- An introduction to programming i the Microchip PIC in C by Nigel GardnerBluebid Electronics Pic Cc PIC C An introduction to programming the Microchip PIC in C by Nigel GardnerPic CG Bluebird Electronics he information contained in this publication regarding device applications and the like is intended by way of suggestion only and may be superseded by updates. No representation or warranty Is given and no liability is assumed by Bluebird Electronics, Microchip Technology Inc., CCS, Hitech or Inprise Corporation with respect to the accuracy or use of such information, or infringement of patents arising from such use or their compliance to EMC standards or otherwise. Use of Bluebird Electronics, Microchip Technology Inc., CCS, Hitech or Inprise Corporation products as critical components in life support systems 1s not authorised except with express written approval by Bluebird Electronics, Microchip Technology Inc., CCS, Hitech or Inprise Corporation. No licenses are conveyed, implicitly or otherwise, under intellectual property rights. Copyright © Bluebird Electronics 1998. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Bluebird Electronics, with the exception of the program listings which may be entered, stored, and executed in a computer system, but may not be reproduced for publication. Typeset and printed in the UK by: Character Press Limited, Tel: 01462 896500. First printed in 1998. Circuit diagrams produced with Labcentre Isis Illustrator. Flowcharts produced with Corel Flow.Preface Pic Cc B® Preface hanks go to Rodger Richey of Microchip Technology Inc. for the use of his notes on C for the PICmicro, Clyde at Hi Tech for the copy of their C compiler, Nan Borreson of Inprise Corporation for TurboC++ Lite and Val Bellamy for proof reading this book. This book is dedicated to my wife June and daughter Emma.J ‘Pic G _ : __ Contents > Contents Introduction History Why use C ? PC Based versus PIC Based Program Development Product Development Terminology Trying and Testing Code C Coding Standards Basics 1 C Fundamentals Structure of C programs Components of a C program #pragma main() #include printf Function Variables Constants Comments Functions C Keywords 2 Variables Data Types Variable Declaration Variable Assignment Enumeration typedef type Conversions 3 Functions Functions Function Prototypes Se Fl aeUsing Function Arguments. Using Functions to return values Classic and Modern Function Declarations 4 Operators Arithmetic Relational Logical Bitwise Increment and Decrement Precedence of 5 Program Control Statements if if-else 2 for Loop while Loop do-while Loop Nesting Program Control Statements break continue switch null return 6 Arrays / Strings One Dimentional Arrays Strings Multidimensional Arrays Initialising Arrays Arrays of Strings 7 Pointers Pointer basics Pointers and arrays Passing pointers to functionsPic Cc 8 Structures / Unions Structure basics Pointers to Structures Nested Structures Union basics Pointers to Unions 9 PIC Specific C Inputs and Outputs Mixing C and Assembler A/D Conversion Data Communications PWM LCD Driving Interrupts Where next and other informationIntroduction Pic CG Be Introduction Why use C? The C lananage was developed at the Bell Labs in the late 60’s by Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan. One of the first platforms for implementation was the PDP-11 running under a UNIX environment. Since its introduction, it has evolved and been standardised throughout the computing industry as an established development language. The PC has become a cost effective development platform using C++ or other favoured versions of the ANSII standard. C is a portable language intended to have minimal modification when transferring programs from one computer to another. This is fine when working with PC’s and mainframes, but Microcontrollers and Microprocessors are a different breed. The main program flow will basically remain unchanged, but the various setup and port / peripheral control will be micro specific. An example of this is that the port direction registers on a PIC are set 1=Input 0=Output, whereas the H8 is O=Input and 1=Output. The use of C in Microcontroller applications has been brought about by manufacturers providing larger program and ram memory areas in addition to faster operating speeds. An example quoted to me - as a non believer - was: to create a stopclock function would take 2/3 days in C or 2 weeks in assembler. ‘Ah’ | hear you say as you rush to buy a C compiler - why do we bother to write in assembler? It comes down to code efficiency - a program written in assembler is typically 80% the size of a C version. Fine on the larger program memory sized devices but not so efficient on smaller devices. You pay the money and take your PIC!! es eePC Based versus PIC Based Program Development Engineers starting development on PC based products have the luxuary of basic hardware pre-wired i.e. keyboard, processor, memory, |/O, printer and visual display (screen). The product development then comes down to writing the software and debugging the errrrrrus. Those embarking on a PIC based design have to create all the interface to the outside world in the form of input and output hardware. A PC programmer could write the message “Hello world” and after compiling, have the message displayed on the screen. The PIC programmer would have to build an RS232 interface, set up the comm port within the PIC and attach the development board to a comm port on a PC to enable the message to be viewed. ‘Why bother’ | hear you say (and so did 1) - it comes down to portability of the end product. If we could get the whole of a PC in a 40 pin DIL package (including monitor and keyboard) we would use it, but as today’s miniaturisation does not reach these limits. we will continue to use microcontrollers like the PIC for low cost and portable applications. The development tools for PIC based designs offer the developer basically the same facilities as the PC based development with the exception of the graphics libraries. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT Product development is a combination of luck and experience. Some of the simplest tasks can take a long time to develop and perfect in proportion to the overall product - so be warned where tight timescales are involved. To design a product one needs: time - peace and quiet - a logical mind and most important of all a full understanding of the requirements. | find the easiest way to begin any development ts to start with a clean sheet of paper together with the specification or idea.Introduction Pic Cc Start by drawing out a number of possible solutions and examine each to try to find the simplest and most reliable option. Don’t discard the other ideas at this stage as there are possibly some good thoughts there. Draw out a flow chart, block diagram, I/O connection plan or any suitable drawing to get started. Build up a prototype board or hardware mimic board with all the /O configured. Don’t forget i/o pins can be swapped to make board layout easier at a later date - usually with minimal modification to the software. Then start writing the code - in testable blocks - and gradually build up your program. This saves trying to debug 2000 lines of code in one go! If this is your first project - THEN KEEP IT SIMPLE - try out just switching a LED or two on and off from push buttons to get familiar with the instructions, assembly technique and debugging before attempting a mammoth project. Build up the program in simple stages - testing as you go. Rework your flowchart to keep it up to date. THE IDEA An idea is born - maybe by yourself in true EUREKA style or by someone else having a need for a product - the basic concept is the same. Before the design process starts, the basic terminology needs to be understood - like learning a new language. So in the case of Microcontroller designs based on the PIC, the PIC language (instruction set, terms and development kit) needs to be thoroughly understood before the design can commence. Now let's get started with the general terms, some facts about the PIC and the difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller based systems.Introduction Terminology Let's start with some basic terminology used. Microcontroller A lump of plastic, metal and purified sand which, without any software, does nothing When software controls a microcontroller, it has almost unlimited applications. VO Aconnection pin to the outside world which can be configured as input or output. I/O is needed in most cases to allow the microcontroller to communicate, control or read information. Software The information that the Microcontroller needs to operate or tun. This needs to be free of bugs and errors for a successful application or product. Software can be written in a variety of languages such as C, Pascal or Assembler (one level up from writing your software in binary). Hardware The Microcontroller, memory, interlace components, power supplies, signal conditioning circuits and all the components - connected to it to make it work and interface to the outside world. Another way of looking at (especially when it does not work) is that you can kick hardware. Simulator The MPLAB development environment has its own inbuilt simulator which allows access to some of the internal operation of the microcontroller. This is a good way of testing your designs if you know when events occur. If an event occurs ‘somewhere about there’, you might find the simulator restrictive. Full trace, step and debug facilities are, however, available. Another product for 16C5x development is the SIM ICE - a hardware simulator offering some of the ICE features but at a fraction of the cost. In Circuit Emulator (ICEPIC or PIC MASTER) - a very useful piece of equipment connected between your PC and the socket where the Microcontroller will reside. It enables the software to be run on the PC but looks like a Microcontroller at the circuit board end. The ICE allows you to step through a program, watch what happens within the micro and how it communicates with the outside world. a esrrr Introduction PIC Gees Programmer A unit to enable the program to be loaded into the microcontrollers memory which allows it to run without the aid of an ICE. They come in all shapes and sizes and costs vary. Both the PICSTART PLUS and PROMATE II from Microchip connect to the serial port. Source File A program written in a language the assembler and you understand. The source file has to be processed before the Microcontroller will understand it. Assembler / Compiler A software package which converts the Source file into an Object file. Error checking is built in, a heavily used feature in debugging a program as errors are flagged up during the assembly process. MPASIM is the latest assembler from Microchip handling all the PIC family. C Compilers covered in this book are the CCS and HI TECH. Object File This is a file produced by the Assembler / Compiler and is in a form which the programmer, simulator or ICE understands to enable it to perform its function. File extension is .OBJ or .HEX depending on the assembler directive. List File This is a file created by the Assembler /Compiler and contains all the instructions from the Source file together with their hexadecimal values alongside and comments you have written. This is the most useful file to examine when trying to debug the program as you have a greater chance of following what is happening within the software than the Source file listing. The file extension is .LST Other Files The error file (ERR) contains a list of errors but does not give any indication as to their origin. The .COD file is used by the emulator. Bugs Errors created free of charge by you. These range from simpel typin errus to incorrect use of the software language syntax errors. Most of these bugs will be found by the compiler and shown up in a .LST file, others will have to be sought and corrected by trial and error.Pic Cc Introduction Microprocessor A microprocessor or digital computer is made up of three basic sections: CPU, I/O and Memory - with the addition of some support circuitry. Each section can vary in complexity from the basic to all bells and whistles. fesieeeceeeees - h ‘DATA vo N ES Pere eevee ene eS pigraL |! a ") Memory | 1 PWM | RAM } ANALOG i) \ EPROM S232 Se | EEPROM | C /"appREss | ADDRESS) one! eee | aE : | cpu a ont f { 4,8, 16 BIT | | i | pL | fa lnetiy Coeur WATCHDOG | TIMER OSCILLATOR TYPICAL MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEM Taking each one in turn:- Input/output (I/O) can comprise digital, analogue and special functions and is the section which communicates with the outside world. The central processor unit (CPU) is the heart of the system and can work in 4, 8 or 16 bit data formats to perform the calculations and data manipulation. The memory can be RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or any combination of these and is used to store the program and data.rr Introd Pic Cc An oscillator is required to drive the microprocessor. Its function is to clock data and instructions into the CPU, compute the results and then output the information. The oscillator can be made from discrete components or be a ready made module. Other circuitry found associated with the microprocessor are the watch dog timer - to help prevent system latchup, buffering for address and data busses to allow a number of chips to be connected together without deteriorating the logic levels and decode logic for address and 1/0 to select one of a number of circuits connected on the same bus. Itis normal to refer to a Microprocessor as a product which is mainly the CPU area of the system. The I/O and memory would be formed from separate chips and require a Data Bus, Address Bus and Address Decoding to enable correct operation. Microcontrollers The PIC, on the other hand, is a Microcontroller and has all the CPU, memory, oscillator, watchdog and I/O incorporated within the same chip. This saves space, design time and external peripheral timing and compatibility problems, but in some circumstances can limit the design to a set memory size and I/O capabilities. The PIC family of microcontrollers offers a wide range of I/O, memory and special functions to meet most requirements of the development engineer. You will find many general books on library shelves exploring the design of microcontrollers, microprocessors and computers, so the subject will not be expanded or duplicated here other than to explain the basic differences. Why use the PIC? Code Efficiency The PIC is an 8 bit Microcontroller based on the Harvard architecture - which means there are separate internal busses for memory and data. The throughput rate is therefore increased due to simultaneous access to both data and program memory. Conventional microcontrollers tend to have one internal bus handling both data andIntroduction program. This slows operation down by at least a factor of 2 when compared to the PIC. Safety All the instructions fit into a 12 or 14 bit program memory word. There is no likelihood of the software jumping into the DATA section of a program and trying to execute DATA as instructions. This can occur in a non Harvard architecture microcontroller using 8-bit busses. Instruction Set —_ There are 33 instructions you have to learn in order to write software for the 16C5x family and 35 for the 16Cxx devices. All the instructions used by the PIC are based on registers and are 12 bits in length for the 16C5x family and 14 bits wide for the I6Cxx family. Each instruction, with the exception of CALL, GOTO or bit testing instructions (BTFSS, INCFSZ), executes in one cycle. Speed The PIC has an internal divide by 4 connected between the oscillator and the internal clock bus. This makes instruction time easy to calculate, especially if you use a 4 MHz crystal. Each instruction cycle then works out at 1 uS. The PIC is a very fast micro to work with e.g. a 20MHz crystal steps through a program at 5 million instructions per second! - almost twice the speed of a 386SX 33! Static Operation The PIC is a fully static microprocessor; in other words, if you stop the clock, all the register contents are maintained. In practice you would not actually do this, you would place the PIC into a Sleep mode - this stops the clock and sets up various flags within the PIC to allow you to know what state it was in before the Sleep. In Sleep, the PIC takes only its standby current which can be less the 1 uA. Drive Capability The PIC has a high output drive capability and can directly drive LEDs and triacs etc. Any I/O pin can sink 25mA, or 100mA for the whole device. Options A range of speed, temperature, package, I/O lines, timer functions, serial comms, A/D and memory sizes is available from the PIC family to suit virtually all your requirements. Versatility The PIC is a versatile micro and in volume is a low cost solution to replace even a few logic gates; especially where space is at a premiumIntroduction (syrereydueg suod sod O/| IDOL Xo 1a1un09/49019, aneea sO aH Sey SNivis usd spy yeupuy appy WIVES uonzieue9 Sulu yno-umoa jonueD B 8poseg uononnsul z080 19s0 ¥TOW spy 10811 sueisibou 2)l4 wv sng Beg UyOVLS 3 HHOVLS felunog WeIBoig Gey uowonysuy sng wesBod AowoW weiboid WOudsa BASIC PIC BLOCK DIAGRAMPic G _ Introduction Security The PIC has a code protection facility which Is one of the best in the industry. Once the protection bit has been programmed, the contents of the program memory cannot be read out in a way that the program code can be reconstructed. Development The PIC is available in windowed form for development and OTP (one time programmable) for production. The tools for development are readily available and are very affordable even for the home enthusiast Trying and Testing Code Getting to grips with C can be a daunting task and the initial outlay for a C compiler, In Circuit Emulator and necessary hardware for the PIC can be prohibitive at the evaluation stage of a project. The C compiler supplied on this disk was obtained from the Internet and is included as a test bed for code learning. Basic code examples and functions can be tried, tested and viewed before delving into PIC specific C compilers which handle I/O etc. C Coding Standards Program writing is like building a house - if the foundations are firm, the rest of the code will stack up. If the foundations are weak, the code will fall over at some point or other. The following recommendations were taken from a C++ Standards document and have been adapted for the PIC. Names - make them fit their function Names are the heart of programming so make a name appropriate to its function and what it’s used for in the program. Use mixed case names to improve the readability ErrorCheck is easier than ERRORCHECK Prefix names with a lowercase letter of their type, again to improve readability:- g Global gLog; t Reference rStatus(); s Static sValueIn;Introduction PIc Braces Braces or curly brackets can be used in the traditional UNIX way if (condition) { or the preferred method if (condition) Tabs and Indentation Use spaces in place of tabs as the normal tab setting of 8 soon uses up the page width. Indent text only as needed to make the software readable. Also, tabs set in one editor may not be the same settings in another - make the code portable. Line Length Keep line lengths to 78 characters for compatibility between monitors and printers. Else If Formatting Include an extra Else statement to catch any conditions not covered by the preceding if's if (condition) { , else if (condition) { , else { seeees+ /* catches anything else not covered above +Introduction Condition Format Where the compiller allows it, always put the constant on the left hand side of an equality / inequality comparison. If one = is omitted, the compiler will find the error for you. The value is also placed in a prominent place. if (6== ErrorNum) Initialise All Variables Set all variables to a known values to prevent ‘floating or random conditions’ Comments Comments create the other half of the story you are writing. You know how your program operates today but in two weeks or two years will you remember, or could someone else follow your program as it stands today? Use comments to mark areas where further work needs to be done, errors to be debugged or future enhancements to the product. Basics All computer programs have a start. The start point in Microcontrollers is the reset vector. The 14 bit core (PIC16Cxx family) reset at 00h, the 12 bit core (PIC1GC5x and 12C50x) reset at the highest point in memory - 1FFh, 3FFh, 7FFh. The finish point would be where the program stops if run only once e.g. a routine to set up a baud rate for communications. Other programs will loop back towards the start point such as traffic light control. One of the most widely used first programming examples in high level languages like Basic or C ts printing ‘Hello World’ on the computer screen. Using C and a PC is straightforward as the screen, keyboard and processor are all interconnected. The basic hooks need to be placed in the program to link the program to the peripherals. When developing a program for the PIC or any microprocessor / microcontroller system, you need not only the software hooks but also the physical hardware to connect the micro to the outside world. Such a system is shown below.Introduction Pic Cc COMMS TARGET BOARD t—vo— Using such a layout enables basic I/O and comms to be evaluated, tested and debugged. The use of the ICE, though not essential, speeds up the development process many fold and so reduces the overall development costs and engineer’s headaches. The initial investment may appear excessive when facing the start of a project, but time saved in developing and debugging is soon outstripped. The hardware needed to evaluate a design can be a custom made PCB, protoboard or an off the shelf development board such as our PIC Millennium Board (someone had to do one!) The Millennium board contains all the basic hardware to enable commencement of most designs while keeping the initial outlay to a minimum. Assemble the following hardware in whichever format you prefer. You WILL need a PIC programmer such as the PICSTART Plus as a minimal outlay in addition to the C compiler. A simple program | use when teaching engineers about the PIC ts the ‘Press button - turn on LED’. Start with a simple code example - not 2000 lines of code! In Assembler this would be :- main btfss porta,switch; test for switch closure goto main + loop until pressed a eeeRR Pic Cc bsf porthb, led 7 turn btfsc porta, switch; test goto pl ; loop bef portb,led ; turn goto main : loop pt In C this converts to main() { set_tris_b(0x00); while(true) { if (input (PIN_A0)) output_high(PIN_BO); else output_low(PIN_BO); Introduction on led for switch open until released off led back to start // set port b as outputs // test for switch closure // if closed turn on led // if open turn off led When assembled, the code looks like this:- main() if set_tris_b(0x00); 0007 0008 while(true) { if (input (PIN_AO)) 0009 000A output_high(PIN_BO); 000B else o00c output_low(PIN_BO); 000D y 000E > MOVLW 00 TRIS 6 BIFSS 05,0 GOTO 00D BSF 06,0 GOTO 00 BCF 06,0 GOTO 009 See ee 9 eee eeIntroduction As you can see, the compiled version takes more words in memory - 14 in C as opposed to 9 in Assembler. This is not a fair example on code but as programs get larger, the more efficient C becomes in code usage.Pic Cc NOTES Bluebird ElectronicsC Fundamentals Pic: - C Fundamentals his chapter presents some of the key aspects of the C programming language. A quick overview of each of these aspects will be given. The goal is to give you a basic knowledge of C so that you can understand the examples in the following chapters. The topics discussed are: Program structure Components of a C program #pragma Main #include directive printf statement Variables Constants Comments Functions C keywords1.1 The Structure of C Programs All C programs contain preprocessor directives, declarations, definitions, expressions, statements and functions. Preprocessor directive A preprocessor directive is a command to the C preprocessor (which is automatically invoked as the first step in compiling a program). The two most common preprocessor directives are the #define directive, which substitutes text for the specified identifier, and the #include directive, which includes the text of an external file into a program. Declaration A declaration establishes the names and attributes of variables, functions and types used in the program. Global variables are declared outside functions and are visible from the end of the declaration to the end of the file. A local variable is declared inside a function and 's visible from the end of the declaration to the end of the function. Definition A definition establishes the contents of a variable or function. A definition also allocates the storage needed for variables and functions. Expression An expression is a combination of operators and operands that yields a single value. Statement Statements control the flow or order of program execution in a C program.Fundamentals Pic c Function A function 1s a collection of declarations, definitions, expressions and statements that performs a specific task. Braces enclose the body of a function. Functions may not be nested in C. Main Function All C programs must contain a function named main where program execution begins. The braces that enclose the main function define the begining and ending point of the program. Example: General C program structure #include /* preprocessor directive */ /* include standard C header file */ #define PI 3.142 /* define symbolic constant */ float area; /* global declaration */ main() { /* beginning of main function */ /* and program */ int radius_squared; /* local declaration */ int radius = 3; /* declaration and initialisation */ radius_squared = square(radius); /* pass a value to a function */ area = PI * radius_squared; /* assignment statment */ printf(“Area is %6.4£ square units\n”,area) ; } /* end of main function & program */ square (r) /* function head */ { int r_squared; /* declarations here are known */ /* only to square */ a 9 aePic Cc C Fundamentals r_squared = r * x; return(r_squared) ; /* return value to calling */ /* statement */ } 1.2 | Components of a C program All C programs contain certain essential components such as statements and functions. Statements are the parts of the program that actually perform operations. All C programs contain one or more functions. Functions are subroutines, each of which contains one or more statements and can be called by other parts of the program. When writing programs, indentations, blank lines and comments Improve the readability - not only for yourself at a later date, but also for those who bravely follow on. The following example shows some of the required parts of a C program. #include /* My 1st C program */ main() { printf (“Hello world!”); + The statement #include tells the compiler to include the source code from the file ‘stdio.h’ into the program. The extension .h stands for header file. A header file contains information about standard functions that are used in the program. The header file stdio.h which Is called the STandarD Input and Output header file, contains most of the input and output functions. It is necessary to use only the include files that pertain to the standard library functions in your program. /* My first C program */ is a comment in C. All comments are preceded by a /* and end with a */. Comments are ignored by the compiler and therefore do not affect the speed or length of the compiled code.rr C Fundamentals _ Pic Cc : All C programs must have a main() function. This is the entry point into the program. All functions have the same format which ts: Funct ionName () { code + Statements within a function are executed sequentially, beginning with the open curly brace and ending with the closed curly brace. The curly braces { and } show the beginning and end of blocks of code inc. Finally, the statement print£(”Hello world!”); represents a typical C statement. Almost all C statements end with a semicolon (;). The end-of-line character is not recognised by C as a line terminator. Therefore, there are no constraints on the position of statements within a line or the number of statements on a line. All lines of code have a semi-colon (;) at the end to inform the compiler it has reached the end of the statement. Failure to include this will flag an error in the NEXT line. The exception to this is the ig command where the ; needs to be at the end of the next line e.g. if (ThisIsTrue) DoThisFunction ; 1.3 #pragma The pragma command instructs the compiler to perform a particular action at the compile time such as specifying the PIC being used #pragma device PIC16c54 1.4 main() Every program must have a main function which can appear only once. No parameters can be placed in the (_) brackets which follow. As main SsC Fundamentals is classed as a function, all code which follows must be placed within a pair of braces ¢ } or curly brackets. main() { body of program } 1.5 #include The header file, (denoted by a .h extension) contains information about library functions such as what argument(s) the function accepts and what argument(s) the function returns or the location of PIC registers for a specific PIC. #include <16C54.h> This information is used by the compiler to link all the hardware specifics and source programs together. In the above include, the register for portb would be assigned 06h and the trisb register 86h. In assembler sysntax, this would be:- portb equ 06h } port register trisb equ 86h i port direction register An example of including header files using an #include In a C program Is: #include // standard input and output routines #include // console input and output routines main() { printf(“Microchip is “); while( !kbhit()); printf (“#11”);C Fundamentals Piao: The function printf () is found in the header file stdio.h while the function kbhit() is found in the header file conio.h. Both these header files must be used in this program so the compiler has essential information about the functions you are using. Angled brackets #include tell the preprocessor to look in another directory for the file while the quote marks #include “thatfile.h” tell the preprocessor to look in the current directory. You have probably noticed that the #include directive does not have a semicolon at the end. The reason for this 1s that the #include directive is not a C keyword, but instead is an instruction to the compiler. The whole of the include file is inserted into the source file at the compile stage. 1.6 printf Function The print¢é function is a standard library function that is contained in the header file ‘stdio.h’. print£ allows the programmer to print information to the screen. The general format for a print £() statement is: printf(“control_string”, argument_list); control_string is a string with double quotes at each end. Inside this string any combination of letters, numbers and symbols can be used. Special symbols called format specifiers are denoted with a %. The control_string must always be present in the print£() function. argument_list may not be required if there are no format specifiers in the format string. The argument_1ist can be composed of constants and variables. The following two examples show print£() statementsoe FIC & using a constant and then a variable. printf(“Hello world!”); print£(“Microchip is #%d!",1); The format specifier (sd) is dependent on the type of data being displayed. The table below shows all of the format specifiers in C and the data types they affect. Format Specifiers printf () %c single character uc unsigned character %s string %d signed decimal integer %£ floating point (decimal notation ~ must include decimal point) %e floating point (exponential or scientific notation) %g floating point (%f or %e, whichever is shorter - general format) %u unsigned decimal integer %x unsigned hexadecimal integer %p pointer %0 unsigned octal integer 1 prefix used with %d, %u, %x, %o to specify long integer NOTE a 0 (zero) following a % character within a format string forces leading zeros to be printed out. The number following specifies the width of the printed field. print£("The Hex of decimal 12 is %02x\n",12); would print out The Hex of decimal 12 is 0c Escape Sequences \n newline \a audible bell 2 eeFundamentals : Pic'c \t horizontal tab \b backspace \r carriage return \O null character \f formfeed \v vertical tab \' single quote \xhhh insert HEX code hhh \" double quote \\ backslash %% percent sign \? question mark The format specification can also be shown as %[flags][width][.precision] so in a previous example the line:- printf(“Area is %6.4f square units\n”,area) ; will print out the value area in a field width of 6 with a precision of 4 decimal places. 1.7.‘ Variables A variable is a name for a specific memory location. This memory location can hold various values depending on how the variable was declared. In C, all variables must be declared before they are used. A variables declaration tells the compiler what type of variable is being used. All variable declarations are statements in C and-therefore must be terminated with a semicolon. The five basic data types that C supports are char, int, float, double, void. The general format for declaring a variable Is: type variable_name; An example of declaring a variable is char ch;. The compiler would interpret this statement as the variable ch is declared as a char (8-bit unsigned integer). 1.8 Constants A constant is a fixed value which cannot be changed by the program. For example, 25 is a constant. Integer constants are specified without [as ee“pic Cc ¢ Fundamentals any fractional components, such as -100 or 40. Floating point constants require the decimal point followed by the number's fractional component. The number 456.75 is a floating point constant. Character constants are enclosed between single quotes such as ‘A’ or ‘&’. When the compiler encounters a constant in your program, it must decide what type of constant it is. The C compiler will, by default, fit the constant into the smallest compatible data type that will hold it. So 15 is an int, 64000 is an unsigned and 105020 is a long. A constant is declared using the #define statement. #define value The <1abei> defines the name you will use throughout your program, value is the value you are assigning to . #define TRUE 1 #define pi 3.14159265359 You can specify the type of a constant by using the following suffixes: F floating point FL long double U_—s-unsigned L long C allows you to specify constants in hexadecimal and octal formats. Hexadecimal constants must have the prefix ‘Ox’. For example 0xA4 is a valid hexadecimal constant. In addition to numeric constants, C supports string constants. String constants are a set of characters enclosed with double quotes. 1.9 Comments Comments are used to document the meaning and operation of the source code. All comments are ignored by the compiler. A comment can be placed anywhere in the program except for the middle of a C keyword. function name or variable name. Comments can be many lines eee a eeFundamentals Picc long and may also be used to remove temporarily a line of code. Finally, comments cannot be nested. Comments have two formats. The first format is used by all C compilers and is /* This is a comment */ The second format is supported by most compilers and is // This is a comment ee Which of the following comments is valid? Invalid? EXCERCISE /* My comment is very short */ /* My comment is very, very, very, very, very very, very, very, very, very, very, very, very, very, very long and is valid */ /* This comment /* looks */ ok, but is invalid */ 1.10 Functions Functions are the basic building blocks of a C program. All C programs contain at least one function, main() . Most program that you will write will contain many functions. The format for a C program with many functions ts: main() { , function1() { , function2()~ Pic Cc ae C Fundamentals main() is the first function called when the program is executed. The other functions, function1() and function2(), can be called by any function in the program. Traditionally main() is not called by any other function, however, there are no restrictions in C. The following is an example of two functions in C. #include main() { Pease ee function1(); printf£("C.”); } function1() { printf (“like “); + One reminder when writing your own functions is that when the closed curly brace of a function is reached, the program will start executing code one line after the point at which the function was originally called. 1.11. C Keywords The ANSI C standard defines 32 keywords for use in the C language. In C, certain words are reserved for use by the compiler to define data types or for use in loops. All C keywords must be in lowercase for the compiler to recognise them. Typically, many C compilers will add several additional keywords that take advantage of the processor's architecture. The following is a list of the keywords:C Fundamentals auto double int struct break else long switch case enum register typedef char extern return union const float short unsigned continue for signed void default goto sizeof volatile do ae static while EXCERCISE! te Write a program that prints your name to the screen. 2. Write a program that declares one integer variable called year. This variable should be given the value of the current year and then, using a print£() statement, display the value of year on the screen. The result of your program should look like this: The year is 1998PIG GeVariables 7 Picco... > Variables A important aspect of the C language is how it stores data. This chapter will examine more closely how variables are used in C to store data. The topics discussed in this chapter are: data types declarations assignments data type ranges type conversionsfariables Pl 2.1 Data Types The C programming language supports five basic data types and four type modifiers. The following table shows the meanings of the basic data types and type modifiers. Type Meaning Keyword character character data char integer signed whole numbers int float floating point numbers float double double precision floating point numbers double void valueless void signed positive or negative number signed unsigned _ positive only number unsigned long doubles the length of a number long short halves the length of a number short Each of the data types represent a particular range of numbers, which can change depending on the modifier used. The next table shows the possible range of values for all the possible combinations of the basic data types and modifiers. Type Bit Width Range bit 1 0 to 1 char 8 -128 to 127 unsigned char 8 0 to 255 signed char 8 -128 to 127 int 16 -32768 to 32767 unsigned int 16 0 to 65535 short int 16 -32768 to 32767 unsigned short int 16 0 to 65535 long int 32 ~2147483648 to 2147483647 unsigned long int 32 0 to 4294967295 float 32 3.48-38 to 3.48+38 double 64 1.7B-308 to 1.7E+308 long double 80 3.4B-4932 to 1.1E+4932Pic G ( See individual C compiler documentation for actual data types and numerical range. C allows a shorthand notation for the data types unsigned int, short int, and long int. Simply use the word unsigned, short, or Long without the int. To make arithmetic operations easier for the CPU, C represents all negative numbers in the 2's complement format. To find the 2’s complement of a number simply invert all the bits and add a 1 to the result. For example, to convert the signed number 29 into 2's complement: 00011101= 29 11100010 invert all bits 1 add 1 11100011= -29 Example of assigning a iong value of 12000 to a. 12000 In hex Is 2EE0. The following code extract assigns the lower word (EO) to register 11h and the upper word (2E) to 12h long a = 12000; main() { MOVLW EO MOVWF 11 MOVLW 25 MOVWF 12 , EXCERCISE? le Write this statement in another way: long int i; 2. To understand the difference between a signed number and an unsigned number, type in the following program. The unsigned integer 35000 is represented by -30536 in signed integer format.ee eee #include main() { aint i; /* signed integer */ unsigned int u; /* unsigned integer */ u = 35000; ae printé£(“%d %u\n", i, u); } 2.2 Variable Declaration Variables can be declared in two basic places: inside a function or outside of all functions. The variables are called local and global respectively. Variables are declared in the following manner: type variable_name; where type is one of C’s valid data types and variable_name is the name of the variable. Local variables (declared inside a function) can only used by statements within the function where they are declared. The value of a local variable cannot be accessed by functions statements outside of the function. The most important thing to remember about loca! variables is that they are created upon entry into the function and destroyed when the function is exited. Local variables must also be declared at the start of the function before the statements. It is acceptable for local variables in different functions to have the same name. Consider the following example. #include void £2(void) {Vanables int count; for (count=0 ; count<10; count++) printf (“%d \n”,count); £1() { int count; for (count=0; count<10; count++) £20); + main() { £107 return 0; t This program will print the numbers 0 through 9 on the screen ten times. The operation of the program is not affected by a variable named count located in both functions. Global variables, on the other hand, can be used by many different functions. Global variables must be declared before any functions that use them. Most importantly, global variables are not destroyed until the execution of the program is complete. The following example shows how global variables are used. #include int max; £1() { int i; for(i=0; icmax; i++) printf (“%d “,i); b main() {ne / PcG oes eee eaves max = 10; £10); return 0; d In this example, both functions main() and £1() reference the variable max. The function main() assigns a value to max and the function £1() uses the value of max to control the for loop. EXCERCISE? 1. What are the main differences between local and global variables? 2. Both local and global variables may share the same name in C. Type in the following program. #include int count; £1() { int count; count=100; printf£(“count in £1(): %d\n”,count); + main() { count=10; £10); print£(“count in main(): %d\n”,count); return 0; + In main() the reference to count is the global variable. In £1() the local variable count overrides the usage of the global variable.Variables PIc 2.3 Variable Assignment Up to now we have only discussed how to declare a variable in a program and not really how to assign a value to it. Assignment of values to variables is simple: variable_name = value ; Since a variable assignment ts a statement, we have to include the semicolon at the end. An example of assigning the value 100 to the integer variable count Is: count = 100 ; The value 100 is called a constant. Many different types of constants exist in C. A character constant is specified by enclosing the character in single quotes, such as ‘m’. Whole numbers are used when assigning values to integers. Floating point numbers must use a value with a decimal point. For example, to tell C that the value 100 is a floating point value, use 100.0. A variable can also be assigned the value of another variable. The following program illustrates this assignment. main() { int i; int 4) aan jai; EXCERCISES 1. Write a program that declares one integer variable called count. Give count a value of 100 and use a print£() statement to display the value. The output should look like this:Pic Variables 100 is the value of count 2. Write a program that declares three variables, char, float, and doubie with variable names of ch, £, and d. Assign a ‘R’ to the char, 50.5 to the float, and 156.007 to the double. Display the value of these variables to the screen. The output should look like this: ch is R £ is 50.5 d is 156.007 2.4 Enumeration In C, it 's possible to create a list of named integer constants. This declaration is called enumeration. The list of constants created with an enumeration can be used any place an integer can be used. The general form for creating an enumeration is: enum name {enumeration list} variable(s); The variable list is an optional item of an enumeration. Enumeration variables may contain only the values that are defined in the enumeration list. For example, in the statement enum color_type {red,green,yellow} color; the variable color can only be assigned the values red, green or yellow. The compiler will assign integer values to the enumeration list starting with 0 at the first entry. Each entry is one greater than the previous one. Therefore, in the above example redis 0, greenis 1 and yellow is 2. This default value can be overridden by specifying a value for a constant. This example illustrates this technique. enum color_type {red,green=9,yellow} color; This statement assigns 0 to red, 9 to green and 10 to yellow.wie =e Once an enumeration is defined, the name can be used to create additional variables at other points in the program. For example, the variable mycolor can be created with the colortype enumeration by: enum color_type mycolor; Essentially, enumeration’s help to document code, instead of assigning a value to a variable and enumeration can be used to clarify the meaning of the value. EXCERCISES le Create an enumeration of the PICI7CXX family line. 2. Create an enumeration of currency from the lowest to highest denomination. 3. Is the following fragment correct? Why/Why not? enum {PIC16C51,PIC16C52,PIC16C53} device; device = PIC16C52; printf(“First PIC was %s\n",device); 2.5 typedef The typedef statement is used to create a new name for an existing type. The format is: typedef old_name new_name; The new name can be used to declare variables. For instance, the following program uses the name smal1int for the type signed char. #include typedef signed char smallint; main() { smallint i; LSVanabies for (i=0;i<10;i++) print£("%d “,i); } When using typedefs, you must remember two key points. Firstly, a typedef does not deactivate the original name or type. In the previous example, signed char is still a valid type. Secondly, several typedef statements can be used to create many new names for the same original type. Typedefs are typically used for two reasons. The first is to create portable programs. If the program you are writing will be used on machines with 16-bit and 32-bit integers, you might want to ensure that only 16-bit integers are used. The program for 16-bit integers would use typedef int myint; to make all integers declared as myint 16-bits. Then, before compiling the program for the 32-bit computer, the typedef statement should be changed to typedef short int myint; so that all integers declared as myint are 16-bits. The second reason to use typedef statements is to help you document your code. If your code contains many variables used to hold a count of some sort, you could use the following typedef statement to declare all your counter variables typedef int counter; Someone reading your code would recognise that any variable declared as counter is used as a counter in the program. i EXCERCISE? 1. Make a new name for unsigned long called UL. Use this typedef in a short program that declares a variable using UL, assigns a value to it and displays the value to the screen.Variables icc a Is the following segment of code valid? typedef int height; typedef height length; typedef length depth; depth d; 2.6 type Conversions C allows you to mix different data types together in one expression. For example, the following is a valid code fragment: char ch = ‘0°; int 1 = 15; float f = 25.6; double result = ch*i/f; The mixing of data types is governed by a strict set of conversion rules that tell the compiler how to resolve the differences. The first part of the rule set is a type promotion. The C compiler will automatically promote achar Of short int in an expression to an int when the expression is evaluated. A type promotion is only valid during the evaluation of the expression, the variable itself does not become physically larger. Now that the automatic type promotions have been completed, the C compiler will convert all variables in the expression up to the type of the largest variable. This task is done on an operation by operation basis. The following algorithm shows the type conversions: IF an operand is a long double THEN the second is converted to long double ELSE IF an operand is a double THEN the second is converted to double ELSE IF an operand is a float THEN the second is converted to float ELSE IF an operand is an unsigned long THEN the second is converted to unsigned long ee eeELSE IF an operand is long THEN the second is converted to long ELSE IF an operand !s unsigned THEN the second is converted to unsigned Let's take a look at the previous example and discover what type of promotions and conversions are taking place. First of all, ch is promoted to an int. The first operation is the multiplication of ch with i. Since both of these variables are now integers, no type conversion takes place. The next operation is the division between ch*i and £. The algorithm specifies that if one of the operands is a float, the other will be converted to a float. The result of ch* i will be converted to a floating point number then divided by £. Finally, the value of the expression ch*i/f£ is a float, but will be converted to a double for storage in the variable result. Instead of relying on the compiler to make the type conversions, you can specify the type conversion by using the following format: (type) value This is called type casting. This causes a temporary change in the variable. type Is a valid C data type and value ts the variable or constant. The following code fragment shows how to print the integer portion of a floating point number. float f; £ = 100.2; printé ("%d”", (int) f£); The number 100 will be printed to the screen after the segment of code is executed. 2.7 variable storage class Every variable and function in C has two attributes - type and storage class. The type has already been discussed char, int etc. There are four storage classes - automatic, external, static and register and have eebles Pic c the following C names - auto extern static register Auto Variables declared within a function are auto by default, so { char c; int a, b, e; is the same as { autocharc; autoint a, b, e; When a block of code is entered, the compiler assigns RAM space for the declared variables. The RAM locations are used in that ‘local’ block of code and can / will be used by other blocks of code. main() { char ¢ = 0; int a=i1, b= 3, @= 5; 0007: CLRF OE ~- register OEh assigned toc 0008: MOVLW 01 - load w with 1 0009: MOVWF OF - load register assigned to a with w 000A: MOVLW 03 - load w with 3 000B: MOVWF 10 - load register assigned to b with w oo0c: MOVLW 05 - load w with 5 000D: MOVWF 11 - load register assigned to e with w. Pic Cc Vanables Extern All functions and vanables declared outside a function body have a storage class set as external. The RAM locations are permanently assigned to the variable and are shared throughout the program by all functions. #include int c s 25; main() « extern int c; print£ (“%d\n",¢); return 0; } This example will print 25 when run. The use of extern int c ensures that the compiler will associate the variable c used in the function with the externally declared int c. extern int c = 5; main() { 000 MOVLW 05 - load w with 5 0008: MOVWF OE - load register assigned to c with w ott: 0009: INCF 0E,F - increment c and replace in c + Static The variable class static will allow local variables to retain their previous value on re-entry to a block of code. void test() {Vanabies ae Pca... charx,y,2; static int count = 0; print£(“count = %d\n”,++count); The variable count is initialised once and thereafter increments every time the function test is called. Register The variable class register originates from large system applications where it would be used to reserve high speed memory for frequently used variables. The class is used only to advise the compiler.NOTESi > Functions Ea are the basic building blocks of the C language. All statements must be within functions. In this chapter we will discuss how to pass arguments to functions and how to receive an argument from a function. The topics discussed in this chapter are: Passing Arguments to Functions Returning Arguments from Functions Function Prototypes Classic and Modern Function DeclarationsPic CG : Functions 3.1. Functions In previous sections, we have seen many instances of functions being called from a main program. For instance: main() { £107 } £10) { returnl; } In reality, this program should produce an error or, at the very least, a warning. The reason is that the function £1() must be declared or defined before it is used. just like variables. If you are using a standard C function, the header file that you included at the top of your program has already informed the compiler about the function. If you are using one of your functions, there are two ways to correct this error. One is to use function prototypes which are explained in the next section. The other is to reorganise your program like this: £10) { returnl; } main() { £107 3 An error will not be generated because the function £1() is defined before it is called in main().Functi Pic Cc 3.2 Function Prototypes There are two methods to inform the compiler what type of value a function returns. The general form is: type function_name(); For instance, the statement int sum() would tell the compiler that the function sum() returns an integer. The second way to inform the compiler about the return value of a function is the function prototype. A function prototype not only gives the return value of the function, but also declares the number and type of arguments that the function accepts. The prototype must match the function declaration exactly. Prototypes help the programmer to identify bugs in the program by reporting any illegal type conversions between the arguments passed to a function and the function declaration. It also reports if the number of arguments sent to a function is not the same as specified in the function declaration. The general format for a function prototype is shown here: type function_name(type varl, type var2, type var3); In the above example, the type of each variable can be different. An example of a function prototype is shown in this program. The function calculates the volume defined by length, width and height. #include int volume(int s1, int s2, int s3); void main() { int vol; vol = volume(5,7,12); printf (“volume: %d\n”,vol); See eeePic Cc int volume(int s1, int s2, int s3) { return s1*s2*s3; y Notice that the return uses an expression instead of a constant or variable, The importance of prototypes may not be apparent with the small programs that we have been doing up to now. However, as the size of programs grows from a few lines to many thousands of lines, the importance of prototypes in debugging errors is evident. EXCERCISE ale To show how errors are caught by the compiler, change the above program to send four parameters to the function volume, !.e. vol. = volume(5,7,12,15) ee Is the following program correct? Why/Why not? #include double myfunc(); void main(void) { printf (”%f\n”,myfunc(10.2)); + double myfunc(double num) { return num/2.0; , 3.3 Void One exception is when a function does not have any parameters passed in or out. This function would be declared as such: void nothing (void).Functions An example of this could be:- #include double pi(void) // defining the function { // with nothing passed in return 3.1415926536 ;// but with pi returned y main() { double pi_val; pi_val = pi(); // calling the value of pi printf (“%d\n”,pi_val); 3.4 Using Function Arguments A function argument is a value that is passed to the function when the function is called. C allows from zero to several arguments to be passed to functions. The number of arguments that a function can accept is compiler dependent, but the ANSI C standard specifies that a function must be able to accept at least 31 arguments. When a function is defined, special variables must be declared to receive parameters. These special variables are defined as formal parameters. The parameters are declared between the parenthesis that follow the function’s name. For example, the function below calculates and prints the sum of two integers that are sent to the function when it is called. sum(int a, int b) ‘ printf (“%d\n", a+b); + An example of how the function would be called in a program is: #include a asFunctions GS Cs. void sum(int,int); // This is a function prototype main() { sum(1,10); sum(15,6); sum(100,25); + void sum(int a, int b) { printf (”%d\n", a+b); y When sum() is called, the compiler will copy the value of each argument into the variables a and b. It is important to remember that the values passed to the function (1,10,15,6,100, 25) are called arguments and the variables a and b are the formal parameters. Functions can pass arguments in two ways. The first way is called “call by value”. This method copies the value of an argument into the formal parameter of the function. Any changes made to the formal parameter do not affect the original value of the calling routine. The second method is called “call by reference”. In this method, the address of the argument is copied into the formal parameter of the function. Inside this function, the formal parameter is used to access the actual variable in the calling routine. This means that changes can be made to the variable by using the formal parameter. We will discuss this further in the chapter on pointers. For now, we will only use the call by value method when we pass arguments to a function. You might have noticed that when the program is compiled a warning message about a missing prototype for the function sum() appears. Don’t worry about this message now, we will cover how to prototype a function later in this chapter.EXCERCISE? 1. Write a function that takes an integer argument and prints the value to the screen. 2. What is wrong with this program? #include print_it(int num) { printf (“%d\n”, num) ; + main() { print_it (156.7); } 3.5 Using Functions to Return Values Any function in C can return a value to the calling routine. Typically, the function is put on the right side of an equals sign. The return value does not necessarily need to be used in an assignment statement, but could be used ina print£() statement. The general format for telling the compiler that a function returns a value is: type function_name(formal parameters) { return value; } where type specifies the data type of the return value of the function. A function can return any data type except an array. If no data type is specified, then the C compiler assumes that the function Is returning an integer (int). If your function does not return a value, the ANSI C standard specifies that the function should return void. This explicitly tells the compiler that the function does not return a value.Functions This example shows a typical usage for a function that has a return value. #include #include main() { double result; result = sqrt(16.0); printf (“%f\n", result); i This program calls the function sqrt () which returns a floating point number. This number is assigned to the variable result. Notice that the header file math.h Is included because it contains information about sqrt () that is used by the compiler. It is important that you match the data type of the return value of the function to the data type of the variable to which it will be assigned. The same goes for the arguments that you send to a function. So, how do you return a value from a function? The general form is: return variable_name; where variable_name is a constant, variable or any valid C expression that has the same data type as the return value. The following example shows both type of functions. main() int num; num = fune(); printf (“%d\n", num); num = sum(5,127); printf (“%d\n", num); > func() {TT Functions return 6; sum(int a, int b) { int result; result = a + b; return result; > One important thing to note is that when a return statement is encountered, the function returns immediately to the calling routine. Any statements after the return will not be executed. The return value of a function ts not required to be assigned to a variable or to be used in an expression, however, if it is not then the value ts lost. EXCERCISE 1. Write a function that accepts an integer number between 1 and 100 and returns the square of that number. 2. What is wrong with this function? #include main() { double result; result = £1(); printf (“%f\n”,result); y int £1() { return 60; ,‘Pic Cc. Functions 3.6 Classic and Modern Function Declarations The original version of C used a different method of formal parameter declaration. This form, now called the classic form, is shown below: type function_name(varl,var2,..,varn) type vari; type var2; type varn; { , Notice that the declaration is divided into two parts. Only the names of parameters are included inside the parenthesis. Outside of the parenthesis the data types and formal parameter names are specified. The modern form, which we have been using in previous examples, is given by: type function_name(type parameterl,..., type parametern) In this type of function declaration, both the data types and formal parameter names are specified between the parenthesis. The ANSI C standard allows for both type of function declarations. The reason is to maintain compatibility with older C programs of which there are literally billions of lines of C code. If you see the classic form in a piece of code, don't worry, your C compiler should be able to handle it. Going forward, you should use the modern form when writing code. Be Ses BeFunctions EXCERCISE 1 What is a function prototype and what are the benefits of using it ? 2 Convert this program using a classical form for the function declarations to the modern form. #include void main(void) { printf(“area = %d\n”, area(10,15)); , area(1,w) int 1l,w; { return 1*w; }Pic c : anesC Operators = FCG. » C Operators nC, the expression plays an important role. The main reason is that C defines more operators than most other languages. An expression Is a combination of operators and operands. In most cases, C operators follow the rules of algebra and should look familiar. In this chapter we will discuss many different types of operators including:- Arithmetic Relational Logical Bitwise Increment and Decrement Precedence of Operators ee eePic Gc 4.1. Arithmetic Operators The C language defines five arithmetic operators for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and modulus. ud addition - subtraction aes multiplication 7 division % modulus The +, - , *, and / operators may be used with any data type. The modulus operator, %, can be used only with integers. The modulus operator gives the remainder of an integer division. Therefore, this operator has no meaning when applied to a floating point number. The - operator can be used two ways, the first being a subtraction operator. The second is used to reverse the sign of a number. The following example illustrates the two uses of the - sign. z subtraction reversing the sign of a Arithmetic operators can be used with any combination of constants and/or variables. For example, the following expression is a valid C statement. result = count - 163; C also gives you some shortcuts when using arithmetic operators. One of the previous examples, a = a - b;, canalsobe writtena -= b;. This method can be used with the +, -, *, and / operators. The example shows various ways of implementing this method. Is the same as aza*b aza/b asa+b asa-b€ Operators Pic CG a%=b a<<=b a>>=b Taking the C code and comparing it to the assembled version shows how the arithmetic function is achieved within the PIC. int a,b,c; azb+e becomes 0007: MOVF OF,W ; load b 0008: ADDWF 10,W ; add c to b 0009: MOVWF OE 7 save ina a=b-c; becomes 0007: MOVF load b 0008: MOVWF save ina 0009: MOVF load c 000A: SUBWF subtract from a The importance of understanding assembler becomes apparant when dealing with problems - | have found at times that looking at the assembler listing (.LST) points to the C error. One simple fault is the use Of = Or ==. a=b; becomes 0007: MOVF OF,W ; load b 0008: MOVWF OE j; save ina while as=b; becomes 0007: MOVF OF,W 0008: SUBWF OE,W 0009: BTFSC 03,2 000A: GoTo 00D load b subtract from a test if zero yes - so bypassPic CG C Oper In the first instance, a is made the same as b, in the second, a is tested to check if it is the same as b. i EXCERCISE! 1. Write a program that finds the remainder of 5/5, 5/4, 5/3, 5/2, and 5/1. 2. Write a program that calculates the number of seconds in a year. 4.2 Relational Operators The relational operators in C compare two values and return a true or false result based on the comparison. The relational operators are > greater than >= greater than or equal to < less than less than or equal to equal to not equal to One thing to note about relational operators is that the result of a comparison Is always a 0 or 1, even though C defines true as any non- zero value. False is always defined as zero. The following examples show some expressions with relational operators. var > 15 if var is less than or equal to 15, the result is 0 (false) var != 15 if var is greater or less than 15, the result is 1 (true) EXCERCISE? 1. Rewrite the following expression using a different relational operator. count !C Operators Pic Cc 2. When is this expression true or false? Why? count >= 35 4.3. Logical Operators The logical operators support the basic logical operations AND, OR, and NOT. Again, these operators return either a 0 for false or 1 for true. The logical operators and truth table for these operators is shown here: AND OR NOT p&&q plip !p 0 a RRoOOM qa 0 0 1 0 a 1 0 oO a 0 1 eg a 0 The logical and relational operators are tightly coupled together when evaluating an expression. An example of linking these operators together is: count>max || !(max==57) && var>=0 Another part of C that uses the relational and logical operators is the program control statements that we will cover in the next chapter. EXCERCISE 1. Rewrite the following expressions using any combination of relational and logical operators. count == result <= 5 2. Since C does not explicitly provide for an exclusive OR function, write an XOR function based on the following truth table.Pic Cc Pp @ = XOR 0 0 0 0 ae 1 1 0 1 e Bs 0 4.4 Bitwise Operators C contains six special operators which perform bit-by-bit operations on numbers. These bitwise operators can be used only on integer and character data types. The result of using any of these operators Is a bitwise operation of the operands. The bit-wise operators are: & bitwise AND 1 bitwise OR _ bitwise XOR ~ 1's complement >> xight shift << left shift The general format for using the shift operators is: variable << expression variable >> expression The value of expression determines how many places to the left or right the variable is shifted. Each left shift causes all bits to shift one bit position to the left and a zero is inserted on the right side. The bit that is shifted off the end of the variable is lost. The unique thing to note about using left and right shifts is that a left shift is equivalent to multiplying a number by 2 and a right shift is equivalent to dividing a number by 2. Shift operations are almost always faster than the equivalent arithmetic operation due to the way a CPU works. An example of all the bitwise operators is shown.€ Operators Pic G AND OR 000000101 (5) 00000101 (5) & 000000110 (6) | 00000110 (6) 000000100 = (4) 00000111 (7) XOR NOT (ones compliment) 00000101 (5) ~ 00000101 (5) * 40000110 (6) 11111010 (250) 00000011 (3) LEFT SHIFT RIGHT SHIFT 00000101 (5) 00000101 (5) << 2 Bai 00010100 (20) 00000001 (1) e do not shift by more bits than the operand has - undefined result a=blic becomes 0007: MOVF OF,W load b 0008: JIORWF 10,W inclusive or with ¢ 0009: MOVWF OE 7 save ina a=bé&a; becomes 0007: MOVF OF,W 0008: ANDWF 10,W load b and function with c 0009: MOVWF OE j; save ina a = b>>3 becomes 0007: MOVF OF,W ; load b into w 0008: MOVWF OE # gave it in b 0009: RRF 0E,F ; rotate contents QOOA: RRF OE,F ; right 000B: RRF OE,F ; three times 0o0c: MOVLW 1F + apply mask to contents 000D: ANDWF O0E,F ; of register for b j= ~a; becomes$C 0009: MOVF OF,W + load a 000A: MOVWF OE 7 save in j 000B: COMF OE,F # compliment j Mixing it all together Written Result sum = at+b++ sum = a+b b = bel sum = a+b— sum = arb b= b-1 sum = a+ ++b b = bel sum = a+b sum = a+ —b bss b-1 sum = a+b ie a ae EXCERCISE 1. Write a program that inverts only the MSB of a signed char. 2. Write a program that displays the binary representation of a number with the data type of char. 4.5 Increment and Decrement Operators How would you increment or decrement a variable by one? Probably one of two statements pops into your mind. Maybe a = a+1; or a = a-1; Again, the makers of C have come up with a shorthand notation for increment or decrement of a number. The general formats are: at++ or ++a for increment a- or -~-a for decrement a) ) When the ++ or — sign precedes the variable, the variable is incremented then that value is used in an expression. When the ++ or — follows the variable, the value of the variable is used in the expression then incremented. 33 MOVLW MOVWF j= tea; 000 INCF 000. MOVF 000: MOVWF j= ate; 000c: MOVF 000D: INCF 000E: MOVWF 03 OF OF,F OF,W OE Or,W OF, F OE i register assigned to a passé eel 7 vegister assigned to j i load value of a into w 7 as 5 lene eS Do not use the format a = ate; as the following code will be generated MOVF 0E,W INCF OE,F MOVWF OE value value previous value reloaded overwriting of a loaded into w in a incremented incremented value The following example illustrates the two uses. #include void main (void) { int i,j; tetera jos itt; printf(“i = %d, 3 = %A\n",4,5)7ee cap open. 7-7 "np morn aimascorommna EES Eo SS Se, PICS i= 10; jos ++i; print£(“i = %d, j = %d\n",i, 3); } The first print £() statement will print an 11 for i andaio for 3. The second printf () statement will print an 11 for both i and j. | EXCERCISE? 1. Rewrite the assignment operations in this program to increment or decrement statements. #include void main (void) { int a, b; a 3 a atl; b a: b = b-1; printf (“a=%d, b=%d\n", a, b); y 2. What are the values of a and b after this segment of code finishes executing? O; Oo; eta + bet; voaeoe oe Fue a + +4b; 4.6 Precedence of operators Precedence refers to the order in which operators are processed by the C compiler. For instance, if the expression a+b*c was encountered in your program, which operation would happen first? Addition orCC Operators Pic Cc multiplication? The C language maintains a precedence for all operators. The following shows the precedence from highest to lowest. Priority Operator Example 1 O (atb)/c parenthesis 2 ft ~ te —- * & az&b plus/minus/NOT/compliment sizeof increment /decrement/sizeof multiply/divide/modulus add/subtract shift left or right greater/less/equal than bitwise AND bitwise OR bitwise XOR logical AND logical OR assignment Some of these operators we have not yet covered, but don’t worry, they will be covered later. The second line is composed entirely of unary operators such as increment and decrement. Parenthesis can be used to set the specific order in which operations are performed. A couple of examples of using parenthesis to clarify or change the precedence of a statement are: 10-2*5 = 0 (10-2)*5 = 40 count *num+88/val-19%count (count*num) + (88/val) - (19%count) it EXCERCISE! 1. What are the values of a and b after this segment of code finishes executing?C Program Control Statements Pic Cc > C Program Control Statements [° this chapter you will learn about the statements that C uses to control the flow of execution in your program. You will also learn how relational and logical operators are used with these control statements. We will also cover how to execute loops. Topics discussed in this chapter include: if if-else for while do-while Nesting loops break continue switch null returnPic Cc C Program Control Statements 5.1 if Statement The if statement is a conditional statement. The block of code associated with the ig statement ts executed based upon the outcome of a condition. Again, any non-zero value 1s true and any zero value is false. The simplest format is: if (expression) A (sove aad NOTE no ; ) statement; The expression can be any valid C expression. The if statement evaluates the expression which has a result of true or false. If the expression is true, the statement Is executed. If the expression is false, ihe program continues without executing the statement. A simple example of an if is: if (num > 0) print£("The number is positive\n”); This example shows how relational operators are used with program control statements. The if statement can also be used to control the execution of blocks of code. The general format is: if (expression) { statement; y The braces { and } are used to enclose the block of code. This tells the compiler that if the expression is true, execute the code between the braces. An example of the if and a block of code is: if (count < 0) { count = 0; printf (“Count down\n”);C Program Control Statements Pic Cc. or if(TestMode == 1) print parameters to user Other Operator comparisons used in the if statement are :- x == ¥ x equals y x !=y¥ x is not equal to y x>yY x greater than y x= y¥ x greater than or equal to y x && Y logical AND x lly logical on An example of one such function - converted into assembler is: int j, a= 3; 0007: MOVLW 03 7 load a with 3 0008: MOVWF OF if (j == 2) 0009: MOVLW 02 + load j with 2 000A: SUBWF O0E,W ; test for match 000B: BTFSS 03,2 ; ie zero 000c: GOTO OOF { jsas MOVF OF,W ; if zero then MOVWF OE + load a into j EXCERCISE? 1. Which of these expressions results in a true value?se cseseaeE ad. 5*5<25 e. lest 2. Write a function that tells whether a number is even or odd. The function returns 0 when the number is even and 1 when the number is odd. Call this function with the numbers 1 and 2. 5.2 if-else Statements What if you have two blocks of code that are executed based on the outcome of an expression? If the expression is true, the first block of code is executed, if the expression is false the second block of code is executed. You would probably use the if statement combined with an else statement. The general format for an if-else statement is: if (expression) statementi; else statement2; The format for an if-else statement that uses blocks of code (more than one line) is: if (expression) { statement; + else { statement; } Keep in mind that an if of else statement can have as many statements as needed. The curly braces can be thrown away when there 1s only one statement for the if or else. An example of a singlestatement if-else is: if (num<0) printf(“Number is negative.\n”); else print£(“Number is positive.\n”); The addition of the else statement provides a two-way decision path for you. But what if you wanted to combine many if and else statements together to make many decisions? What a coincidence, C provides a method by which you can combine if’s with else’s to provide many levels of decision. The general format is: if (expression1) { statement (s) } else if(expression2) { statement (s) + else it statement (s) , Here we see that many different expressions can be evaluated to pick a block of code to execute. Rather than explain any more about this method. here is a simple example. if(num == 1) print£(“got 1\n”); else if(num == 2) printf(“got 2\n”); else if(num == 3) printf (“got 3\n”); else printf (“got nothing\n”); Use the single = to make one variable equal another. ( Use the == when testing for equality.Pic Cc Program Control Statements EXCERCISE 1. _ Is this fragment of code correct? if (count>20) printf(”count is greater than 20”); count— ; y 2. Write a program that prints either pence, 5 pence, 10 pence, 20 pence, 50 pence or a pound depending on the value of the variable. The only valid values for the variable are 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 5.3 ? Operator The ? operator is actually a shorthand notation of the if else statement. The format is: (expr1) ? (expr2) : (expr3); where each of the expr? is a valid C statement. First, expri is evaluated. If the result is TRUE (remember that this is any non-zero value), then expr2 is evaluated. If the result is FALSE (zero), then expr3 is evaluated. The following is an example of the ? operator. int i,d; is -1; i? 20 + je1; Since i is -1 or non-zero, the expression j=0 will be evaluated. 5.4 for Loop One of the three loop statements that C provides is the for loop. If you have a statement or set of statements that needs to be repeated, a for loop easily implements this. The basic format of a for loop is similar to‘oniral Statements, Pic Cc that of other languages such as BASIC or Pascal. The most common form of a £or loop is: for( initialization ; conditional_test ; increment )} The initialization section is used to give an initial value to the loop counter variable. Note that this counter variable must be declared before the for loop can use It. This section of the gor loop is executed only once, The conditional_test is evaluated prior to each execution of the loop. Normally this section tests the loop counter variable for a true or false condition. If the conditional_test Is true the loop is executed. If the conditional_test Is false the loop exits and the program proceeds. The increment section of the for loop normally increments the loop counter variable. Here is an example of a for loop: #include void main (void) { int i; for(i=0; i<10; i++) print£(“%d “,i); printf (“done”); + This program will print the numbers 0 - 9 on the screen. The program works like this. First the loop counter variable, i, is set to zero. Next the expression i<1o is evaluated. If this statement is true the printf(”%d ”,i); statement is executed. Each time after the print£(“%d “,i); is executed, the loop counter variable is incremented. This whole process continues until the expression i<10 becomes false. At this point, the for loop is exited and the print£ (“done”); statement is executed. As previously stated, the conditional test is performed at the start of each iteration of the loop. Therefore, if the test is false to start off with, the for loop will never be executed.C Program Control Statements You are not restricted just to incrementing the counter variable. Here are some variations on the for loop: for (num=100; num>0; num=num-1) for (count=0; count<50; count+=5) Converting an example in to assembler to see what happens: int h, a; for (h=0;h=10;h++) 0007: CLRF OE 0008: MOVLW OA 0009: SUBWF O0E,W 000A: BTFSS 03,2 000B: GOTO OOF att: 000D: INCF OF,F QOOE: INCF 0E,F 000F: GOTO 008 EXCERCISE? 1. What do the following for() for(isl; ;it++) for(z7) for(num=1; num; num++) clear h load 10 ; subtract from h ; and test for zero ; if i=10, bypass increment 7 increment a + increment h 7 loop again statements do? 2. Write a program that displays all the factors of a number. 5.5 while Loop Another of the loops in C is the while loop. While an expression is true, the while loop repeats a statement or block of code. Hence the nameProgram Control Statements while. Here is the general format: while (expression) statement; OR while (expression) { statement; } The expression Is any valid C expression. The value of expression is checked prior to each iteration of the statement or block of code. This means that if expression is false the statement or block of code does not get executed. Here is an example of a while loop. #include #include void main (void) { char ch; printf£(“Give me a q\n”); ch=getche(); while(ch!='q’) chegetche(); printf(“Got a q!\n”); } You will notice that the first statement gets a character from the keyboard. Then the expression is evaluated. As long as the value of ch is not a q, the program will continue to get another character from the keyboard. Once a q is received, the print£() is executed and the program ends. {I EXCERCISE? 1. What do the following while statements do? a. while(i<10) t printf (“%d “,i);Pic Cc 7 ontrol Statements dete } b. while(1) printi("%d “,it++); 2. Write a program that gets characters from the keyboard using the statement ch=geteh() ; and prints them to the screen. When a carriage return 1s encountered, exit the program. 5.6 do-while Loop The final loop in C Is the do loop. Here we combine the do and while as such: do { statements } while (expression) In this case the statements are always executed before expression is evaluated. The expression may be any valid C expression. An example of a do-while loop is shown: #include #include void main(void) { char ch; do { ch = getche(); y while(ch !=/q/); printf£(“Got a q!\n”);C Program Control Statements Pic Cc This program is equivalent to the example we gave in Section 5.5. EXCERCISE? 1. Rewrite both a and b of Exercise 1 in Section 5.5 using a do-while loop. 2. Rewrite Exercise 2 in Section 5.5 using a do-while loop. 5.7 Nesting Program Control Statements When the body of a loop contains another loop, the second loop Is said to be nested inside the first loop. Any of C’s loops or other control statements can be nested inside each other. The ANSI C standard specifies that compilers must have at least 15 levels of nesting. However, most compilers have virtually unlimited levels of nesting. An example of a nested for loop is shown here: i= 0; while(i < 10) { for (j=0;j<10; j++) printf ("%d “,i*10+j); itt; + This routine will print the numbers 00 - 99 on the screen. EXCERCISE 1. Write a program that gets a character from the keyboard (ch=getch();). Each time a character is read, use the ASCII value to print an equal number of periods to the screen. For example. if the letter ‘pD’ is entered (ASCII value of 68), your program would print 68 periods to the screen. When a ‘q’ is entered the program completes.Program Control Statemer 5.8 break Statement The break statement allows you to exit any loop from any point within the body. The break statement bypasses normal termination from an expression. When a break statement is encountered in a loop, the program jumps to the next statement after the loop. For example #include void main(void) { int i; for (i=0;i<50;i++) { printf (“%d “,i); Ese meee cae a break; + this program will print the numbers 0 - 15 on the screen. The break statement works with all C loops. EXCERCISE 1. What does this loop do? for (i=0;1;i++) { print£(“Microchip is great!”); if(getch() == ‘q’) break; ieProgram Control Statements oe “Soo. 2. Write three programs, each using one of C’s loops, that count forever but exit when a key is hit. You can use the function kbhit () to detect when a key Is pressed. kbhit() returns a 1 when a key Is pressed and a 0 otherwise. kbhit() requires the header file conio.h. 5.9 continue Statement Let's assume that when a certain condition occurs in your loop, you want to skip to the end of the loop without exiting the loop. C has provided you with the continue statement. When the program encounters this statement, it will skip all statements between the continue and the test condition of the loop. For example, #include void main(void) { int i; for (i=0;1<100;i++) { continue; printf (“%d “,i); + + This loop will never execute the print£() statement. Each time the continue is reached, the program skips the printf£() and evaluates the expression i<100. A continue will cause the program to go directly to the test condition for while and do-while loops. In a for loop, a continue will cause the increment part of the loop to be executed and then the conditional test Is evaluated. 5.10 switch Statement The if statement is good for selecting between a couple of alternatives, but becomes very cumbersome when many alternatives exist. Again C comes through by providing you with a switch statement. A switch statement is equivalent to multiple if-else statements. ThePic. c: general form for a switch statement is: switch { case constanti: statement (s); break; case constant2: statement (Ss); break; case constantN: statement (s); break; default: statement (8); (variable) Program Control Statements The variable is successively tested against a list of integer or character constants. When a match is found, the body of statements associated with that constant is executed until a break is encountered. If no match is found, the statements associated with default are executed. The default is optional. An example of a switch is: #include #include main() { char ch; for(+7) { ch = getch(); if (ch=='x’) return 0; switch (ch) { case /0/: printé(“Sunday\n”) ; break, case ‘1’: printf (“Monday\n”); break;rr € Program Control Statements Pic: Cc. ‘ case ‘2': print£(“Tuesday\n”); break; case ‘3/: printf (“Wednesday\n”) ; break; case ‘4/: printf (“Thursday\n”); break; case ‘5/: printf (“Friday\n"); break; case ‘6’: printé(“Saturday\n”); break; default: printf (“Invalid entry\n”); } This example will read a number between 1 and 7. If the number is outside of this range, the message Invalid emtry will be printed. Values within the range will be converted into the day of the week. Another example used to set the number of characters per line on a LCD display is as follows. The DIP switch is read and the characters per line settings read, separated from the other bits and then used to return the appropriate value to the calling routine. byte cpl_sw_get() // characters per line « byte cpl; cpl = portd & 0b01110000;// mask unwanted bits switch (cpl) // now act on value decoded { case 0x00: cpl = 8; break; case 0x10: cpl = 16; break; case 0x20: cpl = 20; break; case 0x30: cpl = 28; break; default : cpl = 40; break; , a 2sPIC Cc " Program Control Statements return (cpl); // send back value to calling routine The ANSI standard states that a C compiler must support at least 257 case Statements. No two case statements in the same switch can have the same values. Also switch switches can be nested as long as the inner and outer switches do not have any conflicts with values. An ANSI compiler must provide at least 15 levels of nesting for switch statements. Here is an example of nested switches. switch (a) { case 1: switch (b) { case 0: print£("b is false”); break; case 1: printf(“b is true”); break; + break; case 2: The break statement within the switch statement is also optional. This means that two case statements can share the same portion of code. An example is provided to illustrate this. #include #include void main (void) { int a=6,b=3; char ch; printf£(“A = Addition\n”); printf(“S = Subtraction\n”);C Program Control Statements print£(/M = Multiplication\n”); printf£(“D = Division\n”); printf(“Enter choice: “); ch=getche(); switch (ch) { case ‘S’‘: b=-b; break; case ‘A’: printf ("\t\t%d",a+b); break; case ‘M’: printé (“\t\t%d",a*b) ; break; case ‘D’: printf ("\t\t%d", a/b); break; default: print£(“\t\tSay what?”); EXCERCISE? 1. What is wrong with this segment of code? float f; switch(£) { case 10.05: 2. Use a switch statement to print out the value of a coin. The value of the coin is held in the variable coin. The phrases to describe coins are: penny, nickel, dime, quarter, dollar. 3. What are the advantages of using a switch statement over many if-else statements?ra “Hic c Program Control Statements 5.11 null Statement (;) The null statement is a statement containing only a semicolon; it may appear wherever a statement is expected. Nothing happens when the null statement is executed - unlike the NOP in assembler which introduces a 1 cycle delay. Statements such as do, for, if and while require that an executable statement appears as the statement body. The null statement satisfies the syntax in those cases. for (i=0;i<10;line[++]=0) In this example, the loop expression of the for line[++]=0 initalises the first 10 elements of line to 0. The statement body Is a null since no additional commands are required. 5.12 return Statement The return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns control to the calling routine. A value can be returned to the calling function if required but if one is omitted, the returned value is then undefined. If no return is included in the called function, control is still passed back to the calling function after execution of the last line of code. Ifa returned value is not required, declare the function to have a void return type. GetValue (c) int c; { c++; return c; + void GetNothing(c) int o; { CreeC Program Contro} Statements Pic Cc return; } main() c int x; x = GetValue(); GetNothing();Pic Cc C Program Control State NOTESTrays and Stings Pic Gc PB Arrays and Strings | n this chapter you will learn about arrays. An array is simply a list of related variables of the same data type. Since strings are arrays of characters with some special rules, we will discuss them now. Topics that will be discussed: Arrays Strings One-dimensional Arrays Multidimensional Arrays InitializationPic :C ‘Arrays and Steings 6.1 One-Dimensional Arrays An array is a list of variables that are all of the same type and can be referenced through the same name. An individual variable in the array is called an array element. This is a simple way to handle groups of related data. The general form for declaring one-dimensional arrays 1s: type var_name [size]; where type is a valid C data type, var_name is the name of the array, and size specifies how many elements are in the array. For instance, if we want a float array of 50 elements we would use this statement. float height [50]; When an array is declared, C defines the first element to be at an index of 0. If the array has 50 elements, the last element is at an index of 49. Using the above example, say | want to index the 25th element of the array height and assign a value of 60.5. The following example shows how to do this. height [24] = 60.5; C stores one-dimensional arrays in contiguous memory locations. The first element is at the lowest address. If the following segment of code Is executed int num[10]; int i; for (i=0;i<10;i++) 0007: 0008: 0009: OOOA: OO0B: CLRF MOVLW SUBWF BTFSC GOTO 18 + clear i OA 18,W ; now test if = 10 03,0 013° ; if so then stop routine‘Arrays and Strings io PAE ae num[i] = i ¢ 000Cc: MOVLW OE 7 load start of num area ADDWF 18,W MOVWF 04 MOVF 18,W MOVWF 00 INCF 18,F GoTO 008 array i will look like this in memory. MRR eee eee ee Any array element can be used anywhere you would use a variable or constant. Here is another example program. It simply assigns the square of the index to the array element, then prints out all elements. #include void main(void) { int num[10]; int i; for (i=0;i<10;i++) mnum[i] = i * i; for(i=0;i<10;i++) print£(”“%d “,num[il); + What happens if you have an array with ten elements and you accidently write to the eleventh element? C has no bounds checking for array indexes. Therefore you may read or write to an element not declared in the array, however this will generally have disastrous results. Often this will cause the program to crash and sometimes even the computer. C does not allow you to assign the value of one array to another simply by using an assignment like:Arrays and Strings int a[10),b[10]; asb; The above example is wrong. If you want to copy the contents of one array into another, you must copy each individual element from the first array into the second array. The following example shows how to copy the array af ] intobf ] assuming that each array has 20 elements. for (i=0;i<20;i++) bli] = alil; EXCERCISE? 1. What is wrong with the following segment of code? int i; char count [10]; for (i=0;i<100;i++) count [i] = getch(); 2 Write a program that first reads 10 characters from the keyboard using getch(). The program will report if any of these characters match. 6.2 Strings The most common one-dimensional array is the string. C does not have a built in string data type. Instead, it supports strings using one- dimensional arrays of characters. A string is defined as a null terminated character array. A null in C is defined as a 0. If every string must be terminated by a null, then when that string is declared you must add an extra element. This extra element will hold the null. All string constants are automatically null terminated by the C compiler.Since we are using strings, how can you input a string into your program using the keyboard? The function gets (str) will read characters from the keyboard until a carriage return is encountered. The string of characters that was read will be stored in the declared array str. You must make sure that the length of str is greater than or equal to the number of characters read from the keyboard and the null (null = \0). Let's illustrate how to use the function gets() with an example. #include void main(void) { char str[80]; int i; printf("Enter a string (<80 chars):\n"); gets (str); for(i=0; str[i] ;i++) printf (“%ce”, str[il); print£(“\n%s”, str) ; } Here we see that the string can be printed in two ways: as an array of characters using the %c or as a string using the %s. EXCERCISE? 1. What is wrong with this program? The function strcpy() copies the second argument into the first argument. #include #include void main(void) { char str[10]; strepy(str, “Motorola who?”); printf£(str);Pic Cc Arrays and Str 2. Write a program that reads a string of characters from the screen and prints them in reverse order on the screen. 6.3 Multidimensional Arrays C ts not limited to one-dimensional arrays. You can create two or more dimensions. For example, to create an integer array called number with 10x10 elements, you would use: int number[10] [10]; Additional dimensions can be added simply by attaching another set of brackets. For simplicity, we will discuss only two-dimensional arrays but everything can be applied to multidimensional arrays. A two- dimensional array is best represented by a row, column format. Therefore, two-dimensional arrays are accessed a row at a time, from left to right. The following figure shows a graphical representation of a 5x5 array. Two-dimensional arrays are used just like one-dimensional arrays. For example, the following program loads a 5x4 array with the product of the indices, then displays the contents of the array in row, column format. void main(void) { int array[5] [4]; int i,j: for (i=0;i<5;i++) for (j=0;5<474++) array[i] [3]=i*3; for(is0;i<5;i++) { for (j=0;5<4; j++) print£("%d “,arraylil [i])7 print£(“\n");Arrays and Strings Pic: The output of this program should look like this: apse eee eee ego 0 2 4 6 ese Meee eee eeaee eee As you can see, when using the multidimensional arrays the number of variables needed to access each individual element increases. EXCERCISE 1. Write a program that declares a 3x3x3 array and loads it with the numbers 1 to 27. _ Print the array to the screen. 2 Using the program from Exercise 1, print out the sum of each row and column. 6.4 Initializing Arrays So far you have seen only individual array elements having values assigned. C provides a method in which you can assign an initial value to an array just like you would for a variable. The general form for one- dimensional arrays is shown here: type array_name(size] = (value_list); The value_list is a comma separated list of constants that are compatible with the type of the array. The first constant will be placed in the first element, the second constant in the second element and so on. The following example shows a 5 element integer array initialization. int i[5] = (1,2,3,4,5)3 The element i [0] will have a value of 1 and the element i141 will have a value of 5. A string (character array) can be initialized in two ways. First you may make a list of each individual character as such:PISS ees char str[3] (‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’); The second method is to use a quoted string, as shown here char name [5] “John”; You may have noticed that no curly braces enclosed the string. They are not used in this type of initialization because strings in C must end with a null. The compiler automatically appends a null at the end of “gohn”. Multidimensional arrays are initialized in the same way as one- dimensional arrays. It is probably easier to simulate a row, column format when using two-dimensional arrays. The following example shows a 3x3 array Initialisation. int num[3] [3]=( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, OF i ‘ EXCERCISE’ 1. Is this declaration correct? int count(3] = 10.0, 5.6, 15.7; ie Write a program that has a lookup table for the square and the cube of a number. Each row should have the number, the square of the number and the cube of the number. Create a 9x3 array to hold the information for numbers 1-9. Ask the user for a number using the statement scanf(“%d”, &num);. Then print out the number and its square and cube. 6.5 Arrays of Strings Arrays of strings are very common in C. They can be declared and initialized like any other array. The way in which you use the array is somewhat different from other arrays. For instance, what does the following declaration define? char names [10] [40];Arrays and Stn S Pic Cc This statement specifies that the array name 5 contains 10 names up to 40 characters long (including the null). To access a string from this table, specify only the first index. For example, to print the fifth name from this array, use the following statement. printf (“%s”,names[4]); The same follows for arrays with greater than two dimensions. For instance, if the array animals was declared as such: char animals[5] [4] [80]; To access a specific string, you would use the first two dimensions. For example, to access the second string in the third list, specify animals[2] [1]. EXCERCISE? Me Write a program that creates a string table containing the words for the numbers 0 through 9. Allow the user to enter a single digit number and then your program will display the respective word. To obtain an index into the table, subtract ‘0’ from the character entered. 6.6 _ string functions Strings can be manipulated in a number of ways within a program. One example is copying from a source to a destination via the strcepy command. This allows a constant string to be inputted into RAM. #include // the library for string // functions char string[10]; // define string array strepy (string, “Hi There”);// set up characters into string Some other string functions are available such as :- Ss esstreat strchr strrehr stremp strnemp stricmp strnepy strlen strlwr strpbrk strstr Pic CG Arrays and Strings Appends two strings Looks for first occurance of a character Finds last occurance of a character Compare two strings Compare a number of characters in two strings Compares two strings ignoring their case (UPPER vs lower) Copies a number of characters from one string to another Calculates the length of a string Replaces upper case with lower case letters Locate the first matching character in two strings Locate the first occurance of a character sequence in a string Refer to the specific C compiler documentation for use and limitations.Pointers, Pic Cc Be Pointers his chapter covers one of the most important and most troublesome feature of C, the pointer. A pointer is basically the address of some object. Some of the topics we will cover in this chapter are: Pointer basics Pointers and arrays Passing pointers to functions alPic Cc meron 7.1 Introduction to Pointers A pointer is a memory location (variable) that holds the address of another memory location. For example, if a pointer variable called a contains the address of a variable called b, then a points to b. If b is a variable at location 100 in memory, then a would contain the value 100. The general form to declare a pointer variable is: * type “var_name; The type of a pointer is one of the valid C data types. It specifies the type of variables to which var_name can point. You may have noticed that var_name is preceded by an *. This tells the compiler that var_name is a pointer variable. For example, the following statement creates a pointer to an integer. int “ptr; The two special operators that are associated with pointers are the * and the &. The address of a variable can be accessed by preceding the variable with the & operator. The * operator returns the value stored at the address pointed to by the variable. For example, #include void main(void) c int *a,b; b= 6; a= &b; printf (“%d",*a); y The first statement declares two variables: a, which is an integer pointer and », which is an integer. The next statement assigns the value of 6 to b. Then the address of b (&b) is assigned to the pointer variable a. This line can be read as assign a the address of b. Finally, the value of » is displayed to the screen by using the * operator with the pointer =a esPointers Pic Cc variable a. This line can print the value at the address pointed to by a. This process of referencing a value through a pointer is called indirection. A graphical example is shown here. too | 3 | i 102 [5 j 104 | k 106 [102 | ptr int i, d, k; int *ptr; Initially iis 3 &i is 100 // the location of i As ptr contains 102 ptr is 102 // the value pointed to by the // location in ptr *ptr is 5 It is also possible to assign a value to a memory location by using a pointer. For instance, let’s restructure the previous program in the following manner: #include void main (void) { int *a,b; a= &b; was 6; printf (“%d”,b) } In this program, we first assign the address of variable b to a, then we assign a value to b by using a. The line *a = 6; can be read as assign the value 6 to the memory location pointed to by a. Obviously, the use of a pointer in the previous two examples is not necessary but it illustrates the usage of pointers.Pic Cc a EXCERCISE': He Write a program with a for loop that counts from 0 to 9 and displays the numbers on the screen. Print the numbers using a pointer, 7.2 Restrictions to Pointers In general, pointers may be treated like other variables. However, there are a few rules and exceptions that you must understand. In addition to the * and & operators, there are only four other operators that can be applied to pointer variables: +, ++, -, - ~-. Only integer quantities may be added or subtracted from pointer variables. When a pointer variable is incremented, it points to the next memory location. If we assume that the pointer variable p contains the address 100, after the statement ptt; executes, p will have a value of 102 assuming that integers are two bytes long. If p had been a £1oat pointer, p would contain the value 104 after the increment assuming that floating point numbers are four bytes long. The only pointer arithmetic that appears as expected !s for the char type, because characters are only one byte long. You can add or subtract any integer value you wish, to or from a pointer. For example, the following statement int “p; P = p+200; causes p to point to the, 200th memory location past the one to which p was previously pointing. It is possible to increment or decrement either the pointer itself or the object to which it points, You must be careful when incrementing or decrementing the object pointed to by a pointer. What do you think thePointers Pic c following statement will do if the value of ptr Is 1 before the statement Is executed? *Dte; This statement first increments p and then gets the value pointed to at the new location. To increment the object that 1s pointed to by a pointer, use the following statement: (*D) +47 The parenthesis cause the value that is pointed to by p to be incremented. This is due to the precedence of * versus ++. Pointers may also be used in relational operations. However, they only make sense if the pointers relate to each other, i.e. they both point to the same object. EXCERCISE a Declare the following variables and assign the address of the variable to the pointer variable. Print the value of each pointer variable using the *sp. Then increment each pointer and print out the value of the pointer variable again. What are the sizes of each of the data types on your machine? char “cp,ch; int “ip,i; float “fp,f; double “dp, 4; Zi What is wrong with this fragment? int “p,i;Pic Cc _____ Painters 7.3. Pointers and Arrays In C, pointers and arrays are closely related and are sometimes interchangeable. It is this relationship between the two that makes the power of C even more apparent. If you use an array name without an index, you are actually using a pointer to the beginning of the array. In the last chapter, we used the function gets(), in which we passed only the name of the string. What is actually passed to the function is a pointer to the first element in the string. This 1s a very important note: when an array Is passed to a function, only a pointer to the first element is passed. Since an array name without an index is a pointer, you can assign that value to another pointer. This would allow you to access the array using pointer arithmetic. For instance, #include int a[5]={1,2,3,4,5}; void main(void) { ee me sie pear for (i=0;i<5;i++) printf (“%a",*(p+i)); This is a perfectly valid C program. You will notice that in the print£() statement we use * (p+i), where i Is the index of the array. You may be surprised that you can also index a pointer as if it were an array. The following program is valid. #include aint a[5]={1,2,3,4,5}; ees eee7 SR Pointers, void main (void) a { int *p,i; ~ P= ar for (i=0;i<5;i++) Pic Cc printf (“%d”,p[i])z + One thing to remember is that a pointer should only be indexed when it points to an array. Since pointers to arrays point only to the first element or base of the string, it is invalid to increment the pointer. Therefore, this a statement would be invalid for the previous program. ptt? Mixing pointers and arrays will produce unpredictable results. The following examples show the problem - the second version does not mix pointers and arrays: int *p; a int array[8]; Pp = array; 0007: MOVLW 0008: MOVWF Be *p = 37 0009: MOVF OOOA: MOVWF 000B: MOVLW = 000c: MOVWF array[1] = 4; 000D: MOVLW 000E: MOVWF Hee ae = int array[8]; Pp = array; i 0007: MOVLW 0008: MOVWF a p[1] = 3; 0009: MOVLW ie OOOA: ADDWF 000B: MOVWF a el OF OE 01 0E,W 04 load start of array pointer point at indirect reg load 3 and save at pointed location load 4 into first location of array load array position add to array start position load into array pointerpa eae TTT PIC Cc ae Pointers 000c: MOVLW 03 7 load in 3 000D: MOVWF 00 7 save in location pointed to *(array+1) = 4; + load array position point to it load 4 save in pointed to location QOOE: MOVLW 10 QOOF: MOVWF 04 0010: MOVLW 04 0011: MOVWF 00 EXCERCIS! Le Is this segment of code correct? int count [10]; count = count+2; 2. What value does this segment of code display? int value[51=(5,10,15,20,25); int *p; p = value; printf (“%d", “p+3); 7.4 Passing Pointers to Functions In Section 3, we talked about the two ways that arguments can be passed to functions, “call by value” and “call by reference”. The second method passes the address to the function, or in other words a pointer is passed to the function. At this point any changes made to the variable using the pointer actually change the value of the variable from the calling routine. Pointers may be passed to functions just like any other variables. The following example shows how to pass a string to a function using pointers.—/1f_H_ Pointers #include void puts(char *p); void main(void) { puts (“Microchip is great!”); + void puts(char *p) { while(*p) { printf(“%o", *p); ptt; , printf(“\n"); } In this example, the pointer p points to the first character in the string, the “uw”. The statement while(*p) is checking for the null at the end of the string. Each time through the while loop, the character that is pointed to by p is printed. Then p is incremented to point to the next character in the string. Another example of passing a pointer to a function is: void IncByl0(int *n) { *n += 10; + void main(void) { int *p; int i; p = &i; IncBy10(p);Pointers EXCERCISE‘? a Write a program that passes a float value to a function. Inside the function, the value of -1 is assigned to the function parameter. After the function returns to main, print the value of the float variable. 2. Write a program that passes a float pointer to a function. Inside the function, the value of -1 is assigned to the variable. After the function returns to main(), print the value of the £10at variable. ASTRA pp REStructurers and Unions ~ PIC Cc > Structures and Unions tructures and unions represent two of C’s most important user defined types. Structures are a group of related variables that can have different data types. Unions aré a group of variables that share the same memory space. In this chapter we will cover: Structure basics Pointers to Structures Nested Structures Union basics Pointers to Unions [a eePic c Structurers and Unions 8.1. Introduction to Structures A structure is a group of related items that can be accessed through a common name. Each of the items within a structure has its own data types, which can be different from each other. C defines structures in the following way: struct tag-name { type element1; type element2; type elementn; ‘3 variable-list; The keyword struct tells the compiler that a structure is about to be defined. Within the structure each type is one of the valid data types. These types do not need to be the same. The tag-name is the name of the structure. The variable-1list declares some variables that have a data type of struct tag-name. The variable-list is optional. Each of the items in the structure is commonly referred to as fields or members. We will refer to them as members. In general the information stored in a structure is logically related. For example, you might use a structure to hold the name, address and telephone number of all your customers. The following example is for a card catalog in a library. struct catalog { char author [40]; char title[40]; char pub[40]; unsigned int date; unsigned char rev; } card; In this example the name of the structure is catalog. It is not the name of a variable, only the name of this type of structure. ee eee eeeStructurers and Unions The variable card ts declared as a structure of type catalog. To access any member of a structure, you must specify both the name of the variable and the name of the member. These names are separated by a period. For example, to access the revision member of the structure catalog, you would use: card.revs'’a'; where card is the variable name and rev is the member. The operator is used to access members of a structure. To print the author member of the structure catalog, you would type: printf (“Author is %s\n”,card.author); Now that we know how to define, declare and access a structure, what does a structure look like in memory? The following shows what the structure catalog looks like in memory. author 40 bytes title 40 bytes pub 40 bytes date 2 bytes. rev 1 byte If you wanted to get the address of the date member of the card structure you would use &card.date. If you want to print the name of the publisher, you would use printf (“%s”,card.pub) . What If you wanted to access a specific element in the title, like the 3rd. element in the string? card.title[2]; The first element of title is 0, the second is 1 and, finally, the third is 2. Once you have defined a structure, you can create more structure variables anywhere in the program using: struct tag-name var-list;For instance, if the structure catalog was defined earlier in the program, you can define two more variables like this: struct catalog book, list; C allows you to declare arrays of structures just like any other data type. This example declares a 50-element array of the structure catalog. struct catalog big[50]; If you wanted to access an individual structure within the array, you would index the structure variable, 1.e. big[10]. How would you access the title member of the 10th element of the structure array big? big[9].title Structures may also be passed to functions. A function can return a structure just like any other data type. You can also assign the values of one structure to another simply by using an assignment. The following fragment is perfectly valid. struct temp t int a; float b; char c; } varl,var2; vari.a = 37; var2.b = 53.65; var2 = varl; After this fragment of code executes the structure, variable var2 will have the same contents as var1. This is an example of initializing a structure. struct example { char who[50];Structurers and uni Pic Gc char ch; int i } varl[2]=(“Rodger”, '¥’,27, "Jack", 'N’, 30}; One important thing to note is that when you pass a structure to a function, the entire structure is passed by the “call by value” method. Therefore, any modification of the structure in the function will not affect the value of the structure in the calling routine. The number of elements in a structure does not affect the way it is passed to a function. An example of using this on the PIC to set up an LCD interface would be struct cont_pins { boolean en; // enable for all displays boolean en2; // enable for 40x4 line displays boolean rs; // register select } cont; #byte cont = 9 // Control on port e This sets the structure for cont_pins and is then handled within the program void LcdSendNibble(byte n) { led_data = n; // present data delay _cycles(1); // delay cont.enl = }; // set enl* line high delay_us(2); // delay cont.enl = 0; // set enl line low + il ae EXCERCISE 1. Write a program that has a structure with one character and a string of 40 characters. Read a character from the keyboard and save it in the character using getch() . Read a string and save it in the string using gets(). Then print the values of the members. ea eee2. What is wrong with this section of code? struct type { int i; long 1; char str[50]; ees i=10; 8.2 Pointers to Structures Sometimes it is very useful to access a structure through a pointer. Pointers to structures are declared in the same way that pointers to other data types are declared. For example, the following section of code declares a structure variable p and a structure pointer variable q with structure type of temp. struct temp { int i; char ch; * . Pr GF Using this definition of the temp structure, the statement q=«p is perfectly valid. Now that q points to p, you can access p through a. If you want to access an individual member of p, you must use the arrow operator as shown here. q->i=1; This statement would assign a value of 1 to the member i of the variable p. Notice that the arrow operator is a minus sign followed by a greater-than sign without any spaces in between. Since C passes the entire structure to a function, large structures can reduce the program execution speed because of the relatively large data transfer. For this reason, it is easier to pass a pointer to the structure to the function. [a Ss Structurers and Unionsers and Unions Pic c One important thing to note is: When accessing a structure member using a structure variable, use the period. When accessing a structure member using a pointer to the structure, you must use the arrow operator. This example shows how a pointer to a structure Is utilized. #include #include struct s_type { int i; char str[80]; } 8,*DF void main (void) { 8.4=10; p->i=10; strepy(p->str,"I like structures”); printf (“%d %d %s”,s.i,p->i,p->str); } The two lines s.i=10 and p->i=10 are equivalent. EXCERCISE? Ae Is this segment of code correct? struct S_type { int a; int b; + 8,*D; void main(void) { p=ks; p.a=100; +Pic Cc: z Structurers and Unions 2. Write a program that creates an array of structures three long of the type PIC. You will need to load the structures with a PICI6C5X, PICI6CXX, and a PICI7CXX device. The user will select which structure to print using the keyboard to input a 1, 2, or 3. The format of the structure 1s: struct P1C { char name[20]; unsigned char progmem; unsigned char datamem; char feature[80]; Me 8.3 Nesting Structures So far, you have only seen that members of a structure were one of the C data types. However, the members of structures can also be other structures. This is called nesting structures. For example, #define NUM_OF_PICS 25 struct P1C { char name[40]; unsigned char progmem; unsigned char datamem; char feature[80]; di struct products { struct P1C devices [NUM_OF_PICS]; char package_type[40]; double cost; } list; The structure products has three elements: an array of Pic structures called devices, a string that has the package name and the cost. These elements can be accessed using the 1ist1 variable.Structurers and Unions PIC Cc 8.4 Introduction to Unions A union is defined as a single memory location that is shared by two or more variables. The variables that share the memory location may be of different data types. However, you may only use one variable at a time. A union looks very much like a structure. The general format of the union is: union tag-name { type element1; type element2; type elementn; } variable-list; Again, the tag-name Is the name of the union and the variable-list are the variables that have a union type tag-name. The difference between unions and structures |s that each member of the union shares the same data space. For example, the following union contains three members: an integer, a character array and a double. union u_type { int i; char c[3]; double 4; } temp; The way that a union appears in memory is shown below. We will use the previous example to illustrate a union. The integer uses two bytes, the character array uses three bytes and the double uses four bytes. eg el element 0 element 1 element 2 | element 3“Pic Cc turers and Unions Accessing the members of the union is the same as with structures, you use a period. The statement temp.i will access the two byte integer member i of the union temp and temp. will access the four byte double d. If you are accessing the union through a pointer, you would use the arrow operator just like structures. It is important to note that the size of the union Is fixed at compile time to accommodate the largest member of the union. Assuming that doubles are four bytes long, the union temp will have a length of four bytes. A good example of using a union is when an 8-bit microcontroller has an external 12-bit A/D converter connected to a serial port. The microcontroller reads the A/D in two bytes. So we might set up a union that has two unsigned chars and asigned short as the members. union sample { unsigned char bytes(2]; signed short word; } When you want to read the A/D, you would read two bytes of data from the A/D and store them in the bytes array. Then, whenever you want to use the 12-bit sample you would use word to access the 12-bit number. EXCERCISE 1. What are the differences between a structure and an union? What is the same? 2. Write a program that has a union with a long int member and an four byte character array. Your program should print the long int to the screen a byte at a time.PIC Specufic C PP PIC Specific C aving understood the basics of C, it is now time to move into the PIC specific settings, functions and operations. Every compiler has its own good and not so good points. The CCS version has an extensive range of inbuilt functions to save time and speed up the learning process for newcomers and part time C programmers. The HI TECH Compiler is biased towards those conversant with C or who are following a company policy specifying the ANSII standard with hardware functions sometimes resembling Assembler more than C. If not forced either way, then the decision is yours - visit these and other sites - try the demo versions - and make your choice. In this chapter we will cover: Inputs and Outputs Mixing C and Assembler A/D Conversion Data Communications PWM LCD Driving Interrupts.mic ce SS beaiee 9.1 Inputs and Outputs The Input and Output ports on a PIC are made up from two registers - PORT and PORT DIRECTION - and are designated PORTA,B,C,D,E and TRISA,B,C,D,E. Their availability depends upon the PIC being used in the design. An 8 pin PIC has a single GPIO register and TRIS register - 6 I/O lines. The 16C74 has PORTS A,B,C,D and E - 33 I/O lines. A block diagram of PORTA is shown below. Ports B,C,D and E are similar but the data sheet needs to be consulted for PIC specifics. data ¢ pata pus | || | lee “ns |! \¢ VO PINS: OPIS ) | — mn | ee | 16C7X ONLY Port A has a 5 or 6 lines - depending on the PIC - which can be configured as either inputs or outputs. Configuration of the port direction is via the TRISA register. Inputs are set with a 1 and outputs are set with a 0. The pins have both source and sink capability of typically 25mA per pin. The exception to the I/O lines 1s the A4 pin which has an open collector output. As a result, the voltage levels on the pin - if tied high with a resistor - is inverted to the bit in the PORTA register. i.e. a logic 1 in porta,4 turns on the transistor and hence pulls the pin low.AcSpeavhee Pic Cc An example in assembler could be clrt porta set outputs low pagel select register page 1 movlw b’00000011’ ; AO,1 as inputs, A2-4 as outputs movwE porta ; send w to port control register paged ; change back to register page 0 Data is sent to the port via a movwf porta and bits can be individually manipulated with either bs£ or bef. Data is read from the port with either movéw porta or bit testing with btfss or btfsc. NOTE On devices with A/D converters, ensure ADCON1 register is also set correctly an the I/O default is ANALOG. ‘OPTION ag co ; jcocmately ( DATABUS PORTB | INTERRUPT. TRISB MASK | 86H | INTF | RBIF INTCON OBH Port B block diagram Port C ts similar but does not have the pull-up and interrupt capability of Port B. It does have the additional PIC hardware functions as alternatives to being used as an 8 bit port.Other uses for Port C I/O pins co C1 c2 c3 C4 C5 Ccé c7 vO vO vO vO vo vo vO vO T1OSO}T1OSI | CCP1 | SCK | SDI SDO | TX RX TICKI |CCP2 | PWM1} SCL | SDA cK oT PwM2 The C compiler can interpret inputs and outputs in a number of ways - fixed, fast or standard. In standard mode, the port direction registers are set up prior to each I/O operation. This adds lines to a program and hence slows down the speed, but improves the safety side of the code by ensuring the I/O lines are always set as specified. Fast /O enables the user to set the port direction and this remains in place until re- defined. The compiler does not add lines of code to setup the port direction prior to each I/O operation. The following example sets PORTB as inputs and then reads in the value. InCCSC set_tris_b(0xff); // make inputs b_rate = portb ; // read in port in Hl TECH C TRISB = Oxff ; // make inputs b_rate = portb ; // read in port Bit masking is easily achieved by adding the & and the pattern to mask after the port name b_rate = portb & 0b00000011;// mask out unwanted bits The value stored in b_rate can then be used to set up a value to returnPIC Specufic C aoa Pic Cc to the calling function. The following is the whole function used to read some dip switches and set up a baud rate for a comms routine written in CCS C. byte bd_sw_get () // baud rate selection { byte b_rate; b_rate = portb & 0b00000011;// mask out unwanted bits switch(b_rate) « case 0: set_uart_speed(1200); break; case 1: set_uart_speed(2400); break; case 2: set_uart_speed (4800); break; case 3: set_uart_speed(9600); break; } } When setting up ports, it is advisable to set up the port conditions before the port direction registers (TRIS). This prevents the port outputting an unwanted condition prior to being set. When setting bit patterns in registers or ports, work in binary as this will make it easier for you writing and others reading the source code. It also saves converting between number bases. In HI TECH C :- #define IOBITS_B 10100011B// I/O bits specification // Inputs set with 1 // Outputs set with 0 PORTA = OxFF; Mi PORTB = OxF7; // set bits high TRISB = IOBITS_B; // set with pattern TRISA = 0x00; // all bits outputs 9.2 Mixing C and Assembler There are times when inline assembler code ts required in the middle of aC program. The reasons could be for code compactness, timing constraints or simply because a routine works ‘as is’. The following example finds the parity of a value 4 passed to the routine Findparity—— es Pic CG PIC Specufic C which is then equated to a when the routine is called. InCcCSC FindParity(byte 4) { byte count; #asm movlw 8 movwE count, clrw loop: xorwf d,w rrt af decfsz count, £ goto loop movwt _return_ #endasm + main() { byte a, d=7; a = FindParity(d); When compiled, the program looks like:- FindParity(byte d) { byte count; #asm 0005: MOVLW 0006: MOVWF 0007: CLRW 0008: XORWF 0009: RRF 000A: DECFSZ 000B: GoTo #endasm 000C: MOVWF 000E: GOTO 08 28 27,0 27,F 28,F 008 2} 016Ce al = PIC Specufie € tee Pic c a , main() { 0011: MOVLW 07 : 0012: MOVWF 26 byte a, d=7; a = FindParity(d); 0013: MOVF 26,W 0014: MOVWF 27 0015: GoTo 005 0016: MOVF 21,W 0017: MOVWF 25 Key to PIC16Cxx Family Instruction Sets Field Description b _Bitaddress within an 8 bit file register (0-7) a d Destination select, d= 0 Store result in W d=1 Store result in file register f (default) - Assembler recognises W and f as destinations Register file address (0x00 to OxFF) f - k Literal field, constant data or label 25h, txdata W Working register (accumulator) x Don't care location 1 Table pointer control; 1=0 Do not change. a 1=1 Increment after instruction execution. PIC16CXX ie Literal and Control Operations - Hex Mnemonic Description Function 3Ekk ADDLW ok Add literal to W k+We» W ae 39kk ANDLW sk AND literal and W k.AND W >» W 2kkk CALL k Call subroutine PC +1» TOS, k » PC 0064 CLRWDT Clear watchdog timer 0 » WOT (and Prescaler if assigned) 2kkk GOTO = k_~— Goto address (kis nine bits)_k » PC(9 bits) 38kk IORLW k Incl. OR literal and W k OR. W> W 30kk MOVLW ok Move Literal to W k»W - 0009 RETFIE Return from Interrupt TOS »PC,1 »GIE 34kk RETLW ok Return with literal in W k» W, TOS P»C i 0008 RETURN Return from subroutine TOS » PC 0063 SLEEP Go into Standby Mode 0 » WOT, stop oscillator 3Ckk SUBLW ik Subtract W from literal k-W»W S3Akk XORLW ok Exclusive OR literaland W =k XOR W» W ERRNO comer