Chapter 19

Turing Machines

19.1 Introduction
• Turing machines will be our ultimate model for computers, so they need
output capabilities.
• But computers without output statements can tell us something.
• Consider the following program

1. READ X
2. IF X=1 THEN END
3. IF X=2 THEN DIVIDE X BY 0
4. IF X>2 THEN GOTO STATEMENT 4

• If we assume that the input is always a positive integer, then

if program terminates naturally, then we know X was 1.
if program terminates with error message saying there is an overflow
(i.e., crashes), then we know X was 2.
if the program does not terminate, then we know X was greater
than 2.

Definition: A Turing machine (TM) T = (Σ, Θ, η, Γ, K, s, H, Π), where

1. An alphabet Σ of input letters, and assume that the blank ∆ 6∈ Σ.

19-1
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-2

2. A Tape Θ divided into a sequence of numbered cells, each containing one

character or a blank.

• The input word is presented to the machine on the tape with one
letter per cell beginning in the leftmost cell, called cell i.
• The rest of the Tape is initially filled with blanks ∆.
• The Tape is infinitely long in one direction.

cell i cell ii cell iii cell iv cell v

. . .

Tape Head
3. A Tape Head η that can in one step read the contents of a cell on the
Tape, replace it with some other character, and reposition itself to the
next cell to the right or to the left of the one it has just read.

• At the start of the processing, the Tape Head always begins by

reading the input in cell i.
• The Tape Head can never move left from cell i. If it is given orders
to do so, the machine crashes.
• The location of the Tape Head is indicated as in the above picture.

4. An alphabet Γ of characters that can be printed on the Tape Θ by the

Tape Head η.

• Assume that ∆ 6∈ Γ, and we may have that Σ ⊂ Γ.

• The Tape Head may erase a cell, which corresponds to writing ∆
in the cell.

5. A finite set K of states including

• Exactly one START state s ∈ K from which we begin execution

(and which we may reenter during execution).
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-3

• H ⊂ K is a set of HALT states, which cause execution to terminate

when we enter any of them. There are zero or more HALT states.
• The other states have no function, only names such as q1 , q2 , q3 , . . .
or 1, 2, 3, . . ..

6. A program Π, which is a finite set of rules that, on the basis of the state
we are in and the letter the Tape Head has just read, tells us

(a) how to change states,

(b) what to print on the Tape,
(c) where to move the Tape Head.

The program

Π ⊂ K × K × (Σ + Γ + {∆}) × (Γ + {∆}) × {L, R},

with the restriction that

• if (q1 , q2 , `, c, d) ∈ Π and (q10 , q20 , `0 , c0 , d0 ) ∈ Π with q1 = q10 and ` = `0 ,

then q2 = q20 , c = c0 and d = d0 ;
• i.e., for any state q1 and any character ` ∈ Σ + Γ + {∆}, there is
only one arc leaving state q1 corresponding to reading character `
from the Tape.
• This restriction means that TMs are deterministic.

We depict the program as a collection of directed edges connecting the

states. Each edge is labeled with the triplet of information:

(character, character, direction) ∈ (Σ + Γ + {∆}) × (Γ + {∆}) × {L, R}

where

• The first character (either ∆ or from Σ or Γ) is the character the

Tape Head reads from the cell to which it is pointing.
From any state, there can be at most one arc leaving that state
corresponding to ∆ or any given letter of Σ + Γ;
i.e., there cannot be two arcs leaving a state both with the same
first letter (i.e., a Turing machine is deterministic).
• The second character (either ∆ or from Γ) is what the Tape Head
prints in the cell before it leaves.
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-4

• The third component, the direction, tells the Tape Head whether
to move one cell to the right, R, or one cell to the left, L.

Remarks:

• The above definition does not require that every state has an edge leaving
it corresponding to each letter of Σ + Γ.

• If we are in a state and read a letter for which there is no arc leaving
that state corresponding to that letter, then the machine crashes. In this
case, the machine terminates execution unsuccessfully.

• To terminate execution successfully, machine must be led to a HALT

state. In this case, we say that the word on the input tape is accepted
by the TM.

• If Tape Head is currently in cell i and the program tells the Tape Head
to move left, then the machine crashes.

• Our definition of TM’s requires them to be deterministic. There are also

non-deterministic TM’s. When we say just “TM”, then we mean our
above definition, which means it is deterministic.

Definition: A string w ∈ Σ∗ is accepted by a Turing machine if the following

occurs: when w is loaded onto the Tape and the machine is run, the TM ends
in a Halt state.

Definition: The language accepted by a Turing machine is the set of accepted

strings w ∈ Σ∗ .
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-5

Example: Consider the following TM with input alphabet Σ = {a, b} and

tape alphabet Γ = {a, b}:

(a,a,R)
(b,b,R)
(a,a,R)

START 1 2 3 HALT 4
(b,b,R) ( , ,R)
(b,b,R)

and input tape containing input aba

i ii iii iv v vi
a b a

• We start in state START 1 with the Tape Head reading cell i, and we
denote this by
1
aba
The number on top denotes the state we are currently in. The things
below represent the current contents of the tape, with the letter about
to be read underlined.

• After reading in a in state 1, the TM then takes the top arc from state 1
to state 2, and so it prints a into the contents of cell i and the Tape Head
moves to the right to cell ii. We record this action by writing
1 2
−→
aba aba
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-6

The tape now looks like

i ii iii iv v vi
a b a

• Now we are in state 2, and the Tape Head is pointing to cell ii. Since
cell ii contains b, we will take the arc from state 2 to state 3, print b in
cell ii, and move the Tape Head to the right to cell iii. We record this
action by writing
1 2 3
−→ −→
aba aba aba
The tape now looks like

i ii iii iv v vi
a b a

• Now we are in state 3, and the Tape Head is pointing to cell iii. Since
cell iii contains a, we will take the arc labeled (a, a, R) from state 3 back
to state 3, print a in cell iii, and move the Tape Head to the right to
cell iv, which contains a blank ∆. We record this action by writing
1 2 3 3
−→ −→ −→
aba aba aba aba∆
The tape now looks like
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-7

i ii iii iv v vi
a b a

• Now we are in state 3, and the Tape Head is pointing to cell iv. Since
cell iv contains ∆, we will take the arc labeled (∆, ∆, R) from state 3 to
state HALT 4, print ∆ in cell iv, and move the Tape Head to the right
to cell v, which contains a blank ∆. We record this action by writing
1 2 3 3
−→ −→ −→ −→ HALT
aba aba aba aba∆
Since we reached a HALT state, the string on the input tape is accepted.

• Note that if an input string has a as its second letter, then the TM
crashes, and so the string is not accepted.

• This TM accepts the language of all strings over the alphabet Σ = {a, b}
whose second letter is b.
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-8

Example: Consider the following TM with input alphabet Σ = {a, b} and

tape alphabet Γ = {a, b}:

( , , R)
(b,b,R)

(a,a,R) (a,a,R)
START 1 2 HALT 3

(b,b,R)

• Consider processing the word baab on the TM

Note that the first cell on the TAPE contains b, and so upon reading
this, the TM writes b in cell i, moves the tape head to the right to
cell ii, and then the TM loops back to state 1,
The second cell on the TAPE contains a, and so upon reading this,
the TM moves to state 2, writes a in cell ii, and moves the tape
head to the right to cell iii.
The third cell on the TAPE contains a, and so upon reading this,
the TM writes a in cell iii, moves the tape head to the right to
cell iv, and moves to state 3, which is a HALT state
The TM now halts, and so the string is accepted. Note that the
input tape still has a letter b that has not been read.

• Consider processing on the TM the word bba.

Note that each of the first two b’s results in the TM looping back
to state 1 and moving the tape head to the right one cell.
The third letter a makes the TM go to state 2 and moves the tape
head to the right one cell.
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-9

The fourth cell of the TAPE has a blank, and so the TM then
crashes. Thus, bba is not accepted.

• Consider processing on the TM the word bab.

Note that the first letter b results in the TM looping back to state 1
and moving the tape head to the right one cell.
The tape head then reads the a in the second cell, which causes the
TM to move to state 2 and moves the tape head to the right one
cell.
The tape head then reads the b in the third cell, which causes the
TM to move back to state 1 and moves the tape head to the right
one cell.
The fourth cell of the TAPE has a blank, and so the TM returns
to state 1, and the tape head moves one cell to the right.
All of the other cells on the TAPE are blank, and so the TM will
keep looping back to state 1 forever.
Since the TM never reaches a HALT state, the string bab is not
accepted.

• In general, we can divide the set of all possible strings into three sets:

1. Strings that contain the substring aa, which are accepted by the
TM since the TM will reach a HALT state.
2. Strings that do not contain substring aa and that end in a. For
these strings, the TM crashes, and so they are not accepted.
3. Strings that do not contain substring aa and that do not end in
a. For these strings, the TM loops forever, and so they are not
accepted.
Note: The videotaped lecture contains an error about this point.
Let S1 be the set of strings that do not contain the substring
aa and that do not end in a.
Let S2 be the set of strings that do not contain the substring
aa and that end in b.
In the videotaped lecture, I said that S2 is the set of strings
for which the TM loops forever, but actually, S1 is the set of
strings for which the TM loops forever.
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-10

Note that S1 6= S2 since Λ ∈ S1 but Λ 6∈ S2 .

• This TM accepts the language having regular expression (a + b)∗ aa(a +

b)∗ .

Definition: Every Turing machine T over the alphabet Σ divides the set of
input strings into three classes:

1. ACCEPT(T ) is the set of all strings w ∈ Σ∗ such that if the Tape

initially contains w and T is then run, T ends in a HALT state. This is
the language accepted by T .

2. REJECT(T ) is the set of all strings w ∈ Σ∗ such that if the Tape

initially contains w and T is then run, T crashes (by either moving left
from cell i or by being in a state that has no exit edge labeled with the
letter that the Tape Head is currently pointing to).

3. LOOP(T ) is the set of all strings w ∈ Σ∗ such that if the Tape initially
contains w and T is then run, T loops forever.

So for our last example,

• ACCEPT(T ) = set of strings generated by the regular expression (a +

b)∗ aa(a + b)∗ .

• REJECT(T ) = strings in Σ∗ that do not contain the substring aa and

that end in a, where Σ = {a, b}.

• LOOP(T ) = strings in Σ∗ that do not contain the substring aa and that

do not end in a, where Σ = {a, b}.
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-11

Example: Below is a TM for the language L = {an bn an : n = 0, 1, 2, . . .}:

Σ = {a, b}, Γ = {a, b, ∗}

(a,a,R) (b,b,R)

2 3 4
(b,b,R) (a,a,L)
(a,*,R)
(b,a,R)
(a,a,R)
( , ,R)
HALT START 1 5

( , ,L)
(*,*,R)

(a, ,L) (a, ,L)

8 7 6
(a,a,L)
(b,b,L)

We now examine why this TM accepts the language L defined above.

Step 1. Presume that we are in state 1, and we are reading the first letter of
what remains on the input.

• So initially, we are reading the first letter on the input tape, but as
we progress, we may find ourselves back in state 1 reading the first
letter of what remains on the tape.
• If we read a blank, then we go to HALT.
• If what we read is a, then change it to ∗, and move the tape head
to the right.
• If we read anything else, we crash.
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-12

Step 2. In state 2, we skip over the rest of the a’s in the initial clump of a’s,
looking for the first b.

• When we find the first b, we move to state 3.

• As long as we keep reading b’s, we keep returning to state 3.
• When we find the first a in the second clump of a’s, we then go to
state 4, and move the tape head to the left back to the last b in the
clump of b’s.
• We then change the last b to an a, move the tape head to the right,
and go to state 5. So now the number of b’s has reduced by 1, and
the number of a’s in the second clump of a’s has increased by 1.
• We did all of these last few steps to find the last b in the clump of
b’s.

Step 3. Now we are in state 5 with the tape head pointing to the first a in
the second clump of a’s, and we want to find the last a in the second
clump of a’s.

• Each a that we now read makes us return back to state 5, and move
the tape head to the right.
• If we read b, then the machine crashes.
• When we finally encounter ∆, then the tape contains no more char-
acters to the right, and the TM goes to state 6.
• We then move to state 7 and then to state 8, and change the last
two a’s to ∆’s.
• Thus, the number of a’s in the second clump has decreased by 2.
But in Step 2, we increased the number of a’s in the second clump by
1, and so now the number of a’s in the second clump has decreased
by 1 since we started in Step 1.
• Recall that Step 2, we also reduced the number of b’s by 1.
• Recall that in Step 1, we changed the first a in the first clump of
a’s to ∗.

Step 4. Now we are in state 8 with the tape head pointing to the last a
currently in the second clump of a’s, and we want to get back to the first
a that is currently in the first clump of a’s.
CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-13

• In state 8, as long as we keep reading a’s and b’s, we move the tape
head to the left, and return back to state 8.
• Recall that in Step 1, we changed the first a in the first clump of
a’s into ∗.
• So when the tape head finally reaches the rightmost ∗ by moving
left, the TM goes to state 1, and we move the tape head to the
right, and we repeat our 4 steps.

19.2 Stupid TM Tricks

There are several tricks that one can do with Turing Machines:

1. Storing information in states; e.g., check if first letter of input string

appears later in the string.

2. Multiple tracks on tape.

3. Checking off symbols on tape.

4. Inserting a character anywhere onto the input tape and shifting over the
rest of the contents of the tape.

Example: TM to

• insert c at the beginning of Tape,

• shift entire original contents of Tape one cell to the right, and
• finish with Tape Head pointing at cell i.

Σ = {a, b}, Γ = {a, b, A, B, c}.

CHAPTER 19. TURING MACHINES 19-14

The language of this TM is all strings over Σ = {a, b} since starting the
TM with any string in Σ∗ loaded on the Tape and running the TM will
lead to the Halt state.

5. Can design TM to delete contents of specific cell and shift contents of

all cells to the right one cell to the left.

6. Subroutines.

7. Can convert any FA into a TM.

8. Can convert any PDA into a TM.

Theorem 46 If L is a regular language, then there exists a TM for L.