CHAPTER I

A. Background of Study
Listening is one of the receptive skills as we can observe neither the process of
performing nor the product, but we are observing the result of listening itself. The process
of listening performance is the invisible and inaudible process of internalizing meaning
from the auditory signals being transmitted to the ear and brain. Invisible and inaudible
process means that we cannot see or hear the process of listening; thus, it is impossible to
observe the product. We observe only the result of the meaningful input in the form of
spoken or written output, and it is usually made by inference. We have developed
reasonably good assessment task to make the necessary jump through the process of
inference, from unobservable reception to a conclusion about comprehension
competence.

In standardized testing industry, it is rare to find just a listening test. One reason
for this emphasis is that listening is often implied as a component of speaking. Every
teacher of language knows that one’s oral production ability is only as good as someone’s
listening comprehension ability. Aural comprehension far outstrips oral production in
quantifiable terms of time, number of words, effort, and attention. Hence, we need to pay
close attention to listening as a mode of performance for assessment in the classroom.

B. Problem of Study
1. How many types of listening?
2. What is micro and macro skills of listening?
3. How to design a listening tests?
C. Aim of Paper
1. To know how many types of listening are
2. To know what micro and macro skills of listening is
3. To know how to design a listening tests are
 CHAPTER II
A. Basic Types Of Listening
In designing appropriate assessment test in listening, we begin with the specification of
objectives or criteria. The objectives of assessing listening can be distinguished into:
1. Comprehending of surface structure elements such as phonemes,words, intonation, or a
grammatical category.
2. Understanding of pragmatic context
3. Determining the meaning of auditory input
4. Developing the gist, a global or comprehensive understanding.

Those objectives may be classified in terms of several types of listening performance. There are
four commonly types of listening performance:

a. Intensive
Intensive listening is listening for perception of the components (phonemes, words,
intonation, discourse, marker, etc.) of a larger stretch of language.
b. Responsive
Listening to a relatively short stretch of language (a greeting, question, command,
comprehension check, etc) in order to make a short response.
c. Selective
Processing stretches of discourse such as short monologues for several minutes in order to
“scan” for certain information. The purpose is to be able to comprehend designated information
in a context of longer stretches of spoken language. For instance, assessment tasks could ask the
students to listen for names, numbers a grammatical category, directions (in map exercise), or
certain facts and events.
d. Extensive
Extensive listening is listening to develop a top-down, global understanding of spoken
language. Listening for the gist, main idea and making inferences are part of extensive listening.
B. Micro And Macro skills Of Listening
A useful way of synthesizing the above two lists is to consider a finite number of micro-
and macro skills implied in the performance of listening comprehension. Richards' (1983) list of
micro skills has proven useful in the domain of specifying objectives for learning and may be
even more useful in forcing test makers to carefully identify specific assessment objectives. In
the following box, the skills are subdivided into what I prefer to think of as micro skills
(attending to the smaller bits and chunks of language, in more of a bottom-up process) and macro
skills (focusing on the larger elements involved in a top-down approach to a listening task). The
micro and macros kills provide 17 different objectives to assess in listening.
Micro and macro skills of listening (adapted from Richards, 1983):
-Micro skills
1. Discriminate among the distinctive sounds of English.
2. Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
3. Recognize English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic
structure, intonation contours, and their role in signaling information.
4. Recognize reduced forms of words.
5. Distinguish word boundaries, recognize a core of words, and interpret word order
patterns and their significance.
6. Process speech at different rates of delivery.
7. Process speech containing pauses, errors, corrections, and other performance variables.
8. Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g. tense, agreement,
pluralization, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
9. Detect sentence constituents and distinguish between major and minor constituents.
10. Recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms.
11. Recognize cohesive devices in spoken language.
-Macro skills
1. Recognize the communicative functions of utterances, according to situations,
participants, goals.
2. Infer situations, participants, goals using real-world knowledge.
3. From events, ideas, and so on, described, predict outcomes, infer links and connections
between events, deduce causes and effect, and detect such relations as main idea,
supporting idea, new information, generalization, and exemplification.
4. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
5. Use facial, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues to decipher meanings.
6. Develop and use a battery of listening strategies, such as detecting key words, guessing
the meaning of words from context, appealing for help, and signaling comprehension or
lack thereof.

C. Designing Assessment Tasks

1) Designing Assessment Tasks: Intensive Listening
A typical form of intensive listening at this level is the assessment of recognition of
phonological and morphological elements of language. A classic test task gives a spoken
stimulus and asks test-takers to identify the stimulus from two or more choices.
Example:
Phonemic pair:
Test-takers hear: He’s from California.
Test-takers read: (a) He’s from California.
(b) She’s from California.
Morphological pair; -ed ending
Test-takers hear: I missed you very much.
Test-takers read: (a) I missed you very much. (b) I miss you very much.
 Paraphrase Recognition
The next step up on the scale of listening comprehension micro skills is words, phrases,
and sentences, which are frequently assessed by providing a stimulus sentence and asking the
test-taker to choose the correct one.

Example:
Test- takers hear: Hello, my name’s Keiko. I come from Japan.
Test- takers read: (a) Keiko is comfortable in Japan
(b) Keiko wants to come to Japan
(c) Keiko is Japanese
2) Designing Assessment Tasks: Responsive Listening
A question-and-answer format can provide some interactivity in these lower-end listening
tasks. The test-taker's response is the appropriate answer to a question.
Appropriate response to a question
Test-takers hear: How much time did you take to do your homework?
Test-takers read: (a) In about an hour. (b) About an hour. (c) About $10. (d) Yes, I did.

The objective of this item is recognition of the wh-question bow much and its appropriate
response. Distractors are chosen to repres<:!nt common learner errors: (a) responding to how
much vs. how much longer; (c) confusing how much in reference to time vs. the more frequent
reference to money; (d) confusing a wb-question with a yes/no question.
None of the tasks so far discussed have to be framed in a multiple-choice format. They
can be offered in a more open-ended framework in which test-takers write or speak the
response',The above item would then look like this:
Open-ended response to a question
Test-takers hear: How much time did you take to do your homework?
Test-takers write or speak:
If open-ended response formats gain a small amount of authenticity and creativity, they
of course suffer some in their practicality, as teachers must then read students' responses and
judge their appropriateness, which takes time.
3) Designing Assessment Tasks: Selective Listening
A third type of listening performance is selective listening, in-which the test-taker listens to a
limited quantity of aural input and must discern within it some specific information. A number of
techniques have been used 'that require selective listening.
  Listening Cloze

Listening cloze tasks (sometit11es called cloze dict~tions or partial dictations) require the
test-taker to listen to a story. fllonologue,or conversation and simultaneously read the written text
in which selected words or phrases have been deleted. Cloze procedure is most commonly
associated with reading only (see. Chapter 9). In its generic form, the test consists of a passage in
which every nth word (typically every seventh word) is deleted and the test-taker is asked to.
supply an appropriate word. In a listening cloze task, te~t-takers see a transcript of the passage
that they are listening to and flU· in the blanks with the words or phrases that they hear.
Listening cloze
Test-takers hear:
Ladies and gentlemen, 1 now have some connecting gate information for those of you
making connections to other flights out of San Francisco.

Flight seven-oh-six to Portland will depart from gate seventv-three at nine-thirty P.M.
Flight ten-forty-five to Reno will depart at nine-fifty P.M. from gate seventeen.
Flight four-forty to Monterey will depart at nine-thirty-five P.M. from gate sixty.
And flight sixteen-oh-three to Sacramento will depart from gate nineteen at
ten-fifteen P.M.

Test-takers write the missing words or phrases in the blanks.

Other listening cloze tasks may focus on a grammatical category such as verb tenses,
articles, two-word verbs, prepositions, or transition words/phrases. Notice two important
structural differences between listening cloze tasks and standard reading cloze. In a listening
cloze, deletions are governed by the objective of the test, not by mathematical deletion of every
nth word; and more than one word may be deleted, as in the above example.
 Information Transfer
Selective listening can also be assessed through an information transfer technique in which
aurally processed information must be transferred to a visual representation, such as labeling a
diagram, identifying an element in a picture, completing a form, or showing routes on a map. At
the lower end of the scale of linguistic complexity, simple picture-cued items are sometimes
efficient rubrics for assessing certain selected information. Consider the following item:
 Information transfer tasks may reflect greater authenticity by using charts, maps, grids,
timetables, and other artifacts of daily life. In the example below, test takers hear a student's
daily schedule, and the task is to fill in the partially completed weekly calendar.
Information transfer: chart-filling
Test-takers hear:
Now you will hear information about Lucy's daily schedule. The information will be given twice.
The first time just listen carefully. The second time, there will be a pause after each sentence. Fill
in Lucy's blank daily schedule with the correct information. The example has already been filled
in.
You will hear: Lucy gets up at eight o'clock every morning except on weekends.
You will fill in the schedule to provide the information.
Now listen to the information about Lucy's schedule. Remember, you will first hear all the
sentences; then you will hear each sentence separately with time to fill in your chart.
Lucy gets up at 8:00 every morning except on weekends. She has English on Monday/
Wednesday, and Friday at ten o'clock. She has History on Tuesdays and Thursdays at two
o'clock. She takes Chemistry on Monday from two o'clock to six o'clock. She plays tennis on
weekends at four o'clock. She eats lunch at twelve o'clock every day except Saturday and
Sunday.
Now listen a second time. There will be a pause after each sentence to give you time to fill in the
chart. (Lucy's schedule is repeated with a pause after each sentence).
Test-takers see the following weekly calendar grid:
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Weekends
8am Wake up Wake up Wake up Wake up Wake up
10a
m
12a
m
2pm
4pm
6pm

Such chart-filling tasks are good examples-of 'aural scanning strategies. A listener must
discern from a number of pieces of information which pieces are relevant. In the above example,
virtually all of the stimuli are relevant, and very few words can be ignored.
   Sentence Repetition
 In sentence repetition, the test-taker must retain a stretch of language long enough to produce
it, and then must respond with an oral repetition of that stimulus. The mistake in repetition is
scored as a mistake in listening. Sentence repetition is far from flawless listening assessment
task. This task may test only recognition of sounds and it can be contaminated easily by lack of
short-term memory ability. Hence, the teachers may never be able to distinguish a listening
comprehension from an oral production error. Sentence repetition is far from a flawless listening
assessment task. Buck (2001, p.79) noted that such tasks "are not just tests of listening, but tests
of general oral skills." Further, this task may test only recognition of sounds, and it can easily be
contaminated by lack of short-term memory ability, thus invalidating it as an assessment of
comprehension alone.
4) Designing Assessment Tasks: Extensive Listening
 Dictation
Dictation is a widely researched genre of assessing listening comprehension. The test-takers
hear a passage of 50 to 100 words that recited three times. First reading at normal speed, no
pauses, and the test–takers listen for the gist. Second reading is with long pauses between
phrases or natural word groups, during which time test-takers write what they have just heard.
Third reading is at normal speed so the test-takers can check their work and proofread.
The difficulty of a dictation task can be easily manipulated by the length of the word groups and
the pauses, the speed of reading, and the complexity of discourse, grammar, and vocabulary used
in the passage.
Example:
First reading (natural speed, no pauses, test-takers listen for gist):
The state of California has many geographical areas. On the western side is the Pacific Ocean
with its beaches and sea life. The central part of the state is a large fertile valley. The southeast
has a hot desert, and north and west have beautiful mountains and forests. Southern California is
a large urban area populated by millions of people.
Second reading (slowed speed, pause at each II break, test-takers write):
The state of California II has many geographical areas. II On the western side /I is the Pacific
Ocean /I with its beaches and sea life. The central part of the state II is a ,large fertile valley. II
The southeast has a hot desert, /I and north and west /I have beautiful mountains and forests. II
Southern California 1/ is a large urban area 1/ populated by millions of people.
Third reading (natural speed, test-takers check their work).
 Communicative stimulus-response tasks
It is a popular genre of assessment task in which the test-taker is presented with a stimulus
monologue or conversation and then is asked to respond a set of comprehension questions. Here
are typical items of the test:
-   Dialogue and multiple-choice comprehension items
 The monologues, lectures, and brief conversations used in such tasks are sometimes a
little unnatural, but we can create reasonably authentic stimuli with some care and
creativity.

Test-takers hear:
Directions: Now you will hear a conversation between Lynn and her doctor. You will
hear the conversation two times. After you hear the conversation the second time,
choose the correct answer for questions 11-15 below. Mark your answers on the
answer sheet provided.

Doctor: Good morning, Lynn. What's the problem?

Lynn: Well, you see, I have a terrible headache, my nose is running, and I'm
really dizzy. Doctor: Okay. Anything else? Lynn: I've been coughing, I think I have a fever, and
my stomach aches. Doctor: t see. When did this start? Lynn: Well, let's see, I went to the lake last
weekend, and after I returned home I started sneezing. Doctor: Hmm. You must have the flu.
You should get lots of rest, drink hot beverages, and stay warm. Do you follow me? Lynn: Well,
uh, yeah, but ... shouldn't I take some medicine? Doctor: Sleep and rest are as good as medicine
when you have the flu. Lynn: Okay, thanks, Dr. Brown.
Test-takers read:
11. What is Lynn's problem? (A) She feels horrible. (B) She ran too fast at the lake. (C) She's
been drinking too many hot beverages.
12. When did Lynn's problem start? (A) When she saw her doctor. (B) Before she went to the
lake. (C) After she came home from the lake.
13. The doctor said that Lynn ___ (A) flew to the lake last weekend (B) must not get the flu (C)
probably has the flu

- Dialogue and authentic questions on details

To compensate for the potential inauthenticity of post-stimulus comprehension questions,
we might be able to find contexts where questions that probe understanding are more
appropriate with a little creativity.

Dialogue and authentic questions on details

Test-takers hear:
You will hear a conversation between a detective ·and a man. The tape will play the
conversation twice. After you hear the conversation a second time, choose the correct
answers on your test sheet.

Detective: Where were you last night at eleven P.M., the time of the murder? Man: Uh, let's see,
well, I was just starting to see a movie, Detective: Did you go alone? Man: No, uh. well, I was
with my friend, uh, Bill. Yeah, I was with Bill. Detective: What did you do after that? Man: We
went out to dinner, then I dropped her off. at her place. Detective: Then you went home? Man:
Yeah. Detective: When did you get home? Man: A little before midnight.
Test-takers read:
7. Where was the man at 11 :00 P.M.? (A) In a restaurant. (B) In a theater. (e) At home.
8. Was he with someone? (A) He was alone. (B) He was with his wife. (e) He was with a friend.
9. Then what did he do? (A) He ate out. (B) He made dinner. (e) He went home.
10. When did he get home? (A) About 11 :00. (B) Almost 12:00. (C) Right after the movie~

 Authentic listening tasks

Ideally, the language assessment field would have a stockpile of listening test types that
are cognitively demanding, communicative, and authentic, not to mention interactive by
means of integration with speaking. Nevertheless, the nature of test implies an equally
limited capacity to mirror all the real-world contexts of listening performance; in
addition, every task shares some characteristics with target-language tasks, and no test is
completely authentic. Authentic listening tasks can be in the form of:
 Note-taking
In the academic world classroom lectures by professors are common features of a non-
native English-user’s experience. One among several formats includes note-taking by the
test-takers. This test is evaluated by the teacher on a 30-point system, as follow: 0-15
points for visual representation, 0-10 points for accuracy, and 0-5 points for symbols and
abbreviations. The process of scoring is time consuming and it lacks some reliability.

 Editing
Editing provides written and spoken stimulus, and it requires the test-taker to listen for
discrepancies or differences. Scoring achieves relatively high reliability as there are
usually a small number of specific identified differences.

 Interpretive tasks
An interpretive task extends the stimulus material to a longer stretch of discourse and
forces the test-taker to infer a response. The test takers are then directed to interpret the
stimulus by answering a few questions in open-ended form.

 Retelling
In retelling tasks, the test-takers listen to a story or news event and then simply retell or
summarize it, either orally or in writing. The test-takers must identify the gist, main idea,
purpose, supporting points, and/ or conclusion to show full comprehension.
D. Conclusion
The commonly used test items in assessing listening are dialogue and multiple-choice
comprehension items and dialogue and authentic questions on details. Those test items
are commonly used because they can create authentic stimuli and in some rare cases the
response mode actually approaches complete authenticity. Moreover, these test items
require the process of inference in which all assessment of receptive skills must be made
by. The strengths of these test items are:
- can create authentic stimuli.
- The scoring process is not time consuming, so teacher as the assessor will be easy to
check the students’ answers.
- use the comprehension questions that aim at assessing certain objectives that are built
into the stimulus.

The weaknesses of these test items are:

- Any task following a one-way listening to a conversation is sometimes artificial.
- The test-takers might miss some of the questions if they hear the conversation only once
and had no visual access to the items.
- Feedback for the students may be harmful.
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http://dimaswelfare.blogspot.com/2013/06/assessing-listening.html

Brown, H. Douglas. (2004). “Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices”.

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