Definitions of terms used in description

A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field

indentification and description system. The following are some of the terms listed for
use in soil descriptions:

Particle shape 
angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate 
Compactness 
loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index ) 
Bedding structure 
homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified 
Bedding spacing 
massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly
bedded (200-60 mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly
laminated (<6 mm). 
Discontinuities 
i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600
mm), medium spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely
spaced (60-20 mm), extremely closely spaced (<20 mm). 
Colors 
red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black 
Consistency 
very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger
pressure required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff
(indented by sharp object), hard (difficult to indent). 
Grading 
well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded
(narrow or uneven size range). 
Composite soils 
In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%),
very clayey or silty(>15%) 
In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%) 
  

Soil description and classification basis

 Basic characteristics of soils
 Origins, formation and mineralogy
 Grading and composition
 Volume-weight properties
  Current state of soil
 British Standard system

It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order

to describe the various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be
comprehensive (covering all but the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an
engineering context (so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret) and
yet relatively concise. It is important to distinguish between description and
classification:

Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil.
It can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual
examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.

Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering
purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability,
stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description. 
  

Basic characteristics of soils

 Soil as an engineering material
 Size range of grains
 Shape of grains
 Composition of grains
 Structure or fabric

Soil as an engineering material

 The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it
represents the products of past surface processes. To a pedologist it represents
currently occurring physical and chemical processes. To an engineer it is a
material that can be:
 built on: foundations to buildings, bridges. 
built in: tunnels, culverts, basements. 
built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams. 
supported: retaining walls, quays.
 Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different
purposes. Engineers' descriptions give engineering terms that will convey some
 sense of a soil's current state and probable susceptibility to future changes (e.g.
in loading, drainage, structure, surface level).
 Engineers are primarily interested in a
soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness, permeability. These depend
primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content
and unit weight. 

Size range of grains

 Aids to size identification

The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a

controlling dimension of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm
(2m). Some clays contain particles less than 1  in size which behave as colloids,
i.e. do not settle in water due solely to gravity.

In theBritish Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil
Type groups according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium
and fine sub-groups: 
Shape characteristics grains
SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized
and larger) have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on
the amount of wear during transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in
manufactured aggregates. They have a relatively low specific surface (surface area).

Click on a link below to see the shape 

Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported sediments 
Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges; glacial sediments
(sometimes sub-divided into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular') 
Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits 
Flaky: Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays 
Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree, broken
flagstone 
Flaky & Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates 

Structure or fabric
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content
and nature of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these.

The arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is
termed its structure or fabric. This includes bedding orientation, stratification, layer
thickness, the occurrence of joints and fissures, the occurrence of voids, artefacts, tree
roots and nodules, the presence of cementing or bonding agents between grains.

Structural features can have a major influence on in situ properties.

 Vertical and horizontal permeabilities will be different in alternating layers of

fine and coarse soils.
 The presence of fissures affects some aspects of strength.
 The presence of layers or lenses of different stiffness can affect stability.
 The presence of cementing or bonding influences strength and stiffness.
Clay minerals
Clay minerals are produced mainly from the chemical weathering and decomposition
of feldspars, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, and some micas. They are small
in size and very flaky in shape.

The key to some of the properties of clay

soils, e.g. plasticity, compressibility,
swelling/shrinkage potential, lies in the
structure of clay minerals.

There are three main groups of clay

minerals: 
kaolinites 
(include kaolinite, dickite and nacrite)
formed by the decomposition of orthoclase
feldspar (e.g. in granite); kaolin is the
principal constituent in china clay and ball
clay. 
illites 
(include illite and glauconite) are the commonest clay minerals; formed by the
decomposition of some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine clays and shales
(e.g. London clay, Oxford clay). 
montmorillonites 
(also called smectites or fullers' earth minerals) (include calcium and sodium
momtmorillonites, bentonite and vermiculite) formed by the alteration of basic
igneous rocks containing silicates rich in Ca and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g.
Na+, Ca++) results in high swelling/shrinking potential

Grading and composition

 Coarse soils
 Fine soils
 Specific gravity

The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification

System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. 
  
 
Grading and composition

Coarse soils
 Particle size tests
 Typical grading curves
 Grading characteristics
 Sieve analysis example

Coarse soils are classified principally on the basis of particle size and grading.
Very coarse BOULDERS > 200 mm
soils COBBLES 60 - 200 mm
coarse 20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
Coarse fine 2 - 6 mm
soils coarse 0.6 - 2.0 mm
S
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
SAND
fine 0.06 - 0.2 mm

Coarse soils

Particle size tests

The aim is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in the
sample. When a wide range of sizes is present, the sample will
be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out on each sub-
sample. Full details of tests are given in BS 1377: "Methods of
test for soil for civil engineering purposes".

Particle-size tests

Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is carried

out by washing the soil specimen on a 60m sieve mesh. 
Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles >
60 m. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken
through a nest of sieves of descending size. 
Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are
allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of
the suspension is measured at time intervals. Sizes are determined from the settling
velocity and times recorded. Percentages between sizes are determined from density
differences.

Particle-size analysis

The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size
sieve mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer
(passing) against log size. A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these points is
called a grading curve. The position and shape of the grading curve determines the
soil class. Geometrical grading characteristics can be determined also from the
grading curve.

Grading characteristics

A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included
in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using
geometric properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading
characteristics

First of all, three points are located on the grading curve: 

d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample 
d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample 
d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample
From these the grading characteristics are calculated: 
Effective size 
d10 
Uniformity coefficient 
Cu = d60 / d10 
Coefficient of gradation 
Ck = d30² / d60 d10

Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil 

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil 
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil 
Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil 
Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil 
  

Fine soils
 Consistency limits and plasticity
 Plasticity index
 The plasticity chart and classification

In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles rather
than their size that has the greater influence on engineering properties. Clay soils have
flaky particles to which water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity. 
  
 

Fine soils

Consistency limits and plasticity

Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can
range from (dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at
which the consistency changes from one state to the next are called consistency
limits (or Atterberg limits).

Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils: 

Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid 
Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic

Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests. 
  
 

Fine soils

Plasticity index

The consistency of most soils in the ground will be plastic or semi-solid. Soil strength
and stiffness behaviour are related to the range of plastic consistency. The range of
water content over which a soil has a plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity
Index (IP or PI).

IP = liquid limit - plastic limit

= wL - wP

Fine soils

The plasticity chart and classification

In the BSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their measured plasticity
index and liquid limit values: CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and five
divisions of plasticity are defined:
Low plasticity wL = < 35%
Intermediate plasticity wL = 35 - 50%
High plasticity wL = 50 - 70%
Very high plasticity wL = 70 - 90%
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90%

A plasticity chart is provided to aid

classification.

The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is a soil classification system used

in engineering and geology to describe the texture and grain size of a soil. The classification system can be
applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is represented by a two-letter symbol. Each letter is described
below (with the exception of Pt):
First and/or second letters Second letter

Lette Lette
Definition Definition
r r

G gravel P poorly graded (uniform particle sizes)

S sand W well-graded (diversified particle sizes)

M silt H high plasticity

C clay L low plasticity

O organic

If the soil has 5–12% by weight of fines passing a #200 sieve (5% < P#200 < 12%), both grain size distribution
and plasticity have a significant effect on the engineering properties of the soil, and dual notation may be used
for the group symbol. For example, GW-GM corresponds to "well-graded gravel with silt."
If the soil has more than 15% by weight retained on a #4 sieve (R#4 > 15%), there is a significant amount of
gravel, and the suffix "with gravel" may be added to the group name, but the group symbol does not change.
For example, SP-SM could refer to "poorly graded SAND with silt" or "poorly graded SAND with silt and gravel."

Symbol chart[edit]

Group
Major divisions Group name
symbol

well-graded gravel, fine to

GW
clean gravel <5% coarse gravel
smaller than
No.200 Sieve
gravel GP poorly graded gravel
> 50% of coarse fraction
retained on No.4
(4.75 mm) sieve
GM silty gravel
gravel with >12%
fines
Coarse grained soils GC clayey gravel
more than 50% retained
on or above No.200
(0.074 mm) sieve well-graded sand, fine to
SW
coarse sand
clean sand

sand SP poorly graded sand

≥ 50% of coarse fraction
passes No.4 (4.75 mm)
sieve
SM silty sand
sand with >12%
fines
SC clayey sand

Fine grained soils ML silt

50% or more passing the
No.200 (0.074 mm) sieve inorganic
silt and clay clay of low plasticity, lean
CL
liquid limit < 50 clay

organic OL organic silt, organic clay

silt and clay inorganic MH silt of

liquid limit ≥ 50 high plasticity, elastic silt
 clay of high plasticity, fat
CH
clay

organic OH organic clay, organic silt

Highly organic soils Pt peat

Example 
A soil specimen had a volume of 89.13 ml, a mass before drying of 174.45 g and after
drying of 158.73 g; the water content was 9.9 %. Determine the bulk and dry densities
and unit weights.

Bulk density
 = (mass of specimen) / (volume of specimen)
= 174.45 / 89.13 g/ml
= 1.957 Mg/m³
[1 g/ml = 1 Mg/m³]
 
Unit weight
 = 9.81m/s² x  Mg/m³
= 19.20 kN/m³
 
Dry density
d = (mass after drying) / (volume)
= 158.73 / 89.13
= 1.781 Mg/m³
d =  / (1 + w)
= 1.957 / (1+0.099)
= 1.781 Mg/m³
 
Dry unit weight
d =  / (1 + w)
= 19.20 / (1+0.099)
 = 17.47 kN/m³

  

Water content
The most usual method of determining the water content of soil is to weigh a small
representative specimen, drying it to constant weight and then weighing it again.
Drying can be carried out using an electric oven set at 104-105° Celsius or using a
microwave oven.

Example: A sample of soil was placed in a tin container and weighed, after which it
was dried in an oven and then weighed again. Calculate the water content of the soil.

Weight of tin empty = 16.16 g

Weight of tin + moist soil
= 37.82 g
Weight of tin + dry soil = 34.68 g
Water content, w = (mass of water) / (mass of dry soil)
= (37.82 - 34.68) / (34.68 - 16.16)
= 0.169
Percentage water content = 16.9 %

Field measurements
Measurements taken in the field are mostly to determine density/unit weight. The
most common application is the determination of the density of rolled and compacted
fill, e.g. in road bases, embankments, etc.

Note: These methods are covered in detail by BS1377. You should understand the
general principle that density is calculated from the mass and volume of a sample.
How a sample of known volume is obtained depends on the nature of the soil. You are
not expected to remember the details of each method.
The core cutter method 
This method is suitable for soft fine grained soils.

A steel cylinder is driven into the ground, dug out and the soil shaved off
level. The mass of soil is found by weighing and deducting the mass of
the cylinder. Small samples are taken from both ends and the water
content determined.

The sand-pouring cylinder method 

This method is suitable for stony soils

Using a special tray with a hole in the centre, a hole is formed in the soil
and the mass of soil removed is weighed.

The volume of the hole is calculated from the mass of clean dry running
sand required to fill the hole.

The sand-pouring cylinder is used to fill the hole in a controlled manner.

The mass of sand required to fill the hole is equal to the difference in the
weight of the cylinder before and after filling the hole, less an allowance
for the sand left in the cone above the hole.

Bulk density 
 = (mass of soil) / (volume of core cutter or hole)