What Is an Oedipus Complex?

Explore one of Freud's most controversial yet enduring concepts

The Oedipal complex, also known as the Oedipus complex, is a term used by Sigmund Freud in his theory
of psychosexual stages of development to describe a child's feelings of desire for his or her opposite-sex parent and
jealousy and anger toward his or her same-sex parent. Essentially, a boy feels that he is competing with his father for
possession of his mother, while a girl feels that she is competing with her mother for her father's affections.

According to Freud, children view their same-sex parent as a rival for the opposite-sex parent's attentions and
affections.

The Origins of the Oedipal Complex

Freud first proposed the concept of the Oedipal complex in his 1899 book The Interpretation of Dreams, although he
did not formally begin using the term Oedipus complex until the year 1910. The concept became increasingly
important as he continued to develop his concept of psychosexual development.

Where exactly does the term get its name? Freud named the complex after the character in Sophocles'  Oedipus
Rex who accidentally kills his father and marries his mother. In the Greek myth, Oedipus is abandoned at birth and
thus does not know who his parents are. It is only after he had killed his father and married his mother that he
learning their true identities.

How Does the Oedipus Complex Work?

In psychoanalytic theory, the Oedipus complex refers to the child's desire for sexual involvement with the opposite
sex parent, particularly a boy's erotic attention to his mother.

This desire is kept out of conscious awareness through repression, but Freud believed that it still had an influence
over a child's behavior and played a role in development.

Freud suggested that the Oedipus complex played an important role in the phallic stage of psychosexual
development. He also believed that successful completion of this stage involved identifying with the same-sex parent
which ultimately would lead to developing a mature sexual identity.

According to Freud, the boy wishes to possess his mother and replace his father, who the child views as a rival for
the mother's affections.

The Oedipal complex occurs in the phallic stage of psychosexual development between the ages of three and five.
The phallic stage serves as an important point in forming sexual identity. During this stage of development, the
Freud suggested that the child develops a sexual attraction to his or her opposite sex parent and hostility toward the
same-sex parent.

Signs of the Oedipus Complex 

So what are some of the signs of the oedipal complex? Freud suggested that there are a number of behaviors that
children engage in that are actually a result of this complex. Some behavioral manifestations of the complex might
involve a boy expressing possessiveness of his mother and telling his father not to hug or kiss his mom. Little girls at
this age may declare that they plan to marry their fathers when they grow up.
The Electra Complex

The analogous stage for girls is known as the Electra complex in which girls feel desire for their fathers and jealousy
of their mothers. The term Electra complex was introduced by Carl Jung to describe how this complex manifests in
girls.

Freud, however, believed that the term Oedipus complex referred to both boys and girls, although he believed that
each sex experiences it differently.

Freud also suggested that when girls discover that they do not have a penis, they develop penis envy and resentment
toward their mothers for "sending her into the world so insufficiently equipped." Eventually, this resentment gives
way to identification with her mother and the process of internalizing the attributes and characteristics of her same-
sex parent.

It was Freud's views of female sexuality that were perhaps his most heavily criticized. The psychoanalyst Karen
Horney refuted Freud's concept of penis envy and instead suggested that men experience womb envy due to their
inability to bear children.

Freud himself admitted that his understanding of women was perhaps less than fully realized. "We know less about
the sexual life of little girls than on boys," he explained. "But we need not feel ashamed of this distinction. After all,
the sexual life of adult women is a 'dark continent' for psychology."

How Is the Oedipus Complex Resolved?

At each stage in Freud's theory of psychosexual development, children face a developmental conflict that must be
resolved in order to form a healthy adult personality. In order to develop into a successful adult with a healthy
identity, the child must identify with the same-sex parent in order to resolve the conflict of the phallic stage.

So how does the child go about resolving the Oedipus complex? Freud suggested that while the primal id wants to
eliminate the father, the more realistic ego knows that the father is much stronger. The id, as you may recall, is the
primal source of energy that seeks to immediately satisfy all of the unconscious urges. The ego is the part of
personality that emerges to mediate between the urges of the id and the demands of reality.

According to Freud, the boy then experiences what he called castration anxiety - a fear of both literal and figurative
emasculation. Freud believed that as the child becomes aware of the physical differences between males and
females, he assumes that the female's penis has been removed and that his father will also castrate him as a
punishment for desiring his mother.

In order to resolve the conflict, the defense mechanism known as identification kicks in. It is at this point that
the super-ego is formed. The super-ego becomes a sort of inner moral authority, an internalization of the father
figure that strives to suppress the urges of the id and make the ego act upon these idealistic standards.

In The Ego and the Id, Freud explained the child's superego retains the character of the child's father and that the
strong feelings of the Oedipus complex are then repressed. Outside influences including social norms, religious
teachings, and other cultural influences help contribute to the repression of the Oedipal complex.

It is out of this that the child's conscience emerges, or his overall sense of right and wrong. In some cases, however,
Freud also suggested that these repressed feelings could also result in an unconscious sense of guilt. While this guilt
may not be overtly felt, it can still have an influence over the individual's conscious actions.
What If the Oedipus Complex Is Not Resolved?

So what happens when the Oedipus complex is not successfully resolved? As when conflicts at other psychosexual
stages are not resolved, a fixation at that point in development can result. Freud suggested that boys who do not deal
with this conflict effectively become "mother-fixated" while girls become "father-fixated." As adults, these
individuals will seek out romantic partners who resemble their opposite-sex parent.

Erickson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development focus on the resolution of different crises to

become a successful, complete person.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

 Summarize Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

KEY POINTS

o Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial psychosexual theory and
modified it into an eight-stage psychosocial theory of development.
o During each of Erikson’s eight development stages, two conflicting ideas must be resolved successfully in
order for a person to become a confident, contributing member of society. Failure to  master these tasks
leads to feelings of inadequacy.
o Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.
shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs.
isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.
o Erikson also expanded upon Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development;
certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival
needs.

TERMS

 autonomy: Self-government; freedom to act or function independently.

 psychosocial: Having both psychological and social aspects.

Erikson’s Theory

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development and
modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by
mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful,
contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be
successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.
Erik Erikson

Erikson developed his eight stages of psychosocial development based on Freud’s psychosexual theory.

Stages Of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson
proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to
psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At
each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a
sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development; certain cultures may need to
resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic
needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their
baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will
likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food,
toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old
child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation,
her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her
environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control
over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task
of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this
task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then
support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of
guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to
compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because
they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at
home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.
Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion.  According to Erikson, an adolescent’s
main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to
do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various
roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have
a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of  problemsand other
people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to
conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They
will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely
struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a
sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been
successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others.
Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults
who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social
task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the
development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-
aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in
meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may
experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have
little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this
stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can
look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has
been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives
with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

EDGAR DALE’S CONE OF EXPERIENCE

Education is formation, recapitulation; retrospection and reconstruction. These are all continuous processes of education
and only be provided with the help of experience. Different experiences are planned and adopted to educate and train the
learners at different levels of education system.

James Q Knowlton rightly suggested another important component which can be added for the process of instruction is”
Experience”. Experience is the accumulation of knowledge or skill that results from direct participation in events or
activities; the content of direct observation or participation in an event; something personally lived through or
encountered. The practical wisdom gained from what one has observed, encountered, or undergone or felt. Experiences
may be direct or indirect and of concrete and abstract.
Edgar Dale (April 27, 1900 – March 8, 1985) was a U.S. educationist who developed the famous Cone of Experience. Dale
was a professor of education at University. He made several contributions to audio and visual instruction, including
a methodology for analyzing the content of motion pictures Edgar Dale, an expert in audiovisual education, created a
model in his 1946 book Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching that he named the Cone of Experience to discuss various
modalities/channels of imparting information. . The cone of experience given by Edgar dale has rightly said that it is not
offered as a perfect or mechanically flaw less picture to be taken with absolute literalness in its simplified form. It is
merely a visual aid to explain the interrelationships of various types of audiovisual materials, as well as their individual
positions in learning process His cone did not refer to learning or retention at all, instead modelling levels of abstraction:
words being the most abstract in his model, at the top of the cone, and real-life experiences the most concrete, and at the
base of the cone.
Dale’s Cone of Experience is a model that incorporates several theories related to instructional design and learning
processes.  During the 1960s, Edgar Dale theorized that learners retain more information by what they “do” as opposed to
what is “heard”, “read” or “observed”.  His research led to the development of the Cone of Experience. The Cone was
originally developed in 1946 and was intended as a way to describe various learning experiences. Essentially, the Cone
shows the progression of experiences from the most concrete (at the bottom of the cone) to the most abstract (at the top of
the cone).

The cone of experience is a pictorial device use to explain the interrelationships of the various types of audio-visual media,
as well as their individual “positions” in the learning process. The cone’s utility in selecting instructional resources and
activities is as practical today as when Dale created it.

EDGAR DALE’S CONE/ PYRAMID OF EXPERIENCE

Dale’s Cone of Experience is a visual model that is composed of eleven (11) stages starting from concrete experiences at the
bottom of the cone then it becomes more and more abstract as it reach the peak of the cone. Also, according to Dale, the
arrangement in the cone is not based on its difficulty but rather based on abstraction and on the number of senses
involved. The experiences in each stages can be mixed and are interrelated that fosters more meaningful learning.

According to one of the principles in the selection and use of teaching strategies, the more senses that are involved in
learning, the more and the better the learning will be but it does not mean that concrete experience is the only effective
experience that educators should use in transferring knowledge to the learner. Like what was mentioned above, the
experiences in each stages can be mixed and are interrelated thus, a balance must be achieved between concrete and
abstract experiences in order to cater the and address all the need of the learner in all the domains of development and in
order to help each learner in their holistic development.

The generalization about the Cone of Experience that was presented above is not enough. Actually, we should try to go
deeper in each of the component of the cone since Educational Technology basically revolves around the Cone of
Experience. By going one-by-one, starting from concrete to abstract, we will understand more the different components of
the cone that will help us in grasping the real meaning of educational technology.

Direct Purposeful Experiences.

These are first hand experiences which serve as the foundation of learning. In this level, more senses are used in order to
build up the knowledge. Also, in this level, the learner learned by doing things by him/herself. Learning happens through
actual hands-on experiences. This level explains and proves one of the principles in the selection and use of teaching
strategies, the more senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the learning will be. This level also proves
that educational technology is not limited to the  modern gadgets and software that are commercially available nowadays.
This shows that even the simple opportunity that you give to each child could help them learn.

The Contrived Experiences.

In this level, representative models and mock-ups of reality are being used in order to provide an experience that as close
as reality.  This level is very practical and it makes learning experience more accessible to the learner. In this stage, it
provides more concrete experiences, even if not as concrete as direct experiences, that allows visualization that fosters
better understanding of the concept.

The Dramatized experiences.

In this level, learners can participate in a reconstructed experiences that could give them better understanding of the event
or of a concept. Through dramatized experiences, learners become more familiar with the concept as they emerge
themselves to the “as-if” situation.

The Demonstrations.
It is a visualize explanation of important fact, idea, or process through the use of pictures, drawings, film and other types
of media in order to facilitate clear and effective learning. In this level, things are shown based on how they are done.

The Study Trips.

This level extends the learning experience through excursions and visits on the different places that are not available
inside the classroom. Through this level, the learning experience will not be limited to the classroom setting but rather
extended in a more complex environment.

The Exhibits
The level of study trips is followed by exhibits. It is a somewhat a combination of some of the first levels in the cone.
Actually, exhibits are combination of several mock ups and models. Most of the time, exhibits are experiences that is “for
your eyes” only but some exhibits includes sensory experiences which could be related to direct purposeful experiences. In
this level, meanings ideas are presented to the learners in a more abstract manner. This experience allows student to see
the meaning and relevance of things based on the different pictures and representations presented.

The television and motion pictures etc.

The next levels would be the level of television and motion pictures and still pictures, recordings, and Radio. For television
and motion pictures, it implies values and messages through television and films. On the other hand, still pictures,
recordings and radio are visual and audio devices that can be used by a group of learner that could enhance and extend
learning experience

The Visual symbolic and Verbal symbolic

The last two levels would be the Visual symbolic and Verbal symbolic. These two levels are the most complex and abstract
among all the components of the Cone of Experience. In the visual symbolic level, charts, maps, graphs, and diagrams are
used for abstract representations. On the other hand, the verbal symbolic level does not involve visual representation or
clues to their meanings. Mostly, the things involved in this level are words, ideas, principles, formula, and the likes.

After going through the different components of the Cone of Experience, it could be said that in facilitating learning, we
can use variety of materials and medium in order to maximize the learning experience. One medium is not enough so
there’s nothing wrong with trying to combine several medium for as long as it could benefit the learners.

Through the levels provided by the Cone of Experience, it could be said that concrete experiences must be provided first in
order to support abstract learning.  Lastly, staying on the concrete experiences is not even ideal because through providing
abstract experiences to the learner, the more he will develop his  higher order thinking skills which is important for more
complex way of thinking and for dealing with more complex life situations.

Through understanding each component of the Cone of Experience, it could be said that Educational Technology is not
limited to the modern gadgets that we have right now but rather it is a broad concept that includes all the media that we
can use to attain balance as we facilitate effective and meaningful learning.
To understand more the Cone of Experience, you may refer to this picture:

Modes of learning in Cone of Experience

In Edgar Dale introduced the Cone of Experience demonstrate a progression from direct, first-hand experience to pictorial
representation and on to purely abstract, symbolic expression.

The Cone of Experience corresponds with three major modes of learning:

Enactive (direct experience),- Enactive or direct experience involves practicing with objects (the student actually ties
a knot to learn knot-tying).  Enactive experience involves concrete, immediate action and use of the senses and body.
Iconic (pictorial experience) - Iconic experience involves interpreting images and drawings (the student looks at
drawings, pictures or films to learn to tie knots).  Iconic experience is once removed from the physical realm and limited to
two or three senses.
Symbolic (highly abstract experience)- Symbolic experience involves reading or hearing symbols (the student reads
or hears the word “knot” and forms an image in the mind). In symbolic experience, action is removed nearly altogether
and the experience is limited to thoughts and ideas.
Some theorists prefer to be more specific and refer to these possible modes of learning
Conditioned- Conditioning refers to learning by pre-design or control via a series of punishments and rewards.
Imitative – Imitation refers to learning tasks by observation or modeling.
Trial and error – Trial and error refers to learning via a series of successful and unsuccessful trials and deliberations.
Investigative - Investigation refers to learning via a series of informed hypotheses and inquiries into problems
Expansive learning - Refers to the questioning of the validity of tasks and problems of a given context to the
transformation of the context itself.
Passive and Active Aspects of the Cone of Experience
Although no experience is fully passive, iconic and symbolic experiences are generally more passive than direct
experiences. Dale proposed that active and passive modes of participation can be contrasted by assigning a percentage of
we tend to remember after two weeks after our experience.

The concrete and abstract aspects in the Cone of Experience

The Cone of Experience invokes a bi-directional movement from the concrete to abstract and from the abstract to
concrete. Dale’s theory suggests that objects and the material culture of technology are mere augmentations or media to be
used in the learning process. To fully empower teachers with a theory of practice in technology studies, technologies and
physical settings have to play a more active role in cognition, emotion and action.

Learning and Experiences: A Step model based on Dale Cone of Experience

When Dale researched learning and teaching methods he found that much of what we found to be true of direct and
indirect (and of concrete and abstract) experience could be summarised in a pyramid or ‘pictorial device’ Dales called ‘the
Cone of Experience’. In his book ‘Audio visual methods in teaching’ – 1957, he stated that the cone was not offered as a
perfect or mechanically flawless picture to be taken absolutely literally. It was merely designed as a visual aid to help
explain the interrelationships of the various types of audio-visual materials, as well as their individual ‘positions’ in the
learning process.

Dale points out that it would be a dangerous mistake to regard the bands on the cone as rigid, inflexible divisions.  He said
“The cone device is a visual metaphor of learning experiences, in which the various types of audio-visual materials are
arranged in the order of increasing abstractness as one proceeds from direct experiences.”

In true sense the bands of the (Edgar Dale’s) cone are not only the types of audiovisual materials but the different
experiences are also included. In fact the upper four bands like verbal symbols, visual symbols, Radio, Recordings, and
still pictures, and motion pictures are more related with Audiovisual materials but the later six bands of the cone like
Exhibits, Field Trips, Demonstrations, Dramatic Participation, are the strategies of teaching-learning.

Contrived Experiences and Direct, Purposeful Experiences are related with term Experiences .Each division represents a
stage between two extremes-direct experience and pure abstraction. As we move from base of the cone to the up in order
of decreasing directness. Similarly, if we move down from pinnacle of the cone in the order of the decreasing
abstraction .Based on experience of teaching at different levels it was felt that, there are many experiences and audiovisual
materials which are missing in dale’s cone and to be included by making a new model of experiences which is presented in
the following Step Learning Experiences model.

The base of the step learning experiences model is direct and purposeful experience which is always preferable for any new
learner and any kind of learning concept and gives firsthand experience in turn leads to the permanent learning. At the top
of the cone is verbal or text these are the least effective ways to introduce new content to students. The step learning
experience model includes 17 different experiences.

Verbal Symbols:
Verbal symbols are words, sentences, sounds, or other utterances that are said aloud in order to convey some meaning.
The verbal symbol may be a word , an idea , concept , a scientific principle , a formula , a philosophic aphorism   or any
other representation of experience that has been classified in some verbal symbolism.

Olfactory Experience:
It is also called Aroma Experience; Aroma is a quality that can be perceived by the olfactory sense. It is a type of
Experience where the learner can have the concrete idea of the abstract thing through the sense of smell.

Gustatory Experience:
Gustatory is an adjective that refers to tasting or the sense of taste, Gustatory has its roots in the Latin Gustare, meaning
“to taste,” It is a type of Experience where the learner can have the concrete idea of the thing or object or concept through
the sense of taste. We can have the taste of real thing which may be in different forms (different Size, shape, color)..
Tactile-kinesthetic Experience:
It is a type of Experience where the learner can have the idea or the concept of the thing or object through the sense of
touch and feel; it is learning through a hands-on approach and learners will be physically involved. Kinesthetic Learning
Experience refers to one of the modalities that learners use in order to approach and absorb new information.

Kinesthetic-tactile refers to a pupil who learns by movement and by touching. This type of experience can be given
through hands-on activities, manipulating objects or flash cards, working problems or re-typing notes.

Visual symbols:
Visual symbol may be a picture or shape that has a particular meaning or represents a particular process or idea.
Something visible that by association or convention represents something else that is invisible; and something that
represents or stands for something else, usually by association or used to represent something abstract. Visual experience
has a rich predictive structure.

Still Pictures, Radio, and Recordings:

This stage includes number of devices that might be classified roughly as “one dimensional aids” because they use only one
sense organ that is either eye (seeing) or ear (hearing). All these materials are less direct than the audio-visual
experiences.

Motion pictures, Television and computers:

These can eliminate the unnecessary and unimportant material and concentrate upon only selected points. The important
processes can be watched with slow motion and vital content and issues can be repeated number of times. The pupils are
mere spectators and are distant from the experiences like touching, tasting, handling and feeling from directly
experiencing.

Television’s influence on language habits, vocabulary, consumer patterns, cultural values and behavior patterns should
not be underestimated. Research suggests that even the learning pace can be enhanced or improved through television
learning.

The present day computers are not only compact, extremely powerful and versatile, commonly accessible and easy to use.
The computer has, indeed become an integral part of our teaching process and daily life. Students then simulate the entire
lab experience using the CAI, which saves time, resources.

Exhibits:
In education normally the arranged working models exhibited in a meaningful way. Sometimes they may be series of
photographs or of photographs mixed with models and charts . The opportunity to handle the materials by the participant
makes the way to use more sense organs and Learning by doing always helpful for meaningful or concrete learning.

Field-trip (Educational Excursion):

It is a trip by the students to gain firsthand knowledge away from the classroom as to a museum, factory, geological area,
or environment of certain plants and animals. A field trip gives students a chance to study something in real environment,
rather than in a classroom or laboratory. At field trips normally students see and note down certain important things.
Sometimes they get chance to interview and discuss the things with officials or local people to clarify the doubts with
supportive to observation.

Demonstrations:
A demonstration is another means whereby pupils can see how certain things are done. Demonstration may require
nothing more than observation on the part of the pupil or observer. It is the act of showing or making evident or
circumstance of proving or being proved conclusively as by reasoning. It may be description or explanation of a process
and illustrated by examples, specimens and it also includes the act of exhibiting the operation or use of a device, machine,
process and product.

Dramatization:
There are many things we cannot possibly experience at first hand and we cannot experience directly something that has
already happened. Furthermore some matters cannot be reduced to contrived experience and some ideas must of
necessary be somewhat abstract and symbolic. Dramatic participation can help us get close as possible to certain realities
that we cannot reach at first hand.
As students re-create images, pictures, visual details, staging, movement, location and direction with drama their spatial
learning skills are developed. Logical learning follows from using rational patterns, cause and effect relationships and
other believable concepts involved with the drama. Sometimes music, or even the music of language, is also used in
working with drama.

Contrived Experiences (Artificial Experience):

A contrived experience is editing of reality, an editing which makes the reality easier to grasp. It may be illustrated by
working model and it differs from the original either in size or complexity; contrived experiences lead to a suspension of
disbelief. In other words, during the period of experience, the learner believes in the reality of the experience. We make
use of contrived experiences to overcome limitation of space and time, to edit reality for us to be able to focus on parts or a
process of a system that we intend to study and to overcome difficulties of size and finally to understand easily and
effectively

Virtual learning experience :

Though the virtual experience can be called as contrived experience but the pupils level of experience may differ and the
kind of joy and level of understanding may be high at virtual than the contrived experiences which include models mock
ups and cut-away as we can consider them as hardware. A virtual learning experience involves a set of teaching and
learning tools designed to enhance a student’s learning experience by including computers and the Internet in the learning
process. The representation of the learning environment ranges from text-based interfaces to the most complex 3D
graphical output.

Smart boards are the best examples for virtual experience where students can conduct science experiments in simulated
way. In virtual experience pupil can see and hear but not use the senses of touch and smell. We can bring reality in the
classroom which is more than contrived experience and as near as the real experience.

Four-Dimensional Experiences:
Four-Dimensional Experiences that describes a presentation system combining a Three Dimensional film with Physical
effects in the theater, which occurs in synchronization with the film.

Because physical effects can be expensive to install, 4-D films are usually presented only at special venues, such as theme
parks and amusement parks. Due to the fast growth of technology, 3-D Theaters have been enhanced by the addition of
special simulations.In Education some of the abstract concepts of literature, history and science can be taught with Four
dimensional effects and pupil may enjoy the abstract content in a concrete way with same effect as it is given by the poets
in the poems, even at science issues and concepts as if they are experiencing in a real situation.

Ubiquitous learning Experience:

Ubiquitous means “pervasive, omnipresent, ever present, and everywhere”.A ubiquitous learning experience is any setting
of the environment in which students can become totally immersed in the learning process. To define, it is a kind of
experience where learning is happening all around the student but the student may not even be conscious of the learning
process.

The Ubiquitous learning Environment includes an ubiquitous computing technology-equipped system supplies users with
timely information and relevant services by automatically sensing users’ various context data and smartly generating
proper results. So the characteristics of a pervasive computing environment can be mainly concluded as the following:
User mobility, Resource and location discovery, Context awareness (user/time/location), Collaborative interaction,
Ambient information, Calm technology, Event notification, Adaptive interfaces, Invisibility object augmentation, and Any
time/anywhere.

Direct Real Experience

These experiences can be observed live or in real time through technological gadgets and the same can be used effectively
to the students understanding of the processes, certain special environments and sometimes the special actions too.

Direct real experience can give greater experience in learning for the students than virtual or contrived experiences. The
pupil will have an opportunity to observe and study directly. Hence its impact may be high on learning than the other
earlier experiences. It is also an alternative experience to the direct purposeful experience. When teachers are unable to
provide direct purposeful experience, they may only have the best option of direct real experience.
Direct Purposeful Experience: The Base of the Step Learning Experiences Model represents direct reality itself as we
experience it at first hand. It is the rich full bodied experience that is the base of education. It is the purposeful experience
that is seen, handled, tasted, felt, touched, and smelled. It is the experience of life and we get it by living. Some of our
richest, most vivid sense impressions are those which involve our feelings and perceptions in an eager exploration of the
world.
Critical Appraisal
The cone of experience given by Edgar dale has rightly said that it is not offered as a perfect or mechanically flaw less
picture to be taken with absolute literalness in its simplified form. It is merely a visual aid to explain the interrelationships
of various types of audiovisual materials, as well as their individual positions in learning process.

The Cone should be considered as a continuum rather than a hierarchy. Learning occurs through all of the experiences
present in the Cone, and all experiences may be appropriate at different stages in the learning process or for different
audiences.

The Cone does not demonstrate which is the best method of learning? One can conclude that many different kinds of
instruction should be used in the classroom. Since no single method is superior to another, instructors must analyze the
audience as well as the content. Some content may fit into one teaching method, while other content may be better suited
to another method.

The use of audio-visual materials in teaching does not depend primarily upon reading to convey their meaning. It is based
upon the principle that all teaching can be greatly improved by the use of such materials because they can help make the
learning experience memorable we do not mean that sensory materials must be introduced into every teaching situation

Mathematics is a subject of abstract concepts and can be learnt better through verbal and visual symbols, contrived and
virtual experiences. It may not be possible to give direct experiences for pupil in subjects like mathematics and
statistics.Verbal and visual experiences are suitable only for Language learning.

Experiences are meant to experience not to evaluate or compare among them. Experiences are purely individualised, with
the same kind of experience one’s perception may be differ from others. One can learn better than other, some pupil can
learn better with the direct experiences and others can learn easily with virtual experience, some through contrived, one
dimensional and two dimensional aids.

John Dewey says that “Direct experience had the disadvantage of being limited in range and fatally restricted”(1946. P-51).
Indeed, we learn many things indirectly even better than the direct experience. The direct experience is not necessary or
suitable for learning all kinds of concepts.

James P. Lalley and Robert H. Miller have examined many different studies about learning and retention and have
concluded that the most learning and retention occurs when many different teaching methods are used in the classroom.
They found that direct instruction, or lecture, is most commonly used in the classroom and has “a significant effect on
retention”. Reading, although it appears to have little value based on Dale’s Cone will influence the students’ ability to
learn throughout their lives.

When Dale researched learning and teaching methods he found that much of what we found to be true of direct and
indirect (and of concrete and abstract) experience could be summarized in a pyramid or ‘pictorial device’. He stated that
the cone was not offered as a perfect or mechanically flawless picture to be taken absolutely literally. It was merely
designed as a visual aid to help explain the interrelationships of the various types of audio-visual materials, as well as their
individual ‘positions’ in the learning process.

It is important to note that Dale never intended the Cone to depict a value judgment of experiences; in other words, his
argument was not that more concrete experiences were better than more abstract ones. Dale believed that any and all of
the approaches could and should be used, depending on the needs of the learner.

Practicability of Learning Pyramid

In order for students to develop meaningful knowledge, feelings and skills, their direct experiences must be “associated
with abstractions,” as Dale noted. Language and expression are essential to skill acquisition.
Beyond its sketchy background, the learning pyramid should raise concerns:

1. What kind of research results end up in such tidy percentages, all multiples of 10?
2. How would one even develop a method for testing such broad claims?
3. Do we really believe a learner can remember 90% of anything?
4. Can an activity be separated from its content and be given credit for learning?
Many distinguished authors have gutted the pyramid’s claims. Educational expert Daniel Willingham  was against the
pyramid related to oversimplification; providing an optimal learning experience does not boil down to the instruction
method. There are many different variables that impact learning.

In her book  Char Booth explains another danger of the pyramid, that relying too heavily on the idea of mode strips away
designing instruction for differences in context and content . Booth’s anecdote about how she embraced the pyramid
because of its implications for student engagement illustrates another flaw with it. The pyramid is a visual sighting. If we
only remember 30% of what we see, then a picture of the pyramid should not have such a dramatic memory impact on so
many people.

Looking at Dale’s cone of Experience, one can realize that there can be numbers of model that can be used by the teacher
to reach the learner depending on the learners need. Despite the pyramid having been debunked in many venues for
decades, it continues to show up in educational presentations and literature.

To conclude, the Cone of Experience is essentially a visual metaphor for the idea that learning activities can be placed in
broad categories based on the extent to which they convey the concrete referents of real-life experiences. It has also been
interpreted by many as a prescriptive formula for selecting instructional media. Dale’s own explanations are nebulous
enough to enable a wide variety of interpretations to find support. Finally, the fact that the Cone has been taken seriously
enough to be used in so many ways testifies to the robustness and attractiveness of Dale’s visual metaphor