) Anuria
4. Which one of the following statements is correct with respect to salt water balance inside the body of living
organisms : (AIIMS 2005)
(1) when water is not available , camels do not produce urine but store urea in tissues
(2) Salmon fish excretes lot of stored salt through gill membrane
(3) Paramecium discharges concentrated salt solution by contractile vacuoles
(4) The body fluids of fresh water animals are generally hypotonic to surrounding water.

ASSERTION / REASONING
In each of the following questions a statement of Assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding
statement of Reason (R) just below it. Of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(1) If both assertion and resaon are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false
(4) If both assertion and reason are false.
5. Assertion : In the descending limb of loop of Henle, the urine is hypertonic, while in the ascending limb of
loop of Henle, the urine becomes hypotonic.
Reason : Descending limb is impermeable to Na+ , while ascending limb is impermeable to H2O .
(1) (2) (3) (4)
6. Assertion : The final reabsorption of water from the urine into the blood occurs through the collecting duct
of a mammalian nephron resulting in the production of hyperosmotic urine.
Reason : The loop of Henle creates a sodium gradient in the interstitial fluid from the renal medulla toward
the renal cortex
(1) (2) (3) (4)
7. Assertion : Nephritis is the inflammation of kidney tissue.
Reason : Nephritis is usually caused by a viral infection.
(1) (2) (3) (4)

NEET_ Excretory System - 28

8. Assertion : The urinary bladder has a well developed, 3-layered detrusor muscle in its wall.
Reason : Bladder gradually contrats to drive urine out during micturition.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
9. Assertion : Deamination takes place in the hepatocytes by oxidase enzyme, producing NH3.
Reason : Ornithine cycle combines NH3 and CO2 to form urea in the adipocytes.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
10. Assertion : The urinary bladder dilates a good deal as urine trickles into it from the ureters.
Reason : Urinary bladder is lined throughout by transitional epithelium.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
11. Assertion : A filtration pressure of 25 mm . Hg in the blood of glomerular capillaries forces water and
solutes into the Bowman’s capsule.
Reason : Glomerular capillaries and visceral wall of Bowman’s capsule have pores.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
12. Assertion : Kidneys are retroperitoneal organs.
Reason : Peritoneum covers the kidneys on all sides.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
13. Assertion : Urinary tract infection is less common in women than in men.
Reason : Urethra is longer in women than in men.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
14. Assertion : Tubular secretion along accounts for excretion for excretion in the desert amphibians.
Reason : Desert amphibians have abundant Bowman’s capsules and glomeruli.
(1) (2) (3) (4)

1. Reabsorption of useful substances from glomerular filtrate occurs in (BHU 1988; AIPMT 1989)
(1) Collecting tube (2) Loop of Henle
(3) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) (4) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
2. Proximal and distal convoluted tubules are parts of (AIPMT 1990)
(1) Seminiferous tubules (2) Nephron
(3) Oviduct (4) Vas deferens
3. Brush border is characteristic of (AIPMT 1990)
(1) Neck of nephron (2) Collecting tube
(3) Proximal convoluted tubule (4) All of the above
4. Nitrogenous waste products are eliminated mainly as (AIPMT 1991)
(1) Urea in tadpole and ammonia in adult frog
(2) Ammonia in tadpole and urea in adult frog
(3) Urea in both tadpole and adult frog
(4) Urea in tadpole and uric acid in adult frog

NEET_ Excretory System - 29

5. Under normal conditions which one is completely reabsorbed in the renal tubule ? (AIPMT 1991)
(1) Urea (2) Uric acid (3) Salts (4) Glucose
6. Glucose is taken back from glomerular filtrate through : (AIPMT 1993)
(1) Diffusion (2) Osmosis (3) Active transport (4) Passive transport
7. If kidneys fail to reabsorb water the effect on tissue would (AIPMT 1994)
(1) Remain unaffected (2) Shrink and shrivel
(3) Absorb water from blood plasma (4) Take more O2 from blood
8. Uric acid is nitrogenous waste in (AIPMT 1994)
(1) mammals and molluscs (2) Birds and lizards
(3) Frog and cartilaginous fishes (4) Insects and bony fishes
9. Part not belonging to uriniferous tubule is (AIPMT 1994)
(1) Glomerulus (2) Henles loop (3) Distal convoluted tubule (4) Connecting tubule
10. In ornithine cycle which one pair of the following wastes are removed from the blood ? (AIPMT1996,2005)
(1) CO2 and urea (2) CO2 and ammonia
(3) Ammonia and urea (4) Urea and sodium salts
11. A patient suffering from cholera is given saline drip because (AIPMT 1996,2000)
–
(1) Cl ions are important component of blood plasma
(2) Na+ ions help to retain water in the body
(3) Na+ ions are important in transport of substances across membrane
(4) Cl– ions help in the formation of HCl in stomach for digestion

12. In ureotelic animals urea is formed by (AIPMT 1997)

(1) Ornithine cycle (2) Cori cycle
(3) Krebs cycle (4) EMP pathway

13. The kidney of an adult frog is (AIPMT 1997)

(1) Pronephros (2) Mesonephros (3) Metanephros (4) Opisthonephros
14. The basic functional unit of human kidney is (AIPMT 1997)
(1) Nephron (2) Pyramid (3) Nephridia (4) Henles loop
15. A condition of failure of kidney to form urine is called (AIPMT 1998)
(1) Deamination (2) Entropy (3) Anuria (4) None of these
16. Solenocytes are the main excretory structures in (AIPMT 1998)
(1) Annelids (2) Molluscs (3) Echinodermates (4) Platyhelminthes
17. Reptiles are : (AIPMT 1999)
(1) Ammonotelic (2) Uricotelic
(3) Ammonotelic in water and uricotelic on land (4) ureotelic
18. Which one of the following is correctly matched pair of the given secretion and its primary role in human
physiology ? (AIPMT 2000)
(1) Sebum – Sexual attraction (2) Sweat – Thermoregulation
(3) Saliva – Tasting food (4) Tears – Excretion of salts
19. In living beings ammonia is converted into urea through (AIPMT 2000)
(1) Ornithine cycle (2) Citrulline cycle (3) Fumarine cycle (4) Arginine cycle
NEET_ Excretory System - 30
20. The enteronephric nephridia of earthworms are mainly concerned with (AIPMT 2000)
(1) Digestion (2) Respiration
(3) Osmoregulation (4) Excretion of nitrogenous wastes
21. The ability of the vertebrates to produce concentrated (hyperosmtic) urine usually depends upon the
(AIPMT 2000)
(1) Area of bowman s capsule epithelium (2) Length of henles loop
(3) Length of the proximal convoluted tubule (3) Capillary network forming glomerulus
22. In Hydra waste material of food digestion and nitrogenous waste material are removed from (AIPMT 2001)
(1) Mouth and mouth (2) Body wall and body wall
(3) Mouth and body wall (4) Mouth and tentacles
23. In protozoa like amoeba for osmoregulation which is (AIPMT 2002)
(1) Contractile vacuole (2) Mitochondria
(3) Nucleus (4) Food vacuole
24. If Henle’s loop were absent from mammalian nephron, which of the following is to be expected :
(AIPMT 2003)
(1) There will be no urine formation
(2) There will be hardly any change in the quality and quantity of urine formed
(3) The urine will be more concentrated
(4) The urine will be more dilute
25. When a fresh water protozoan possessing a contractile vacuole is placed in a glass containing marine water
the vacuole will (AIPMT 2004)
(1) Increase in number (2) Disappear
(3) Increase in size (4) Decrease in size

26. Uricotelism is found in : (AIPMT 2004)

(1) Birds , reptiles and insects (2) Frogs and toads
(3) Mammals and birds (4) Fishes and fresh water protozoans

27. The net pressure gradient that causes the fluid to filter out of the glomeruli into the capsule is :
(AIPMT 2005)
(1) 50 mm Hg (2) 75 mm Hg (3) 20 mm Hg (4) 30 mm Hg

28. In ornithine cycle, which of the following wastes are removed from the blood : (AIPMT 2005)
(1) CO2 and urea (2) ammonia and urea
(3) CO2 and ammonia (4) urea and urine
29. A person is undergoing prolonged fasting. His urine will be found to contain abnormal quantitles of :
(AIPMT 2005)
(1) fats (2) amino acids (3) glucose (4) ketones
30. Bowman’s glands are found in : (AIPMT 2006)
(1) juxtamedullary nephrons (2) olfactory epithelium
(3) external auditory canal (4) cortical nephrons only

NEET_ Excretory System - 31

31. Earthworms are : (AIPMT 2006)
(1) ammonotelic when plenty of water is available
(2) ureotelic when plenty of water is available
(3) uricotelic when plenty of water is available
(4) uricotelic under conditions of water scarcity
32. Angiotensinogen is a protein produced and secreted by : (AIPMT 2006)
(1) juxtaglomerular (JG) cells (2) macula dense cells
(3) endothelial cells (cells lining the blood vessels) (4) liver cells
33. A person who is on a long hunger strike and is surviving only on water will have (AIPMT 2007)
(1) More sodium in his urine
(2) Less amino acids in his urine
(3) More glucose in his blood

(4) Less urea in his urine

34. Consider the following four statements (A-D) about certain desert animals such as kangaroo rat
(AIPMT (2008)
(A) They have dark colour and high rate of reproduction and excrete solid urine.
(B) They do not drink water breathe at a slow rate to conserve water and have their body covered with thick
hairs.
(C) They feed on day seeds and do not require drinking water.
(D) They excrete very concentrated urine and do not use water to regulate body temperature.
Which two of the above statements for such animals are true?

(1) C and D (2) B and C (3) C and A (4) A and B

35. Which one of the following pair of items correctly belongs to the category of organs mentioned against it?
(AIPMT 2008)
(1) Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendrils of cucurbita – Analogous organs
(2) Nictitating membrane and blind spot in human eye – Vestigial organs
(3) Nephridia of earthworm and Malpighian tubules of cockroach – Excretory organs

(4) Wings of honey bee and wings of crow – Homologous organs

36. Uric acid is the chief nitrogenous component of the excretory products of : (AIPMT 2009)
(1) Frog (2) Man (3) Earth worm (4) Cockroach
37. What will happen if the stretch receptors of the urinary bladder wall are totally removed : (AIPMT 2009)
(1) There will be no micturition (2) Urine will not collect in the bladder
(3) Micturition will continue (4) Urine will continue to collect normally in the bladder
38. Which one of the following statements in regard to the excretion by the human kidneys is correct
[AIPMT Pre 2010]
—
(1) Distal convoluted tubule is incapable of reabsorbing HCO3
(2) Nearly 99 per cent of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed by the renal tubules
(3) Ascending limb of loop of Henle is impermeable to electrolytes
(4) Descending limb of loop of Henle is impermeable to water

NEET_ Excretory System - 32

39. Consider the following four statements (a-d) regarding kidney transplant and select the two correctones out
of these. [AIPMT Pre 2010]
(a) Even if a kidney transplant is proper the recipient may need to take immunosuppresants for a long time
(b) The cell-mediated immune response is responsible for the graft regection
(c) The B- lymphocytes are responsible for rejection of the graft
(d) The acceptance or rejection of a kidney transplant depends on specific interferons
The two correct statements are
(1) (c) and (d) (2) (a) and (c) (3) (a) and (b) (4) (b) and (c)
40. The principal nitrogenous excretroy compound in humans is synthesised [AIPMT Pre 2010]
(1) In kidneys as well eliminated by kidneys
(2) In liver and also eliminated by the same throught bile
(3) In the liver, but eliminated mostly through kidneys
(4) In kidneys but eliminated mostly through liver
41. Which one of the following is not a part of a renal pyramid. [AIPMT Pre 2011]
(1) Peritubular capillaries (2) Convoluted tubules
(3) Collecting ducts (4) Loops of Henle
42. Which one of the following correctly explains the function of a specifice part of a human nephron ?

[AIPMT Pre 2011]

(1) Podocytes : Create minute spaces (slite pores) for the filtration of blood into the Bowman’s capsule
(2) Henle’s loop : most reabsorption of the major substances from the glomerular filtrate
(3) Distal convoluted tubule : reabsorption of K+ ions into the surrounding blood capilaries
(4) Afferent arteriole : carries the blood away from the glomerulus towards renal vein.

43. Which one of the following statements is correct with respect to kidney function regulation ?
[AIPMT Pre 2011]
(1) When someone drinks lot of water, ADH release is suppressed.
(2) Exposure to cold temperature of body stimulates release of ADH
(3) An increase in glomerular blood flow stimulates formation of Angiotensin II.
(4) During summer when body loses lot of water by evaporation, the release of ADH is suppressed.
44. Uricotelic mode of passing out nitrogenous wastes is found in : [AIPMT Pre 2011]
(1) Reptiles and Bird (2) Birds and Annelids
(3) Amphibians and Reptiles (4) Insects and Amphibians
45. The maximum amount of electrolytes and water (70 - 80 percent) from the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in
which part of the nephron ? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Ascending limb of loop of Henle
(2) Distal convoluted tubule
(3) Proximal convoluted tubule
(4) Descending limb of loop of Henle

NEET_ Excretory System - 33

46. Which one of the following options gives the correct categorisation of six animals according to the type of
nitrogenous wastes (A, B, C), they give out ? [AIPMT Mains 2012]

A - AM MONOTELIC B - UREOTELIC C - URICOTELIC

(1) Pigeon, Hum ans Aquatic Amphibia, Liz ards Cockroach, Frog
(2) Frog, Lizards Aquatic Am phibia, Hum ans Cockroach, P igeon
(3) Aquatic A m phibia Frog, Humans P igeon, Liz ards, Cockroach
(4) Aquatic A m phibia Cockroach, Humans Frog, Pigeon, Lizards

47. A fall in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) activates : [AIPMT Mains 2012
(1) juxta glomerular cells to release renin (2) adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
(3) adrenal medulla to release adrenaline (4) posterior pituitary to release vasopressin
48. Which one of the following characteristics is common both in humans and adult frogs ?
(1) Four - chambered heart (2) Internal fertilisation [AIPMT Mains 2012]
(3) Nucleated RBCs (4) Ureotelic mode of excretion
48(a) Figure shown human urinary system with structures labelled A to D. Select option which correctly identifies
them and gives their characteristics and / or functions. (NEET 2013)

(1) B - pelvis - broad funnel shaped space inner to hilum, directly connected to loops of Henle.
(2) C - Medulla - inner zone of kidney and contains complex nephrons.
(3) D - Cortex - outer part of kidney and do not contain any part of nephrons
(4) A - Adrenal gland - located at the anterior part of kidney. Secrete Catecholamines which stimulate
glycogen breakdown.

49. Filtration of blood occurs in : (CPMT 1985; MPPMT 1998)

(1) Loop of Henle (2) Bowman’s capsule (3) Lungs (4) Renal papillae
50. The glomerular filtrate i.e., the liquid collected in the cavity of Bowman’s capsule is : (CPMT 2004)
(1) Blood minus proteins (2) Blood minus proteins and corpuscles
(3) Water (4) Urine
51. What causes the liquid part of blood plasma to filter out from glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule ?
(CPMT 1985, 88)
(1) Dialysis (2) GHP (3) Osmosis (4) Absorption

NEET_ Excretory System - 34

52. Ultratiltration occurs through : (CPMT 1988)
(1) Basement membrane(2) Glomerular rnembrane
(3) Interpodocytic space (4) Capsular wall
53. In comparison to blood plasma, percentage of glucose in glomerular filtrate is : (CPMT 1992)
(1) Higher (2) Equal (3) Lower (4) Nil
54. Function of g(omerulus in rabbit’s kidney is : (CPMT 1992; RPMT1998; BCECE 2004)
(1) urine collection (2) blood filtration for urine formation
(3) reabsorption of salts (4) all of these
55. Filtration fraction is the ratio of : (CPMT 1990)
(1) GFR and RPF (2) Hb and HbO2 (3) O2 and CO2 (4) HCO3 and H2CO3
56. The glomerular filtrate contains : (MPPMT 1989)
(1) Urea and uric acid (2) Urea, uric acid and ammonia
(3) Urea, uric acid, ammonia and water (4) Urea, uric acid, glucose and water
57. There is no sugar in the urine. The blood entering the kidney has more sugar than the blood leaving the
kidney because : (DPMT 1985)
(1) sugar is absorbed by loop of Henle
(2)sugar is used by kidney cells in metabolism
(3) sugar is absorbed by PCT
(4) sugar is absorbed by urinary bladder
58. Effective Filtration Pressure (EFP) in the glomerulus of kidney of man is about : (CPMT 1990)
(1) 10 mm Hg (2) 50 mm Hg (3) 75 mm Hg (4) 80 mm Hg
59. Glomerular filtrate will not contain normally : (RPMT 1985)
(1) Albumin (2) Glucose (3) NaCI (4) Creatinine
60. Total filtrate formed in 24 hours in human kidney is : (BHU 1992)
(1) 1.8 litre (2) 8.0 litre (3) 18 litre (4) 180 litre
61. Hydrostatic pressure inside glomerular afferent arteriole is : (JKCMEE 1992)
(1) T65 mm Hg (2) +60 mm Hg (3) +25 mm Hg (4) +90 mm Hg
62. What causes glomerular filtration? (CPMT 1988)
(1) High pressure (2) Osmosis (3) Diapedesis (4) Dialysis
63. Main functions of kidney is : (AFMC 1994)
(1) Passive absorption (2) Ultrafiltration
(3) Selective reabsorption (4) Both (2) and (3)
64. In the nephron of rabbit, reabsorption of glucose occurs in : (EAMCET 2003; AFMC 2005)
(1) distal convoluted tubule (2) proximal convoluted tubule
(3) ascending limb of Henle’s loop (4) descending limb of Henle’s loop

65. What are mainly reabsorbed from Henle’s loops ? (BHU 1981)
(1) Potassium (2) Glucose (3) Water and NaCI (4) Urea and NaCI
66. The part of the nephron that helps in active reabsorption of sodium is : (JIPMER 2002)
(1) Bowman’s capsule (2) Distal convoluted tubule
(3) Ascending limb of Henle’s loop (4) Proximal convoluted tubules

NEET_ Excretory System - 35

67. Reabsorption of water in distal parts of kidney tubules/urine formation is controlled by :
(CPMT 1991; AFMC 2001)
(1) relaxin (2) calcitonin (3) oxytocin (4) vasopressin
68. Reabsorption of water in the kidney is controlled by : (PMT Pb 1999)
(1) Aldosterone (2) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
(3) Oxytocin (4) Growth hormone (GH)
69. Nitrogenous wastes are excreted as uric acid in : (PMT Pb. 1999 ; DPMT 1999)
(1) Mollusks and mammals (2) Insects and bony fishes
(3) Frog and cartilaginous fishes (4) Lizards and birds
70. In micturition : (PMT Pb. 1999)
(1) urethra contracts (2) urethra relaxes (3) ureters contracts (4) ureters relax
71. Malpighian tubules remove excretory matter from the : (DPMT 1999)
(1) oral cavity (2) alimentary canal (3) haemolymph (4) all of these
72. Excretory system of housefly consists of : (CET Chandigarh 2000)
(1) Flame cells (2) Keber’s organ (3) Nephridia (4) Malpighian tubules
73. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) : (CET Chd. 2001)
(1) Increases water reabsorption (2) Increases water release
(3) Increases Na+ reabsorption (4) Decreases urea synthesis
74. Functional unit in a kidney is : (AFMC 2001)
(1) Nephron (2) Nephritis (3) Neuron (4) Loop of Henle
75. An accessory excretory organ is : (CET Chd. 2002)
(1) Heart (2) Stomach (3) Liver (4) Intestine
76. Presence of blood in urine is : (CMC Ldh. 2002)
(1) Glycosuria (2) Haematuria (3) Oligourea (4) Anuria
77. Hippuric acid, creatinine , and ketones are added to urine by : (Pb PMT 2002)
(1) Glomerular filtration (2) Tubular secretion (3) Reabsorption (4) Both 1 and 2
78. One of these animals is ammoniotelic : (Har. PMT 2002)
(1) Rat (2) Whale (3) Teleosts (4) Shark
79. Minimum concentration of nitrogenous waste is present in : (BVP Pune 2003)
(1) Renal vein (2) Renal artery (3) Hepatic vein (4) Renal portal vein
80. What amount of blood passes from kidney per minute : (BVP Pune 2003)
(1) 1300 ml (2) 1500 ml (3) 1800 ml (4) 2000 ml
81. Urinary bladder can store what amount of urine : (BVP Pune 2003)
(1) 250-700 ml (2) 750-1000 ml (3) 150-300 ml (4) 1000-1500 ml
82. Excretion of nitrogenous waste product in semisolid form occur in : (Kerla CET 2003)
(1) Ureotelic animals (2) Ammonotelic animals
(3) Uricotelic animals (4) Amniotes
83. Kidney stones are : (Kerla CET 2003)
(1) Crystals of sodium chloride (2) Crystals of silica
(3) Crystal of calcium oxalate (4) Crystal of potassium chloride

NEET_ Excretory System - 36

84. Reptiles are : (U.P CPMT 2003)
(1) Ammonotelic (2) Uricotelic
(3) Ammonotelic in water and uricotelic on land (4) ureotelic
85. The excretory system of prawn is called : (BHU 2003)
(1) Malpighian tubules (2) Nephridia (3) Solenocytes (4) Green glands
86. An X-ray of lower abdomen shows a shadow in the region of the ureter suspected to be a uretelic calculus
, a possible clinical symptom would be : (Karnataka 2003)
(1) Active renal failure (2) Anuria and haematuria
(3) Motor aphasia (4) Chronic renal failure (CRF)
87. Haemodialysis is done in the condition when person is suffering from : (BHU 2003)
(1) Diabetes (2) Uremia (3) Anaemia (4) Goitre
88. Seagulls excrete excess of NaCl from : (BHU 2005)
(1) liver (2) lungs (3) nasal cavity (4) kidney
89. Podocytes are the cells present in : (BHU Screening 2006)
(1) cortex of nephron (2) inner wall of Bowman’s capsule
(3) outer wall of Bowman’s capsule (4) wall of glomerular capillaries
90. Which of the following is concerned with the formation of urea in rabbit : (BHU PMT 2007)
(1) blood (2) kidney (3) spleen (4) liver
100. Green glands, present in some arthropods , help in : (BHU PMT 2007)
(1) respiration (2) excretion (3) digestion (4) reproduction
101. Loop of Henle is found in : (BHU PMT 2007)
(1) lung (2) liver (3) neuron (4) nephron
102. Deamination occurs in : (U.P CPMT 2007)
(1) kidney (2) liver (3) nephron (4) both (1) & (2)
103. Bidder’s canal is found in : (U.P CPMT 2007)
(1) testes of frog (2) kidney of forg (3) kidney of rabbit (4) both (1) & (3)
104. Excretory product of spider is : (U.P CPMT 2007)
(1) uric acid (2) ammonia (3) guanine (4) none of these
105. ADH acts on the : (U.P CPMT 2007)
(1) collecting tubule of kidney (2) loop of Henle
(3) collecting ducts of testes (4) none of these
106. Which of the following are metabolic wastes of protein metabolism : (BHU Screening 2008)
(1) urea, oxygen and N2 (2) urea, NH3 and CO2
(3) Ammonia, urea and creatinine (4) Nitrogen, urea and CO2
107. Find the incorrect statement regarding mechanism of urine formation in man : (Kerla PMT 2009)
(1) the glomerular filtration rate is about 125 ml per minute
(2) the ultrafiltration is opposed by the colloidal osmotic pressure of plasma
(3) tubular secretion takes place in the PCT
(4) the counter current system contribute in diluting the urine
108. A bird excrete nitrogenous waste materials in the form : (Kerla PMT 2009)
(1) Uric acid (2) Ammonia (3) Urea (4) Amino acids

NEET_ Excretory System - 37

109. Which one of the following is correct with reference to haemodialysis : (Kerla PMT 2009)
(1) Absorbs and resends excess of ions
(2) The dialysis unit has a coiled cellophone tube
(3) Blood is pumped back through a suitable artery after haemodialysis
(4) Nitrogenous wastes are removed by active transport
110. Which substance is in higher concentration in blood than in glomerular filtrate : (KCET 2009)
(1) Urea (2) Plasma proteins (3) water (4) glucose
111. A large quantity of fluid is filtered every day by the nephrons in the kidneys. Only about 1% of it is excreted
as urine. The remaining 99% of the filtrate : (KCET 2009)
(1) is stored in the urinary bladder (2) is reabsorbed into the blood
(3) gets collected int the renal pelvis (4) is lost as sweat
112. Which of the following amino acid plays important role in ornithine cycle : (U.P CPMT 2009)
(1) glycine, methionine (2) Arginine, methionine
(3) Ornithine, citrulline (4) Citrulline , glycine

NEET_ Excretory System - 38

 BOARD LEVEL EXERCISE : HINT & SOLUTIONS

1. Malpighian Body
2. Descending arm is permeable to water but ascending is impermeable for this.
3. 6
4. Bowman's capsule +glomerulus.
5. Act of passing out urine from urinary bladder.
6. It is the process that regulates the salt and water content of the animal body.
7. The regulation of the acid-basic equilibrium of the body is done by the kidneys and depends upon the
tubular resorption and secretion.
8. The cells found in the inner boundary of bowman capsule which have slit pores that restrict passage of
colloids but rest of the filterate can pass through them.
9. NaCl and Urea
10. Lungs remove CO2 with some water as vapour and some volatile materials (garlic, onion) in expired
air.
11. Aquatic animals, like crustaceans, bony fishes and amphibian larva, generally are ammonotelic since
ammono diffuses more easily through membranes and it is more water-soluble than the other nitrogen
wastes.
12. Placental animals, including embryos, excrete urea. In embryos either the molecule passes to the mother's
blood through the placenta and it is excreted in the mother's urine or stored in extra embryonic membrane
allantois.
13. (i) It is so because urethra is much shorter in women than in men.
(ii) Alcohol decreases level of ADH. Therefore, reabsorption of water from collecting ducts decreases
and more water is lost in urine or frequency of urination increases.
14. Diabetes mellitus – Sugar appear in urine due to hyposecretion of insulin.
Diabetes incipidus – Tasteless more urine passing due to hyposecretion of A.D.H.
15. (i) Follow page number 5
(ii) Follow page number 10-11
16. (a) Cephalochordate (e.g., Amphioxus)
(b) Columns of Bertini
(c) Vasa re0cta.
17. (i) Amoeba, Scypha (also Hydra, earthworm, Unio, Prawn, bony fish).
(ii) All marine invertebrates, myxine (hag fish).
(iii) Cartilaginous fishes, frog (also turtles, alligators, mammals).
18. Antidiuretic hormone (of ADH or vasopressin), aldosterone and atrial natriuretic factor (or ANF) are hormones
that participate in the regulation of the excretory system.
19. (i) Nephridia (ii) Malpighian tubules
(iii) Antennary or green glands (iv) Tube feet
(v) Kidneys (vi) Flames cells (solenocytes).
20. Follow page number 10-11
21. Follow page number 13
22. Follow page number 5

NEET_ Excretory System - 39

 EXERCISE - 1
1. (3) 2. (3) 3. (4) 4. (1) 5. (1)
6. (3) 7. (3) 8. (2) 9. (1) 10. (1)
11. (3) 12. (2) 13. (4) 14. (3) 15. (4)
16. (1) 17. (1) 18. (2) 19. (4) 20. (2)
21. (3) 22. (1) 23. (1) 24. (1) 25. (4)
26. (2) 27. (3) 28. (1) 29. (1) 30. (1)
31. (1) 32. (4) 33. (1) 34. (3) 35. (1)
36. (4) 37. (2) 38. (1) 39. (1) 40. (4)
41. (1) 42. (3) 43. (1) 44. (3) 45. (1)
46. (1) 47. (1) 48. (2) 49. (2) 50. (1)
51. (2) 52. (4) 53. (4) 54. (4) 55. (3)
56. (3) 57. (1) 58. (3) 59. (1) 60. (3)
61. (1) 62. (1) 63. (1) 64. (3) 65. (2)
66. (4) 67. (3) 68. (4) 69. (3) 70. (3)
71. (2) 72. (2) 73. (1) 74. (2) 75. (4)
76. (3) 77. (1) 78. (3) 79. (3) 80. (3)

EXERCISE - 2
1. (4) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (4) 5. (3)

EXERCISE - 3
1. (4) 2. (3) 5. (1) 6. (1) 7. (3)
8. (1) 9. (3) 10. (1) 11. (1) 12. (3)
13. (4) 14. (3)

EXERCISE - 4
1. (3) 2. (2) 3. (3) 4. (2) 5. (4)
6. (3) 7. (2) 8. (2) 9. (1) 10. (2)
11. (2) 12. (1) 13. (2) 14. (1) 15. (3)
16. (4) 17. (3) 18. (2) 19. (1) 20. (4)
21. (2) 22. (3) 23. (1) 24. (4) 25. (2)
26. (1) 27. (3) 28. (3) 29. (4) 30. (2)
31. (2) 32. (4) 33. (1) 34. (1) 35. (3)
36. (4) 37. (3) 38. (2) 39. (3) 40. (3)
41. (2) 42. (1) 43. (1) 44. (1) 45. (3)
46. (3) 47. (1) 48. (4) 48(a) (4) 49. (2)
50. (2) 51. (2) 52. (1) 53. (2) 54. (2)
55. (1) 56. (4) 57. (2) 58. (1) 59. (1)
60. (4) 61. (2) 62. (1) 63. (4) 64. (2)
65. (3) 66. (3) 67. (4) 68. (2) 69. (4)
70. (2) 71. (3) 72. (4) 73. (1) 74. (1)
75. (3) 76. (2) 77. (4) 78. (3) 79. (1)
80. (1) 81. (1) 82. (3) 83. (3) 84. (3)
85. (4) 86. (2) 87. (2) 88. (3) 89. (2)
90. (4) 100. (2) 101. (4) 102. (2) 103. (2)
104. (3) 105. (1) 106. (3) 107. (4) 108. (1)
109. (2) 110. (2) 111. (2) 112. (3)

NEET_ Excretory System - 40