\

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

PERGAMON 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Solar thermal water pumping systems] a review

Y[W[ Wong\ K[ Sumathy
Department of Mechanical Engineering\ University of Hong Kong\ Hong Kong
Received 13 August 0887^ accepted 16 August 0887

Abstract

A number of attempts have been made by scientists to utilize solar energy for irrigation
water pumping[ It is mainly a problem of conversion of heat energy available from the sun\ to
mechanical energy[ Some ingenious methods have been devised to utilize the available energy
at low temperatures[ This paper reviews past e}orts to develop solar thermal water pumping
systems which employ either conventional pumps or unconventional pumps\ and emphasizes
how the system modi_cations were made to suit di}erent pumping conditions and requirements[
Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

0[ Introduction

Solar pumps are of special signi_cance in countries where the farming communities
are scattered over large and distant areas and where electrical power is not readily
available[ This would include most of the countries in Asia\ Africa and Latin America[
On account of the large distances involved and the low energy requirements\ trans!
mission of electrical energy from large central power stations becomes an uneconomic
proposition[ Use of oil engines requires transportation of oil to the remote areas
which\ again\ is not economical[ Besides\ the skilled help for maintenance of oil
engines may not be readily available in the remote areas[ Under these circumstances\
the power for irrigation must come from local energy sources[ Besides animal power\
solar and wind energy and to some extent biogas may provide the solution to this
problem[ Wind energy and biogas are derived from solar energy and therefore can be
considered as part of solar energy ð0Ł[
A number of attempts have been made in di}erent countries\ to use solar energy
for pumping water[ These attempts have used di}erent principles and have been

 Corresponding author[ Fax] 99 741 1747 4304

0253!9210:88:, ! see front matter Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved
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075 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

successful to varying degrees[ Mechanical energy needed for pumping water may be
produced by either thermodynamic\ or direct!conversion methods ð1Ł as illustrated in
Fig[ 0[

0[0[ Thermodynamic methods

In the solar conversion scheme any solar collector\ including concentrators\ may
be employed to produce a ~uid at high temperature and pressure[ This ~uid at high
pressure may be either utilised directly in the form of Rankine\ Brayton or Stirling
cycle\ or indirectly by using a secondary working ~uid[ The mechanical energy pro!
duced may operate a conventional or an unconventional pump[

0[1[ Direct conversion methods

The direct conversion of solar energy involves the use of photovoltaic\ ther!
moelectric or thermionic processes to produce direct current electrical energy\ which
may be used with d[c[ motors or converted to ac through inverters\ and then to
operate the water pumps[ Among the direct conversion methods\ one of the popular
applications is solar photovoltaic "PV# powered pumping which has a long lifetime\
little maintenance and is relatively more compact in size[ However\ large scale PV

Fig[ 0[ Solar water pumping chart[

 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 076

arrays continue to be expensive[ The present market cost of the cells is 3Ð4 U[S[
,:peak watt ð2Ł[ Their use for agricultural pumping is probably a distant possibility[

0[2[ Past efforts and scope of the present study

In recent decades\ some solar pumps operating on the principle of thermodynamic

conversion scheme have been built and tested extensively throughout the world[ These
pumping systems utilize the thermal energy from the Sun to run a conventional water
pump or specially designed expander to achieve pumping of water[ In the 0869s and
0879s\ several review studies were conducted ð1\ 3\ 4Ł on numerous solar thermal water
pumping systems[ However\ many new designs have been introduced recently and the
developments in this _eld need to be updated[ It is the objective of this paper to
review various attempts to produce solar thermal water pumps and to compare their
performances[ Emphasis is placed on how modi_cations were made to suit di}erent
pumping conditions and requirements[ This review may provide a useful reference
for researchers and designers attempting to develop new systems in this _eld of work[
The following text describes the operation of several solar thermal water pumping
systems and their performances[ The _rst part focuses on the conventional pumping
methods in which the internal energy of the working ~uid is used to drive a con!
ventional pump\ such as a centrifugal pump[ The second part of the work presents
the unconventional pumping methods in which the internal energy of the working
~uid is used to operate a specially designed expander to pump the water to the required
discharge head[ The greatest advantage is that it does not involve any mechanical
moving parts to operate the whole system and this is explained later[

1[ Conventional pumps

1[0[ Theory

The working principle of a solar thermal water pumping system coupled with a
conventional pump can be explained clearly by considering a simple Rankine!cycle
water pump as an example ð1Ł[ The cycle shown in Fig[ 1 is a Rankine!cycle solar
pump[ The expander may be a reciprocating engine\ a turbine\ or any other device\
which can convert the vapour|s total enthalpy to mechanical energy[ The collector
may be a conventional ~at!plate collector\ a re~ective:refractive!type of concentrator\
or even a solar pond[ With the ~at!plate solar collectors\ the primary liquid going
through the collector may be pressurized water where temperatures as high as 049>C
may be reached in some designs[ The circulating pump\ P0 may be eliminated and the
cycle circulation be maintained through thermosyphon action[ Because of the low
temperatures involved in the ~at!plate collectors\ low boiling!point organic ~uids
should be employed as the primary or secondary working ~uid[ With the concen!
trators\ where temperatures around 299>C can be achieved\ the ~uids going through
077 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 1[ Schematic of Rankine!cycle solar water pump[

the collector and the expander may be di}erent from each other\ or the same ~uid
may be used in both[ The following pump designs are selected examples[

1[1[ Centrifu`al pumps

There have been many designs of small engines aiming at producing power for
water pumping[ Pytlinski ð3Ł presented a report published in 0890[ According to this
report\ a re~ector was a truncated cone 09[1 m in diameter with a central opening of
3[5 m at the bottom[ The inner surface was composed of 0677 small\ ~at mirrors
arranged to approximate a conical surface[ The mirrors re~ected solar radiation on
to the central tube boiler\ 3 m in length\ which held 279 l of water\ leaving 199 l for
steam[ The entire boiler and re~ector system were mounted on an equatorial axis\
automatically clock!driven to follow the sun[ The steam at high pressure drove an 7[1
kW compound steam engine belted to a centrifugal pump[ At a pumping rate of 4299
l min−0 against a 2[5 m head\ the system produced a peak power of about 6[35 kW[
Pytlinsk ð3Ł also referred to the work carried out by Shuman who built a number
of solar engines\ some of which were used for pumping irrigation water[ In 0896\ he
used solar energy to drive a 1[50 kW vapour engine using ether as a working ~uid[ A
pond of area of 00[1×092 m1 covered by glass was used to heat ether which was
circulated in a heat exchanger immersed in the water[ Ether vapour generated in this
way ran an engine connected to a small centrifugal pump[ A block diagram of the
plant is shown in Fig[ 2[
Tabor and Bronicki ð5Ł built a 2[57 kW solar installation for pumping water[ The
system used a binary Rankine cycle with monochlorobenzine "C5H4Cl# vaporised by
superheated steam from solar collectors[ The vapour was led to a turbine to generate
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 078

Fig[ 2[ Block diagram of Shuman|s installation[

mechanical power[ The plant could lift 00\299 l of water per day to a height of 34[6
m from a well[
Near Willard in New Mexico ð3Ł\ a solar powered irrigation plant started operation
in 0866[ Parabolic trough collectors of area 511 m1 with their axes mounted in a
northÐsouth direction provided energy for immediate operation and also for storage[
The Rankine cycle with Refrigerant!002 as the working ~uid operated at a peak
temperature of 325 K\ while both the primary ~uid and energy storage ~uid were
{Caloria HT!32|[ While the peak temperature of {Caloria HT!32| was 378 K\ the
storage volume was 11\699 l[ The turbine running at 25\299 rpm powered a pump
running at 0659 rpm through a reduction gear[ The water pumped at a rate of 1599 l
min−0 from a 23 m deep well could provide irrigation for approximately 394 m1 of
land[
Talbert et al[ ð6Ł have developed the world|s largest known solar!powered irrigation!
water system as shown in Fig[ 3[ The system was designed and built by the Columbus
Laboratories of Battelle Memorial Institute[ The pump was capable of developing 26
kW and could pump 27\999 litres of irrigation water per minute at peak operation[
The system consisted of 443 m1 of parabolic cylindrical solar collectors[ The power
required to drive high volume ~ow propeller pump was realised through a Rankine
cycle using R!002 as the working ~uid[ The overall output was less than predicted[
He pointed out that this could be traced to three factors] "i# the collector did not
produce the required heat output for which the system was designed^ "ii# the tem!
perature of the water in the sump\ used for cooling the vapour in the condenser was
higher than anticipated and "iii# additional pipe bends and a ~ow meter resulted in
more ~ow losses[
Figure 4 shows an interesting design of a solar hot air engine developed by Farber
and Prescott ð7Ł[ The solar energy is focused on area A where air is heated and its
089 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 3[ Schematic of Talbert et al[ ð6Ł installation[

expansion pushes the piston\ P\ down[ In the down!stroke of the piston the displacer\
D\ moves to the left by the linkage\ L[ On the up!stroke of the piston the displacer
moves to the right and all the hot air is at the left section of the cylinder\ B\ and loses
heat to the cooling water[ An e.ciency of about 8) is obtained at 099 rpm with a
power of about 038 W[
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Fig[ 4[ Schematic diagram of the hot!air engine[

1[2[ Diaphra`m pumps

The earliest known experiment with a solar diaphragm pump was carried out by
Tellier in the 0779s ð8Ł[ In 0872\ Burton ð09Ł published a technical note on his solar
powered diaphragm[ The primary ~uid "water# was circulated between the collector
array and a vapour generator in which trichloro!tri!~uoroethane "R!002# was evap!
orated[ The pump was assembled on a stand 1 m above a water supply tank with
provision for the discharge of water from the pump to a height of up to 2 m above
the pump body[ This pumping system was able to operate in a closed cycle\ but the
overall e.ciency was low compared with that in an open cycle[ With the help of a
hydraulically coupled feed pump\ the condensed working ~uid was returned from the
condenser to the vapour generator[ On a clear sunny day with an average solar
insolation of about 749 W m−1\ the water ~ow rate was found to be 03[5 l min−0 at
an overall e.ciency of 9[10)[
Another example of a diaphragm pump was investigated by Sharma and Singh ð00Ł
as shown in Fig[ 5[ They studied a model of a low lift diaphragm pump working with
an automatic valve mechanism[ The pump operated based on the Rankine cycle with
freon!002 as a working ~uid[ The solar ~at!plate collector used had an exposed area
of 0[3 m1[ Liquid freon was vapourized in the collector and the vapour pushed a
081 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 5[ Flow diagram of Sharma and Singh|s diaphragm pump[

rubber diaphragm which in turn pumped the water[ The exhausted vapour was
condensed and collected in a container[ The condensate was charged back into the
collector for use during the next day|s operation[ Test results showed that with a
constant input vapour pressure\ the discharge of the pump decreased as the head
increased[ The discharge of the pump was 3[20 l min−0 at a 2 m head while it reduced
to 1[70 l min−0 at a head of 5 m[ This pump was suitable for a head of only 2Ð3 m[
The most expensive part of the system is the working ~uid\ i[e[ liquid freon[ Some
inexpensive ~uid should be tried in further developmental stages[ The most economical
~uid would be water[ But if water were used\ then the collector would have to be
modi_ed such that it would generate steam[ Therefore\ such a system requires
additional costs for modifying a collector to achieve a temperature of above 099>C[
To determine the most feasible system the overall costs of the systems proposed have
to be compared[
1[3[ SOFRETES systems

Bahadori ð1Ł\ in his review paper\ reported a type of solar water pumping unit ð5\
01Ð04Ł employed in several developing countries[ The unit was manufactured by
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SOFRETES of Montargis\ France\ and is shown schematically in Fig[ 6[ The _rst

system of this kind was installed in Guanajuato\ Mexico in 0865\ the details of which
were furnished by Anderson as presented in Pytlinski|s literature review ð3Ł[ The
installation employed 1388 m1 of ~at!plate collectors[ Water was used as the primary
heat transfer ~uid[ The heat was transferred from water to the working ~uid "R!00#[
A vapour turbine and an electric generator produced 29 kW of electric power to drive
two pumps[ The station supplied about 0\999\999 l of potable water per day[ It was
also reported that SOFRETES had systems capable of producing 14 kW and 49 kW
power output[
Another SOFRETES unit investigated by Masson and Girardier ð03Ł has been
functioning in Dakar\ Senegal\ with the following characterisitics] the collection area\
229 m1^ the motor e}ective speed 79Ð89 rpm^ water temperature leaving the solar
collector\ 54Ð79>C^ water temperature in the well\ 17Ð29>C[ The pumping capacity
was found to be 7Ð09 l min−0 at a discharge head of 02Ð03 m\ while the corresponding
power was about 10 W[
Gupta et al[ ð05Ł have developed a solar pumping system\ operating on a low
temperature organic Rankine cycle[ The SOFRETES piston engine was coupled to
~at!plate solar collectors through a boiler and condenser on one side and to a

Fig[ 6[ Schematic diagram of SOFRETES solar water pump[

083 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

reciprocating water pump on the other side\ the two being connected by a belt drive[
The predicted results were compared with observed test data on the installation at
Auroville\ Pondicherry\ India[ The experimental results were only 29) of the expected
discharge rate and the reasons for this discrepancy have not been mentioned[ There
were some snags in the installation\ particularly with regard to lubrication and the
constancy of mechanical e.ciency was thus not assured[ Also\ the system was not
optimised[

1[4[ Small installations

Daniels ð06Ł suggested assemblies of small hot!air solar engines instead of large
units and gave arguments in favour of such a system over ~at!plate collectors\ includ!
ing higher temperatures\ better utilization of winter sunshine\ and higher e.ciencies[
He anticipated low costs for mass!produced small engines of 0:4 kW capacity[
Mathur and Khanna ð07Ł worked on developing high temperature hot air engines
operating on an Ericsson cycle[ Such a hot air engine developing between 82 and 013
W was used to drive a small water pump which could lift water from a depth of
approximately 3[7 m[ Parabolic solar concentrators that ran the hot!air engine oper!
ated at temperatures ranging from 260 to 538>C[

1[5[ Summary of researchers| experience and recommendations

, Conventional solar thermal water pumping systems have been attracting attention
from users since a standard type of pump can be modi_ed conveniently to be coupled
with the vapour generated from a solar collector[ No specially designed component
is required[
, A ~at!plate collector\ concentrating collector or solar pond can be employed in a
solar thermal water pumping system[ However\ a concentrating collector or solar
pond which is expensive and requires timely maintenance will not be suitable for a
village level operation[
, As Sharma and Singh ð00Ł suggested\ inexpensive working ~uids should be tried in
further studies to bring down the present cost of the system[ Water seems to be an
economical alternative but a concentrating type collector has to be employed to
achieve the boiling temperature of water[ This increases the overall cost of the
system[ Therefore\ an optimal study has to be done in choosing the working ~uid
and the collectors to be employed\ in order to have the best result with less cost[
, The experimental results of Sharma|s pump ð00Ł showed that when discharge head
increases\ the water pumped per cycle of operation decreases under constant input
vapour pressure[ Therefore\ as Daniel ð06Ł suggested\ it is better to have assemblies
of small systems instead of a large unit[
, Gupta et al[ ð05Ł pointed out some snags in their installation\ particularly with
regard to lubrication[ Severe frictional loss and components damage due to friction
involved in any mechanical system remain unsolved problems[
, Amor et al[ ð08Ł suggested that solar thermal water pumps should suit local
conditions\ taking into account not only the required pumping head and climatic
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 084

conditions of the locality\ but also the pump should meet the following criteria to
be of practical use]
*the unit should perform an equivalent amount of work to that of the hand pump
which it would most likely replace^
*it should be a low maintenance device having few mechanical moving parts\ able
to be easily maintained by local unskilled workers and hence _t into a Village
Level Operation and Maintenance "VLOM# scheme as set out by the World
Bank for similar devices ð19Ł^
*the system should rely on appropriate technology to enable local manufacture[

2[ Specially designed expanders "unconventional pumps#

Conventional pumping systems are not preferred these days\ since not only the
capital cost of the system is high\ but also the operation and maintenance problems
are many because of the number of stages involved in conversion of solar energy to
hydraulic work[ Therefore\ some researchers have focused their attention on inventing
simple solar pumping systems which are specially designed and manufactured inex!
pensively in developing countries without involving any high technology[ The instal!
lation\ operation and maintenance of the solar pumps should be simple as only
unskilled manpower is available in rural areas[ Also\ it would be di.cult to have
access to any special equipment or parts if required[ In order to lower the damage of
components due to friction and reduce the demand on frequent maintenance\ the
pumping system should be designed in such a way that\ it functions with few mech!
anical moving parts[

2[0[ The theory

In the recent past\ several special designs for solar water pumping systems have
been studied[ Most of these systems have the advantages of being simple\ inexpensive\
maintenance!free\ easily assembled and non!mechanical[ These kind of pumping
systems have attracted attention from researchers in recent decades[ The prime work!
ing principles of unconventional pumping systems described by di}erent researchers
are based on the same concept[ Di}erent modi_cations are\ however\ made to satisfy
di}erent working conditions and requirements\ locally[
In the early 0859\ Jenness ð10Ł observed that the required precision and high cost in
manufacture of parts\ installation and maintenance of pumping systems had made
the traditional type of solar powered pumping systems unattractive[ No small and
inexpensive steam engine of turbine or piston type had been available[ Therefore\ he
introduced a pump called the {Savery Pump| ð11Ł which has no moving parts[ The
Savery water pump is of interest because of its simplicity which may o}set its low
operating e.ciency[ It has no moving parts except some valves which have to operate
automatically[ Its e.ciency is reported to be about 3[4)[
085 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Figure 7 shows the simpli_ed operating cycle of the Savery pump[ First\ the steam
inlet valve and water outlet valve are opened to _ll the tank with saturated steam at
atmospheric pressure as shown in Fig[ 7"a#[ Next\ the steam inlet valve and water
outlet valve are closed and the steam cools[ This operation causes it to condense and
lower the pressure in the tank\ opening the water inlet valve "Fig[ 7"b## and drawing
water into the tank[ The incoming water accelerates the condensation of steam[ When
the tank is _lled with water\ the water inlet valve is closed and the steam inlet and
water outlet valves are opened\ draining out the water and admitting saturated steam
to the tank "Fig[ 7"c## after which the cycle is repeated[
Most of the unconventional pumps work on a di}erent principle ð12Ł[ The increase
in volume on vapourization of a liquid at a temperature far above its critical point is
about 49Ð099 times[ If a liquid con_ned in a closed tank is vapourized\ a part of the
same can be pumped\ as vapourization proceeds\ to a higher elevation depending on
the saturation pressure[ On condensing the vapour at a temperature below its normal
boiling point\ the liquid can be drawn into the tank from a source close to its level[
Thus pumping of the liquid can be carried out[
If water is to be pumped\ based on the above principle\ a heat source at a tem!
perature higher than 099>C is needed to boil the water[ Unfortunately\ at the present
state of development\ such high temperatures are not attainable with an ordinary ~at!
plate collector at a reasonable e.ciency level[ However\ if a secondary working ~uid

Fig[ 7[ Operation cycle of the Savery pump[

 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 086

which is immiscible with water and has a normal boiling point slightly higher than
atmospheric temperature\ is con_ned in a closed tank along with water and is vapou!
rized continuously at temperatures attainable with the ~at!plate collectors\ water can
be pumped to a higher elevation[ On condensing the vapour\ rejecting heat to the
surroundings\ water can be drawn into the tank from a source which is almost in level
with the tank[ The working ~uid can be pentane or a petroleum fraction having a
boiling range of 24Ð39>C[ Recently\ many inexpensive pumping systems have been
developed based on this {vapour in\ water out| principle[
In general\ the unconventional pumping systems can be classi_ed into two kinds
based on the mode of condensation of the exhaust vapour\ after each cycle of pumping
action ð12Ł[ In one type\ the vapour is condensed at night through the solar collector
and is called an {air cooled pump|[ The other type employs water that is being pumped
and this is called a {water cooled pump|[

2[1[ Air!cooled pumps

In order to vapourize water to steam "×099>C#\ a concentrating type of collector

is required[ Figure 8 indicates how a solar powered Savery pump with automatically
operated valves function ð10Ł[ This system also works on a {vapour in\ water out| basis
described previously[ Re~ector A concentrates solar radiation onto boiler B\ in which
steam is generated[ Having achieved the desired pressure\ steam enters tank D through
valve E which is raised and opened by ~oat F when water rises to the top of the tank[
As the water in tank D gets pumped out through the pipe J\ the water level descends
to the bottom of the tank\ and ~oat G\ hanging from the chain\ pulls the steam inlet
valve shut[ When steam condenses\ vacuum is created in the tank[ The vacuum results
in drawing well water up through hose K[ Sinking!ball valve L prevents the ~ow of
water back into the well[ This Savery steam!powered lift pump has no moving
parts except for a few valves\ and thereby the maintenance can be largely reduced[
Installation of it is possible with only a few simple hand tools[ The approximate
e.ciency of such pumps is about 3[4) with most of its heat being lost through steam
condensation[
A heat!driven pump was investigated by Sheldon et al[ ð13Ł in 0865[ In his work\
he made a preliminary study of a hydraulic device which converts heat energy into
head to which the water has to be lifted\ with no moving parts other than a check
valve[ The device utilizes oscillations which occur in a heated liquid!vapour column[
Originally this device was examined for marine propulsion applications^ however\
because of the direct method of heating and the simplicity of design and construction\
it could be useful as a solar!powered pump in undeveloped areas[ With no rotating
or sliding seals this pump is well suited for the pumping of a high!purity or highly
corrosive liquid[ Because of its ability to utilize a low!grade heat source\ it might also
be considered for use in a waste heat cycle[ Schematic of the heat!driven pump is
shown in Fig[ 09[ The apparatus consists of a 3 mm inner diameter glass tube
heated externally over 01[4 cm length near the closed upper end[ The tube is initially
completely _lled with water which begins to vapourize as the tube is heated[ Eventu!
ally\ the vapour cavity extends below the heated region[ Oscillation begins when some
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Fig[ 8[ Automatic solar!powered Savery pump[

of the vapour condenses^ the column moves up into the heated region\ vapourization
reoccurs\ the liquid column again is forced down and the cycle repeats[ The lower end
of the column opens into a reservoir at atmospheric pressure[ Just above this reservoir
a suction line and check valve join the main column[ Water is drawn through the
check valve from the lower reservoir due to the ~uid motion in the main tube[
This water is then discharged into the upper reservoir[ The measured water column
displacement varies from cycle to cycle with a range from 1[4 to 4 cm and increases
with additional cooling[ The volumetric displacement of the liquid column is about 5
ml s−0^ volumetric e.ciencies of 32 and 00) were obtained for 1[4 and 25 cm heads\
respectively[
Fluidyne systems have been popular in the early 0879s[ Mankbadi ð4Ł reported that
the Gedeon|s system produced an overall e.ciency of around 2)[ These results have
made the system very attractive since it obtains reasonable e.ciency\ and\ at the same
time\ requires extremely simple technology and no mechanical moving parts[ A sketch
of this Fluidyne system is shown in Fig[ 00[
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 088

Fig[ 09[ Heat!driven pump[

Muralidhar ð0Ł\ in his review paper\ referred to an interesting ~uidyne pump

developed at Harwell\ England[ The pump is a very simple machine having no moving
parts except a couple of valves[ It needs no seals\ no lubrication and requires practically
no attention[ It can run on solar energy or waste heat[ The pump operates on the
principle of liquid piston engine[ The water column in a U!tube acts as a piston
pushing the trapped air back and forth between the hot zone and the cold zone[ A
part of the heat is thus converted into work to pump the water[ This pump could lift
a gallon of water per minute through a 0 m pumping head[ The e.ciency was claimed
to be low but the simple design of it is attractive[
Rao and Rao ð12Ł worked on a solar water pump for lift irrigation\ which employed
few displacement tanks to e}ect pumping[ Schematic of the water pump is shown in
Fig[ 01[ The pump worked on the similar principle as explained earlier[ That is\ the
volume increase at a given pressure is utilized to displace water to a higher level and
199 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 00[ Fluidyne pump[

the volume reduction at a lower pressure is used for suction of water from a depth[
The volume of water displaced is equal to the change in the volume of the ~uid
undergoing phase change[ The thermodynamic analysis of the cycle and design aspects
have been discussed by Rao and Rao ð12Ł[ The pump has no moving parts except for
check valves[ Neither an auxiliary power source nor high technical skill is required to
operate the pump[ The system operates with commercial pentane[ Pentane is vaporised
in ~at!plate collectors under pressure[ The pentane vapour is allowed to pressurise
water in a closed tank\ immersed in the well water\ e}ecting pumping of water to a
higher elevation[ On condensation of the vapour\ a partial vacuum is created and
water is drawn into the tank[ Two types of pumps are discussed[ In the air cooled
pump\ the vapour is condensed at night through the solar collectors[ The details of
the water cooled pump will be explained in the next section[ Table 0 gives the energy
requirements of an air cooled pump[
Bhide ð14Ł refers to the experimental observations on a French solar water pump
developed by Ican Pierre\ a French engineer\ the reported e.ciency of which was of
the order of 0)[ Water was heated in a 01 m1 solar collector[ The heated water
evaporated a volatile liquid "methyl chloride#[ Expanding methyl chloride vapour did
work on the piston driving the hydraulic pump[ It is reported that the pump could
lift 0199 l of water to a discharge head of 04 m[
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 190

Fig[ 01[ Sketch of air!cooled pump[

Soin et al[ ð15Ł have studied the performance of an air cooled solar water pump
with a capacity of 1599 l per day over an operating period of 6 months[ The exper!
imental results and the operational problems are discussed[ They also discuss the
operational problems of a 019\999 l per day\ 01 m lift\ water cooled pump\ besides
discussing the design of a {direct cooled pump|[

2[2[ Water!cooled pumps

The daily pumping capacity is limited by the water tank size as described by Rao
and Rao ð12Ł[ The exhaust vapour\ after pumping the water from the well\ can be
cooled and condensed at night[ The collector acts as a condenser for the working
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Table 0
Energy requirement of air!cooled pump

Net lift of water ðmŁ 8[03 07[18 16[32

Collector temperature ð>CŁ 51[1 63[3 72[8
Collector area ðm1Ł 12[1 26[1 40[0
Energy to preheat pentane and ~ash tank ðkJŁ 44\738 099\838 025\146
Theoretical energy requirement ðkJŁ 48\773 63\095 83\986
Heat losses to
"a# side wall ðkJŁ 028\896 193\999 195\742
"b# top cover ðkJŁ 05\911 19\874 12\953
"c# to pentane layer on water ðkJŁ 39\282 41\809 47\033
Preheating period 96]99 h 96]99 h 96]99 h
09]99 h 09]99 h 09]99 h
Pumping period 09]99 h 09]99 h 09]99 h
04]99 h 04]99 h 04]99 h

Tank size] diameter 2[94 m\ height 2[55 m\ e}ective volume] 13[81 m2

~uid\ rejecting heat to ambient by convection and radiation[ For lift irrigation of a
meaningful quantum of land\ the volume of the water tank may be too high to be
economical[ This limitation could be positively overcome by using water as the heat!
transfer ~uid to condense the spent vapour[ Therefore\ these water!cooled pumps are
proved to be e.cient in comparison to air!cooled pumps in terms of the quantity of
water lifted per day[
Maccracken ð16Ł and Bold ð17Ł worked on water!cooled solar thermal water pumps
which had a U!tube to facilitate condensation[ The schematic of the {Maccracken
thermopump| is shown in Fig[ 02[ The pump operates on the same principle "volume
change basis# as explained earlier[ As heat\ from a solar collector\ is supplied to
the generator\ the liquid evaporates\ changes volume\ pushes the ~oater down and
discharges the water in the collapsible rubber lung from the top[ When the ~oater
reaches the bottom of its stroke\ the vapour escapes through the vapour tube and is
condensed when it comes in contact with the liquid\ which has been cooled by the
cold water in the rubber lung[ When all the vapour is condensed\ the pressure is
decreased\ water is lifted from the reservoir\ the ~oater moves up to block the entrance
to the vapour tube\ and liquid _lls both the cylinder and the generator\ and the
intermittent pumping action starts again[ A suitable working medium\ e[g[ R!00\ may
be used for this thermopump to operate with a solar collector in order to pump water
to a desired elevation\ and when cooled by the wall\ create a suction to lift water from
a certain depth[
A thermal actuated pump was developed on a laboratory scale by El!Mallah and
Mohamad ð18Ł and proved to be quite reliable[ The working principle is similar to the
Maccracken thermopump ð16Ł[ The operation of the pump can be explained by
reference to Fig[ 03[ Firstly\ the pump has to be _lled completely with water[ As the
heat source is applied to the pump\ steam is produced and water then ~ows from the
pump cylinder to the outlet pipe through the condenser tube[ As soon as the water
surface in the pump cylinder reaches the bottom of the U!tube\ a hydraulic instability
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 192

Fig[ 02[ Maccracken|s thermopump[

occurs and triggering action takes place making a syphon action and the steam in the
pump cylinder will be sucked into the condenser[ As the steam is condensed\ vacuum
is created in the pump and a suction stroke takes place to _ll the pump with water
from the source\ and a new cycle starts[
The design of the preceding listed water!cooled pumps are suitable only for shallow
water sources[ However\ the nature of irrigation in an arid region calls for a pumping
system which is capable of lifting water from deep wells[
Bhattacharyya et al[ ð29Ł describe a bellows!actuated solar pump having no moving
parts "Fig[ 04#[ Thermodynamic analysis\ relevant numerical results and limited exper!
imental data on a trial unit of fractional horsepower are presented[ Simplicity of
design\ reasonable e.ciency and ease in multi!staging for large heads are supposed
to be its main advantages[ Energy collected in ~at!plate collectors runs a Rankine
cycle operating with a low temperature boiling liquid[ The working ~uid circuit is a
closed one and is separated from water being pumped so that the latter remains
uncontaminated[ The system consists of an array of ~at!plate collectors\ a boiler
drum\ bellow chamber\ water chamber and a condenser cooled by the pumped water[
The ~exible bellows in the bellows chamber forms the critical part of the system[ In
principle\ the solar heat collected by the collector array is utilized to boil the working
liquid that is contained in the collector tube grids and partly in the boiler drum[ The
generated vapour is accumulated and its pressure rises according to its temperature[
193 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 03[ El!Mallah and Mohamad|s U!tube pump ð18Ł[

Having obtained the desired pressure in the boiler drum\ the bellows in the bellows
chamber is alternatively connected to the vapour chamber and condenser by means
of a three!way valve[ This causes the bellows to expand and contract in the con_ned
actuating water chamber\ which is initially _lled with water[ The latter has suction
and delivery pipelines with check valves[ The suction line drops in the water supply
reservoir[ The expansion and contraction of the bellows causes\ respectively\ pres!
surization and rari_cation of the trapped air in the bellows chamber which\ in turn\
acts on the water in the water chamber to e}ect alternately delivery and suction of
water[ After many cycles of operation\ the condensate is returned to the vapour
chamber by equalizing the pressures in the vapour chamber and in the condenser[
The overall e.ciency of the pump is 0Ð1) at an average pumping rate of 899 l h−0[
Simplicity of design\ reasonable e.ciency and ease in multi!staging for large heads
are the main advantages attributed to this type of solar pump[
Diaphragms can also be used to aid pumping of water from a well\ instead of a
bellows[ Murphy ð20\ 21Ł developed a system similar to that of Bhattacharyya et al[
ð29Ł[ This is illustrated schematically in Fig[ 05[ This system is a more compact one
campared to a bellows actuated pump\ and was called {Solar Liquid Piston Pump|[ It
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 194

Fig[ 04[ Bellow actuated solar water pump[

has the characteristic feature of liquid piston pumps\ namely the up and down
oscillation of a liquid column^ this oscillation induces suction and delivery of water
through one!way valves located in the inlet and outlet pipes[ The main components
of the SLPP are pump cylinder\ evaporator\ condenser\ two one!way valve and an
appropriate working ~uid\ in this case Freon 002\ which is separated from the pumped
water by a diaphragm[ Hot water at approximately 79>C ~ows through the evaporator[
As evaporation proceeds\ the vapour downloads until it falls below the evaporator
and evaporation ceases[ In the absence of evaporation "i[e[ when the liquid column is
below the evaporator# freon vapour is condensed by cooling water which circulates
through the condenser\ and the vapour pressure in the pump cylinder drops[ The low
pressure sucks the liquid column upward until contact is re!established with the
evaporator[ A heat source and sink are required for pump operation[ In a _eld
installation\ hot water would be generated in a solar water heater and delivered by
natural circulation while cooling water is bled o} from the pumped water[
A locally!designed SLPP prototype\ 649 mm tall with a diameter of 001 mm\ was
constructed using plexiglass and mild steel tubes for the main pump cylinder and
copper tubing "coils# for the evaporator and condenser[ The prototype was tested in
195 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 05[ Solar liquid piston pumping system[

the laboratory[ The maximum pump head attained by the prototype was 9[7 m with
a corresponding discharge of 9[04 l s−0[ The discharge rates fall within the same range
but the pump heads obtained with the SLPP prototype are much less than those
obtained in other unconventional pumps[
The bellows and the diaphragm water pumping systems have the advantages of
being simple\ cheap\ and reliable[ They are also reasonably e.cient[ Also\ the bellows\
diaphragm\ or any other end!plate provided reciprocating pump prevents the mixing
up of the working ~uid and the water being pumped[ This avoids the contamination
of the water to be pumped whose end use is either irrigation or potable water[
However\ regular replacement of the diaphragm and the bellows will be required as
repeated stresses cause serious fatigue\ which may increase the maintenance cost of
such pumps[
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 196

The Brown!Boveri system "Fig[ 06#\ referred by Mankbadi ð4Ł\ is a similar system
except for the absence of the diaphragm[ Since there is no diaphragm or a ~oat in the
system\ the working ~uid is absorbed by the water and the water to be pumped is
contaminated[ It may turn out to be hazardous for irrigation farms[ Also\ such pumps
can not be employed where pumped water is used for drinking purposes[ There is a
possibility of contamination of water with the working ~uid[
From the preceding examples ð29Ð21Ł\ it is clear that the use of a diaphragm or a
bellow in the system should be designed in such a way as to avoid miscibility of the
working ~uid with the water to be pumped\ as explained by Murphy ð20\ 21Ł[
To avoid direct contact of the working ~uid and the water to be pumped\ Venkatesh
ð22Ł added a few additional tanks\ A and B\ to the Brown!Boveri system design
between the separation tank "previously called the ~ash tank# and the well tank
"previously called the expansion chamber#[ The working of the solar thermal water
pump is brie~y described here with the help of the schematic diagram in Fig[ 07[
Liquid pentane is heated in the collector\ by a thermosiphon ~ow[ When the pressure

Fig[ 06[ Brown Boveri system[

197 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 07[ Schematic of the pumping system[

in tank S reaches a predetermined value the vapour from tanks S is quickly allowed
to pass into tank A which contains water[ The water in tank A\ in turn gets displaced
to tank B\ which initially contains air at atmospheric conditions[ Water entering vessel
B compresses the air in it to the discharge pressure[ This compressed air pushes the
water from vessel C "which is immersed in well water# to the overhead tank D[ At the
end of this pumping\ water in the overhead tank D is allowed to pass through the
cooling coils in vessel A on way to the end use of the pumped water[ The water
~owing through the cooling coil accelerates the condensation of pentane vapour in
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 198

vessel A[ Because of this condensation\ pressure in vessel A decreases[ This reduction

in pressure causes water in vessel B to return to vessel A\ thereby bringing the water
in vessel C\ through the one way valve 3[ The system is now ready for the next cycle[
The pressure of pentane vapour in tank S at the start of any cycle is either greater
than or equal to its pressure at the start of the previous cycle[ Between any two cycles\
the pressure of pentane in the collector system decreases when S communicates with
A[ Hence\ it takes some time to restore the pressure to its initial state[ If this period\
referred to as the {heating time|\ is less than the {condensation time| "time taken for
pentane vapour in A to condense completely#\ the temperature and thus the pressure
in the collector system will be higher at the start of the next cycle[ This is because the
next cycle cannot be started until and unless the condensation is complete and the
collector heats the pentane for a longer period than required[
Kwant et al[ ð23Ł have also studied the performance of a solar water pump that uses
displacement tanks as shown in Fig[ 08[ Besides discussing operational problems
possible suggestions are made by them to achieve a pump e.ciency of 1) with a 09
m1 single glazed ~at!plate collector[
Sudhakar et al[ ð24Ł have suggested a modi_ed pump "Fig[ 19# based on the
theoretical studies of their earlier work ð12Ł[ This modi_ed version is suggested to
eliminate the direct contact between the working ~uid and the water[ Thermodynamic
analysis has been made to ascertain the advantages of coupling concentrating col!

Fig[ 08[ Diagram of the Kwant et al[ ð23Ł pumping system[

109 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

Fig[ 19[ Sketch of the modi_ed pump[

lectors with the pumping system[ To minimise the heat losses in the water tank an
internal insulation has been proposed[ The performances of the unit with and without
internal insulation have been compared[ It is reported that a unit employing auto!
matically operated valves with a collection area of 82 m1 could pump 799\999 l of
water per day against a discharge head of 8[0 m[
Sudhakar and Rao ð25Ł have presented an algorithm to simulate the performance
of a solar water pump[ A pump having a solar collector area of 82 m1 developed 0[73Ð
1[65 kW\ averaged over a period of 5 h per day\ depending upon the discharge head[
The economic feasibility of the pump for di}erent crop patterns has been studied and
it has been shown that the pump is economically viable for heads up to 16[3 m[ The
studies indicate that the pump is not competitive with diesel and electrical pumps\ at
present[ However\ considering the real cost of electri_cation of a village located 4 km
from main transmission lines\ the solar pump is economical compared to the electrical
pump[
Hariprakash ð26Ł has worked on a similar pump and reported that its theoretical
e.ciency is around 9[00Ð9[02)[ A small unit with ~at!plate solar collectors of 2 m1
exposed area\ with n!pentane as the working substance was tested and the pump could
achieve an average overall e.ciency of 9[94)[
A laboratory model of a solar pump has been developed and tested by Agarwal
and Shreepal ð27Ł[ The pump operates on a Rankine cycle with methyl alcohol as the
working substance[ Superheated methyl alcohol vapour generated in a stationary
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 100

Winston collector\ with an absorber area of 1[14 m1\ is directed to the pumping section
where it pushes a liquid piston of turpentine in a working cylinder[ This directly forces
water from an L!shaped pipe\ connected to the cylinder to rise in a delivery pipe[ The
vapour\ when exhausted to a condenser\ produces a partial vacuum in the cylinder
causing suction of water from a deep water source[ The condensate is taken back to
the evaporator and the cycle continues[ It is reported that the laboratory model
required improvement with regard to automation and increase in e.ciency[
Information gathered from the literature reveals that the performance of various
pumps\ especially the unconventional types with no moving parts\ varies over a wide
range[ Most of the work is experimental in nature under widely varying conditions[
A comprehensive theoretical analysis to assess the performance of such types of
pumps is lacking[
In view of the above observations\ an unconventional pump of the type considered
by researchers ð12\ 23\ 24\ 26Ł is selected for detailed analysis\ the reason being the
pump can be coupled to a ~at!plate collector which is fairly inexpensive and rugged^
also it is easy to maintain[
In theoretical studies ð12\ 23\ 24Ł the following assumptions have been made] "0#
the intensity of solar radiation on the collector is steady in each cycle^ "1# the working
substance is always at the saturated temperature corresponding to the given discharge
pressure^ "2# the collection system always contains a _xed mass of pentane^ "3# pentane
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle[ In these studies\ the condensation time needed in
the analysis is determined from experiments[
Assumptions "0# and "1# are not correct[ The intensity of solar radiation increases
with time until noon and decreases thereafter[ The temperature of pentane in the
collection system cannot be held steady[ It keeps on increasing with time as it is heated
continuously by solar energy[ Contrary to assumption "2#\ in reality the mass of
pentane in the collection system decreases from cycle to cycle as its vapour is taken
out of the collection system in each cycle and there is no way it can be immediately
fed back to the collector under pressure[ Also\ assumption "3# that pentane undergoes
a thermodynamic cycle is not correct[ Strictly speaking the pentane does not undergo
a thermodynamic cycle[ It is not possible to return the condensed pentane to the
collection system\ since at any instant the pressure in the collection system is higher
than that in the condensing vessel[ While analysing the performance of the pump
theoretically\ the condensation time per cycle should also be predicted[
The facts mentioned above have been taken into consideration to some extent by
Hariprakash ð26Ł in his work on solar water pumps[ Focusing points were observed
in his analysis[ "0# He has considered only sensible heating of pentane\ in determining
its temperature rise at any instant[ "1# In balancing the energy equation he has not
considered the net heat capacity of the collection system[ "2# He has also not considered
the losses from the collection system\ which have a profound e}ect on the temperature
of pentane in the system[ "3# Theoretically\ he has assumed that the pump starts
operating as soon as the system reaches a pressure equal to the discharge head[ "4#
The actual mass of pentane required per cycle was more than the predicted one[ "5#
The pressure: temperature in the collection system were very high when the pump
was not operating\ which constitutes a loss of potential[ "6# The vessel sizes were not
101 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

in correct proportion to make use of the vapour generated in an e}ective way[ "7#
There was a large di}erence between predicted and measured values[ "8# The overall
e.ciency reported was very low[
An attempt was made by Sumathy et al[ ð28Ð30Ł to perform a complete analysis of
a solar thermal water pumping system which includes collector analysis ð28Ł\ analysis
of the condenser ð39Ł and the thermodynamic analysis of the pump ð30Ł[ The system
under analysis is shown in Fig[ 10[ The increase in temperature of the working ~uid\

Fig[ 10[ Schematic of the Sumathy et al[ ð28Ð30Ł solar thermal water pump[
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 102

pentane\ was predicted\ treating pentane being heated as a mixture of liquid and
vapour[ It was shown in the study that limiting the pressure and temperature of
pentane during heating\ by using a vapour storage tank N\ improved the performance
of the pump[ In the absence of the vapour storage tank\ when liquid pentane at a
higher pressure in the collector communicates with vessel A\ the pentane vapour
gushes into the latter[ The pentane vapour suddenly rushing into vessel A also entrains
some liquid pentane along with it[ This results in the increase of mass of pentane
required in each cycle leading to reduced e.ciency and other associated problems[
The thermodynamic analysis in conjunction with the heat!transfer analysis of the
collector predicts the performance of this modi_ed pump "Fig[ 10# having an
additional vapour storage tank[ For an assumed set of parameters\ such as the pattern
of intensity of solar radiation\ collector characteristics\ meteorological data\ the mass
of pentane initially in the system and the discharge head\ the heating time\ the
condensation time per cycle\ the number of cycles per day\ the mass of water lifted
per day and the overall e.ciency were evaluated from the thermodynamic analysis[
The predicted results were discussed and compared with experimental data[
The overall e.ciency of the pump is small[ This is because of the fact that there are
a number of stages of conversion of solar energy to hydraulic work[ The system
using a non!selectively coated ~at!plate collector\ whose e.ciency especially at high
temperatures\ is known to be low of the order of 19Ð29)[ Also\ most of the energy
is used in heating the large quantity of liquid _rst\ to the required pressure[ The
e.ciency of the pump realized experimentally is comparable to the e.ciency values
reported by Hariparkash ð26Ł and Kwant et al[ ð23Ł[ Working on similar units with a
large number of ~at!plate collectors\ they have reported experimental e.ciencies of
9[97 and 9[0) respectively at the discharge head of 09 m[ The corresponding e.ciency
in this work is 9[01)\ which may at best be considered marginally superior[

3[ Further studies

3[0[ Reasons for the low ef_ciency of the pump

Low e.ciencies of devices operating on ~at!plate collectors are too well known[
However\ in this case\ the e.ciency is rather very low[ This necessitates a careful
investigation[

, The manner in which the pentane vapour displaces water in vessel A\ requires a
careful review[ Since the rate of vapour generation through ~at!plate collectors is
low for obvious reasons\ the water can only be displaced slowly by this vapour[
Slow displacement causes condensation of some amount of vapour during the
pumping process[ This requires more pentane to do the job than the estimated
quantity[ To improve the performance\ it is essential that the pentane vapour
displaces water as quickly as possible[
103 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106

, In the experimental work of the other researchers ð17\ 26Ł\ the ~at!plate collectors
are operating at unnecessarily high temperatures beyond 09]29 h[ This reduces the
collection e.ciency and thus the overall e.ciency of the pump[
, The exposed area of the collector is not optimized in the work of the other
researchers[
, The pump was out of action for a small period of few minutes at an interval of
every 4Ð5 cycles to remove the liquid pentane from vessel A[ During this period the
heating in the collector was continued resulting in greater losses from the collector[
, The pumping process was not instantaneous[ Also\ there are too many valves to be
controlled manually\ which results in reduced e.ciency[

3[1[ Recommendations

, The disadvantage associated with the slow displacement of water by vapour can
only be eliminated by resorting to instantaneous _lling[ This could be achieved by
having a storage tank\ where the vapour could be collected at the required pressure
to be used as and when required[ This avoids the condensation of vapour in vessel
A during the process of pumping the water[
, When the collector reaches the minimum pressure required to operate the pump
there is no need to further heat the pentane in the collectors[ From this instant
onwards\ as and when the pentane vapour is used for pumping water\ the collector
must be able to replenish this vapour by making use of solar energy to supply only
the required enthalpy of vapourization[ However\ the amount of pentane vapour
used by the pump in each cycle is much less than the generating capacity of the
collectors[ This causes the pentane in the collectors to be unnecessarily heated to
very high temperatures at the cost of e.ciency[ This problem can only be eliminated
by proper optimization of the volumes of vessels A\ B and C and the collector
supplies only that mass of pentane vapour which the vessels A\ B\ and C can handle
in each cycle[ If this is not possible one or more parallel pumpings can be done
using the vapour generated by the collectors[
, Vessel A has to be insulated well[ It is also advisable to have an insulating ~oat in
the vessel\ to reduce the problem of condensation of pentane vapour during the
period of pumping[
, It is preferred to have condensation in a separated chamber\ so that the pump can
be operated continuously without any stopping for removal of condensed pentane
from vessel A[
, Changing the working ~uid in the solar collector in such a way that the new working
~uid has a vapour pressure of 1 abs[ bar at the same temperature at which the
pentane has 0 abs[ bar\ "e[g[ using a suitable mixture of isopentane and butane# the
temperature swing of the vapour in vessel A necessary for producing a pressure
swing of 0 bar would be smaller^ however the amount of vapour to be condensed in
reservoir A at each cycle would remain the same\ as it always corresponds to a
partial pressure of 0 bar[ "On the other side will be increased the small amount of
heat to be extracted as sensible heat for cooling the remaining vapour[#
 Y[W[ Won`\ K[ Sumathy : Renewable and Sustainable Ener`y Reviews 2 "0888# 074Ð106 104

, A ~oat!valve has been recently upgraded ð31Ł for use with low!density ~uids\ just
like pentane[ Combining the ~oat!valve with the water pumping system\ it is possible
to conceive a device making the same job\ but working in an automatic way[

4[ Conclusions

The development of solar thermal water pumps for irrigation is promising[ The
technology continues to develop\ and the cost of producing power with solar thermal
water pumps is falling[ If the costs of fossil fuels\ transportation\ energy conversion\
electricity transmission and system maintenance are taken into account\ the cost of
energy produced by solar thermal water pumps would be much lower than that for
electrical water pumps[
Of two main kinds of solar thermal water pumping systems discussed in this paper\
the unconventional types are relatively simple and non!mechanical[ Their installation
and maintenance can be carried out by untrained workers[ In spite of low e.ciency\
these pumps are attractive to users since solar energy is abundantly available[ Also\
most of the solar thermal water pumps will probably be located in the farming village\
where land is relatively inexpensive and water demand goes along with the solar
radiation available\ rather than for commercial use owing to their bulk and relatively
low pumping head[ Further research to overcome these limitations is essential if
systems are to be adopted for commercial usage in future[ Any method that improves
the e.ciency even marginally would be a long way in improving the economics of
operating such devices[

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