IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 13, NO.

2, MARCH 1998 345

The State-of-the-Art of Power Electronics in Japan

Hirofumi Akagi, Fellow, IEEE

Abstract— Since the late 1950’s, power electronics has been II describes the present status and future trends of power
developing by leaps and bounds without saturation to become semiconductor devices in Japan. Section III presents static
the key technology essential to modern society and human life as power converters, focusing on pulse-width-modulation (PWM)
well as to electrical engineering. This paper mainly focuses on the
state-of-the-art of power electronics technology and its medium inverters, which are classified according to their applications.
to high-power applications because the author cannot survey Section IV describes a 450-kHz 4-kW voltage-source series-
the whole spectrum of power electronics ranging from a 5-W resonant inverter and its specific application for dental casting
switching regulator to a 2.8-GW high-voltage dc transmission machines. Section V shows the present status of the steel
system now under construction in Japan. This paper also presents industry, which has already introduced large-capacity high-
prospects and directions of power electronics in the 21st century,
including the personal views and expectations of the author. performance vector-controlled induction/synchronous motors
into hot- and cold-strip-mill drives. Section VI is focused on
Index Terms—AC motor drives, active filters, power convert- vector-controlled induction motor drive systems with and with-
ers, power devices, power electronics.
out speed sensors. Sections VII–IX describe utility applications
of power electronics: a 2.8-GW high-voltage direct-current
I. INTRODUCTION (HVDC) transmission system, 300–400-MW adjustable-speed
pumped-storage generator/motor systems controlled by line-
P OWER electronics have been initiated by the invention
and production of thyristors or silicon-controlled recti-
fiers. In conjunction with microcomputers and digital signal
commutated cycloconverters or PWM rectifier/inverters, and a
48-MVA active filter for power conditioning.
processors (DSP’s) brought by microelectronics technology,
the following great leaps have been made in power electronics II. POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
technology and applications: Power semiconductor devices are indispensable to power
1) remarkable progress in the capacity and switching speed electronic systems, like bread or rice is to the human system.
of gate-turn-off (GTO) thyristors and insulated gate No remarkable progress could be made in power electronic
bipolar transistors (IGBT’s); technology unless there were an emergence of new power de-
2) establishment in theory and practice of the so-called vices or a significant improvement of already existing devices.
“vector-controlled ac motor drives” and their prevalence
over and replacement of dc motor drives; A. Light-Triggered Thyristors
3) penetration into utility applications such as an 80-MVA
inverter-based static var compensator using GTO thyris- LTT’s rated at 8 kV and 3.5 kA (average current) have
tors, and a 300-MW high-voltage dc transmission system been developed with a forward voltage drop of 2.7 V at 3.5
using light-triggered thyristors (LTT’s). kA [1]. The thyristors are fabricated on a silicon wafer with
a 6-in diameter. The main reason for applying light-triggering
Applications of power electronics are still expanding into
technology to the thyristor is that light signals are not affected
industry and utility, so that the term “power electronics” in
by electromagnetic interference (EMI). In addition, light is
the 21st century will have a much broader meaning than it did
conducted through an optical glass fiber, which is one of
in the 1980’s. For instance, the marriage of power electronics
the best insulation materials. This ensures sufficient insulation
and power engineering will bear flexible ac transmission
between a system controller operating at ground potential
systems in the near future, unless the two get a divorce.
and a gate-drive circuit operating at potentials as high as, or
Generally, developments in power electronics yield needs of
exceeding, 250 kV [2].
power electronics, so that the needs induce the developments
in turn, as if to constitute a positive feedback system.
This paper presents the state-of-the-art of power electron- B. Gate-Turn-Off Thyristors and Static Induction Thyristors
ics in Japan, along with its prospects and directions in the GTO thyristors rated at 6 kV and 6 kA, fabricated on
21st century, including the personal views and expectations a silicon wafer with a 6-in diameter, are now available to
of the author. This paper is organized as follows. Section high-power inverters for utility/industry applications [3]. The
GTO thyristors have the capability of shutting off an anode
Manuscript received November 4, 1996; revised May 28, 1997. Recom- current of 6 kA with the help of a snubbing circuit, but the
mended by Associate Editor, L. Xu. average anode current is designed to be about 2 kA in practical
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Okayama application. Extremely high-voltage GTO thyristors aimed at
University, Okayama-City, 700 Japan (e-mail: [email protected]
u.ac.jp). 9–12-kV ratings will be developed in the near future, using
Publisher Item Identifier S 0885-8993(98)01943-7. leading edge semiconductor technology.
0885–8993/98$10.00  1998 IEEE
346 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 13, NO. 2, MARCH 1998

Fig. 1. Rectangular press-pack reverse-conducting IGBT rated at 2.5 kV and 1 kA.

A static induction (SI) thyristor rated at 4 kV and 200 A high-frequency resonant inverters. This IGBT has a very low
(average current) has been developed, which has the capability forward voltage drop of 3.7 V at kA and 125 C. Fig. 2
of shutting off an anode current of 1 kA or more. The SI shows the turn-off waveforms of and in hard-switching
thyristor equipped with a snubbing capacitor of 0.1 F can operation under the conditions of V, kA,
operate at 4 kHz, which is much higher than the switching and C in (a) and C in (b). These IGBT’s
frequency limitation of the same class of GTO thyristor [3]. in a rectangular press pack are now available on the market.
However, the SI thyristor has not yet come on the market. Hitachi has developed a 3.5-kV 500-A IGBT module with a
forward voltage drop of 5.6 V at A [5]. According
to [3], 4.5 kV would be a final goal for IGBT’s to reach, and
C. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
therefore such a high-voltage IGBT is expected to take the
Over the last ten years, a significant reduction in conducting place of 4.5-kV GTO thyristors in the near future.
and switching losses in IGBT’s has been achieved in the To advance performance beyond the third-generation
process of transition from the first, via the second, to the third IGBT’s, the fourth-generation devices will require exploiting
generation. At present, the third-generation IGBT’s rated at fine-line lithographic technology and/or employing the trench
600, 1200, and 1700 V are widely used for general inverter technology currently being used to produce a new power
applications with current ratings up to 600 A or more. They are MOSFET with very low on-state resistance. The fourth-
packaged with soft-recovery free-wheeling diodes into power generation IGBT will have a forward voltage drop as low
modules, so that they are often called “IGBT modules” in as 1.5 V for a 600-V device or 2.0 V for a 1200-V device
Japan. They have the advantage of not requiring any electric at each rated current.
isolation from heat sinks, thus making inverters compact. An intelligent IGBT or an intelligent power module (IPM)
Moreover, IGBT modules rated at 2000 V and 500 A are is available which is an attractive power device integrated
available and used mainly for electric traction. with circuits to protect against overcurrent, overvoltage, and/or
The Fuji Electric Company has recently developed a rectan- overheat. This intelligent IGBT based on the fourth generation
gular press-pack reverse-conducting IGBT rated at 2.5 kV and will take a few years to come on the market.
1 kA [4]. This IGBT has the following electric characteristics:
1) maximum turn-off collector current of 5 kA;
III. STATIC POWER CONVERTERS
2) saturation voltage of 4.4 V at kA and 125 C;
3) fall time of 0.85 s; The development of static power converters depends
4) rise time of 1.6 s. strongly on both power semiconductor devices and util-
Fig. 1 is a photograph of the IGBT. The size of the rectangular ity/industry needs.
press pack is 133 110 20 (mm). Nine IGBT chips
and three diode chips are integrated into the package, and A. High-Power Inverters
the size of either the single IGBT or diode chip is a square Table I summarizes future trends of high-power converters
of 20 20 (mm). This package structure efficiently removes with the focus on their capacity in 1996, 2001, and 2006.
heat from both top and bottom, so the IGBT is more suitable It is impossible to find any application of phase-controlled
to electric traction applications requiring high reliability. The thyristor converters and cycloconverters, except for high-
Fuji Electric Company has also developed a rectangular press- voltage dc transmission systems and extremely large-capacity
pack reverse-conducting IGBT rated at 1.2 kV and 2 kA for synchronous motor drive systems. A voltage-source inverter
AKAGI: STATE-OF-THE-ART OF POWER ELECTRONICS IN JAPAN 347

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Turn-off waveforms of the rectangular press-pack reverse-conducting IGBT rated at 1.2 kV and 2 kA (200 V/div, 500 A/div, and 200 ns/div):
(a) Tj = 25 C and (b) Tj = 125 C.

TABLE I
FUTURE TRENDS IN CAPACITY OF HIGH-POWER CONVERTERS

using GTO thyristors in a range of 200–300 MW is due to be

put into practical use by 2001 [6]. Its “back-to-back” connec-
tion is intended for providing asynchronous ac linkage between
Fig. 3. Neutral-point-clamped (three-level) inverter.
two power systems with flexibility. This high-power inverter
would also be essential to unified power flow controllers in the
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) concept initiated inverter shown in Fig. 3 to take the place of the two-level
in the United States. inverters shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
Figs. 3–6 show possible circuit configurations of high- Fig. 6 shows the multiconnection of a couple of two-
power inverters using twelve GTO thyristors for steel-mill level inverters by means of two three-phase transformers, the
drives and utility applications. Fig. 3 is referred to as a primary windings of which are connected in series. It is also
neutral-point-clamped voltage-source inverter or a three-level possible to combine Fig. 3 with Fig. 6, thus resulting in higher
voltage-source inverter [7]. Figs. 3–5 are suitable for ac motor power and less harmonics. Fig. 6 and the combination of Fig. 6
drives because no transformer is connected to the ac terminals with Fig. 3 are effective in utility applications such as static
of the inverters. Mitsubishi has developed a three-phase 10- var compensators. However, practical technology capable of
MVA three-level PWM rectifier/inverter consisting of 24 GTO achieving series connection of more than thirty GTO thyristors
thyristors rated at 6 kV and 6 kA in which the dc-link voltage is required for high-voltage dc transmission systems.
is 6 kV [8]. This rectifier/inverter feeds a 6-MW synchronous
motor for steel-mill drives. Toshiba has developed a three- B. Applications for Rolling Stock
phase 1.2-kV, 1.8-MVA three-level PWM inverter using IGBT
Since March of 1992, new high-speed trains referred to
modules rated at 1.7 kV and 400 A for vector-controlled
as Nozomi1 or the third-generation Shinkansen have been
induction motor drives, with or without a speed sensor, in
in commercial service with a maximum speed of 270 km/h.
industrial plants [9]. However, multilevel inverters, such as
The power electronic circuit for electric traction consists of
four- or five-level inverters, have not yet been practically
two-level voltage-source PWM rectifier/inverters using GTO
applied, although they are being researched in universities
thyristors rated at 4.5 kV and 2.5 kA. The high-speed train,
and institutes. Fig. 5 shows multiconnection by means of
consisting of 16 cars with a nominal seating capacity of 1323
separating and isolating three stator windings from the neutral
point of an ac motor. It would be possible for the three-level 1 Nozomi in Japanese means “hope” in English.
348 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 13, NO. 2, MARCH 1998

C. General-Purpose Inverters
Over the last ten years, the emergence and advancement
of IGBT modules have made voltage-source PWM inverters
much more prevalent in general-purpose applications such
as adjustable-speed ac motor drives, uninterruptible power
supplies, and so on. At present, IGBT modules are taking the
place of bipolar junction transistors (BJT’s) because of their
high-speed switching characteristics, simple drive circuits,
and easy and compact power circuits. For example, voltage-
source PWM rectifier/inverter systems using IGBT modules
have been used as the power circuit for uninterruptible power
supplies in the range of 10 kVA to 1 MVA. However, high-
Fig. 4. Multiconnection using interphase transformers.
speed switching of IGBT modules might cause the following
problems to which little attention has been paid:
1) conducted and/or radiated EMI;
2) ground current flowing through the stray capacitances
between motor windings and frames;
3) bearing current and shaft voltage inside motors.
A soft-switched inverter such as the so-called “resonant
dc-link inverter” [10] is a candidate for overcoming the above-
mentioned problems, rather than for improving conversion
efficiency. The resonant dc-link inverter, however, has not yet
been put into practical use in Japan.

IV. HIGH-FREQUENCY RESONANT INVERTERS

Fig. 5. Multiconnection by means of isolation. With significant progress in the development of IGBT’s,
MOSFET’s and SI transistors (SIT’s), high-power resonant
inverters in a frequency range of 20 kHz to 2 MHz have been,
or are being, put into practical use for induction heating and
corona discharge treatment processes. There are two types of
circuit configurations in the resonant inverters based on zero-
voltage-switching (ZVS) and/or zero-current-switching (ZCS)
techniques:
1) current-source parallel-resonant inverters;
2) voltage-source series-resonant inverters.
For instance, 200-kHz 200-kW current-source parallel-
resonant inverters using SIT’s have been employed for surface
quenching in the automobile industry, and 350-kHz 600-kW
voltage-source series-resonant inverters using MOSFET’s are
Fig. 6. Multiconnection using transformers. now available for tube welding [11]. A 2-MHz 10-kW voltage-
source series-resonant inverter using MOSFET’s is under
development for low-temperature plasma heating. Moreover,
is driven by 40 induction motors, each of which is rated
20–50-kHz 1–40-kW voltage-source series-resonant inverters
at 300 kW, and therefore the maximum output power is 12
using IGBT’s have been integrated into corona discharge
MW kW . For the next-generation three-level
treaters for film. As an example, this section describes a
PWM rectifier/inverters using the 2.5-kV 1-kA press-pack
450-kHz 4-kW induction melting system for a dental casting
IGBT’s with a switching frequency of around 2 kHz are being
machine [12].
developed by the Fuji Electric Company. These aim to replace
the present GTO thyristor-based rectifier/inverters in the near
future. A. System Configuration
Newly developed 1.5-kV dc commuter trains are character- Fig. 7 shows the system configuration consisting of a single-
ized by three-level PWM inverters using IGBT modules rated phase H-bridge voltage-source inverter using four MOSFET’s
at 2 kV and 325 A. The unit capacity of each inverter is rated at 450 V and 50 A, a step-down transformer with
375 kVA. This success has led to the proliferation of IGBT a turn ratio of 8:1, and a series-resonant circuit. Table II
inverters for electric traction, accompanied by lower torque summarizes the rating and characteristics of the MOSFET
ripple, lower acoustic noise, and higher efficiency as well as (Hitachi 2SK1521). A lossless snubbing capacitor of 2000 pF
smaller volume and lighter weight than GTO inverters. is connected between the drain and source of each MOSFET
AKAGI: STATE-OF-THE-ART OF POWER ELECTRONICS IN JAPAN 349

Fig. 7. System configuration of the voltage-source series-resonant inverter for induction melting.

TABLE II
RATING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET (2SK1521)

Fig. 8. Current waveforms under assumption that the operating frequency is

1.8 kHz and the line frequency is 60 Hz.

to achieve ZVS. Several grams of an alloy of Cr–Co–Mo in

a crucible are required to melt within about 30 s in order B. Experimental Waveforms
to prevent it from oxidizing in the dental casting machine. Figs. 9 and 10 show the experimental waveforms of the
The dc power supply for the inverter is a single-phase diode- 450-kHz 4-kW induction melting system. The quality factor
bridge rectifier containing neither a dc smoothing electrolytic of the series-resonant circuit for the dental casting machine is
capacitor nor a reactor except for a high-frequency capacitor about 30. The time constant of the envelope of the resonant
of 0.47 F. Thus the dc voltage across the high-frequency current is given by
capacitor is fluctuating at 120 Hz, that is, twice as high as the
line frequency of 60 Hz. s.
Fig. 8 shows the current waveforms of and under
the assumption that the operating frequency is 1.8 kHz and The output power control based on pulse-density modulation
the line frequency is 60 Hz, making the waveforms clear. The (PDM) enables ZCS in all the operating conditions. Fig. 9
envelopes of and fluctuate at twice the line frequency shows the waveforms of the inverter output voltage and current
because of no dc smoothing capacitor. Note that becomes in the case of full power operation of about 3.6 kW.
a ripple-free waveform which is proportional to the dc-link Because the 2000-pF snubbing capacitor suppresses ,
voltage because the high-frequency capacitor absorbs the high- that is, the derivative of the drain to source voltage with
frequency current ripple included in . This inverter plus the respect to time, the voltage rise-time is about 150 ns. Note
series-resonant circuit looks like a pure resistor when it is seen that no voltage spike occurs in the output voltage. Fig. 10
from the dc terminals of the rectifier. Thus, the line current of corresponds to the case of operation at a pulse density of
the rectifier becomes a sinusoidal waveform with unity power 12/16. The amplitude of in Fig. 10 becomes smaller than
factor as long as the line voltage is sinusoidal. The fluctuation that in Fig. 9. Aside from the PDM control, no decay appears
of the output power at twice the line frequency produces no in the amplitude of in Fig. 10 because is longer than the
effect on the induction melting process. PDM period of s. The inverter properly operates at a
350 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 13, NO. 2, MARCH 1998

Fig. 9. Output voltage and current waveforms of the inverter operating at Fig. 11. Input voltage and current waveforms of the diode rectifier under
unity pulse density. unity pulse density.

Fig. 10. Output voltage and current waveforms of the inverter operating at Fig. 12. Input voltage and current waveforms of the diode rectifier under
pulse density 12/16. pulse density of 12/16.

pulse density as low as 2/16. In this case, the output power is line-commutated cycloconverters operating with circulating
reduced to 80 W, that is, only 2.2% of 3.6 kW. current mode at the expense of a lower power factor in hot-
Figs. 11 and 12 show the waveforms of the line voltage strip-mill drives rated at more than 5 MW is that the cyclocon-
and current of the diode rectifier. Fig. 11 corresponds to the verter output frequency required in hot-strip-mill drives ranges
case of full power operation at unity pulse density, and Fig. 12 up to around 40 Hz, which is too high for line-commutated
corresponds to the case of operation at a pulse density of 12/16. cycloconverters having an input (line) frequency of 50/60 Hz
The line current is an almost sinusoidal waveform with unity to operate in circulating current-free mode. Replacement of
power factor, the amplitude of which depends on the pulse conventional electrically triggered thyristors with LTT’s makes
density. the cycloconverters more reliable and compact.
The voltage-source series-resonant PDM inverters are capa- With the continuous increase in the voltage/current rat-
ble of adjusting the output power by themselves, as well as of ings of GTO thyristors, PWM rectifier/inverters using GTO
performing both ZVS and ZCS in all the operating conditions. thyristors tend to be preferred to line-commutated cyclocon-
Hence, they have been practically applied in dental casting verters because they have the capability of operating at unity
machines of 200–450 kHz, 2–5 kW, and corona discharge power factor with less harmonics on the line side. However,
treaters of 20–50 kHz and 1–40 kW. PWM rectifier/inverters are at present inferior in efficiency
to cycloconverters. We have to think out a viable and cost-
effective solution to reduce snubbing losses in the PWM
V. STEEL-MILL DRIVES
rectifier/inverter [8].
The steel industry in Japan has been actively introduc-
ing new technologies of power electronics and motor drives
VI. VECTOR-CONTROLLED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES
since the beginning of the 1960’s. Table III summarizes
the present status of steel-mill drives in Japan. Hot-strip-
mill drives require larger motors than cold-strip-mill drives, A. Vector Control with Speed Sensor
whereas cold-strip-mill drives require higher control perfor- Vector-controlled induction motors with shaft encoders or
mance than hot-strip-mill drives [13]. The reason for applying speed sensors have been widely applied in combination with
AKAGI: STATE-OF-THE-ART OF POWER ELECTRONICS IN JAPAN 351

TABLE III
VECTOR-CONTROLLED AC MOTOR DRIVE SYSTEMS FOR STEEL MILLS

Cold-Strip Mill Hot-Strip Mill

Capacity below 5 MW over 5 MW

Motor squirrel-cage induction motor synchronous motor
Control vector control with shaft encoder vector control with shaft encoder
Power Circuit voltage-source PWM rectifier/inverter 12-pulse line-commutated cycloconverter
Configuration (two-level or three-level) operating with circulating current mode
Overall Efficiency 91% (at 5 MW) 93% (at 5 MW)
Issues snubbing loss, less compact poor power factor, harmonics

Fig. 13. System block diagram of the sensorless drive characterized by a speed-control range of 1:75.

voltage-source PWM inverters using IGBT modules. Accord- as the price gradually decreases due to device cost reduction
ing to the specification of new products sold by the Toyo and power electronics integration strategies.
Electric Company, vector-controlled induction motor drive Miyashita et al. have developed speed-sensorless vector-
systems ranging from 1.1 kW to 1 MW provide the following controlled induction motor drive systems characterized by a
performance specifications: wide range of speed control, which are now available from
1) a broad range of speed control (1:1000) with speed- the Toyo Electric Company [16]. Fig. 13 shows the system
control accuracy of 0.01%; block diagram of the sensorless drive based on the space vector
2) constant torque operation in a speed range of 1.8–1800 theory, which is different in principle from a conventional
rpm; system oriented to the secondary interlinkage flux vector.
3) high torque starting at 150% of the rated torque. Speed-sensorless vector-controlled induction motor drive sys-
tems ranging from 1.1 kW to 1 MW provide the following
B. Vector Control Without Speed Sensor good performance:
Recently, many researchers and engineers have made a 1) a wide range of speed control (1:75) with speed-control
significant effort toward improving the performance of speed- accuracy of 0.5% and speed response of 90 rad/s;
sensorless vector-controlled induction motor drive systems. As 2) constant torque operation in a speed range of 24 rpm
a result of keen competition among Japanese companies such to 1800 rpm with torque accuracy of 3% and torque
as Hitachi, Toshiba, Mitsubishi, Fuji, Meiden, Yaskawa, and response of 1000 rad/s;
so on, various kinds of control systems have been proposed 3) high-torque starting at 150% of the rated torque.
and implemented with voltage-fed PWM inverters [14], [15]. 1) Flux Estimation: The stator interlinkage flux vector
A good market is developing for the speed-sensorless systems and the instantaneous motor torque are calculated by (1)
352 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 13, NO. 2, MARCH 1998

and (2)
(1)
(2)

Here, is given by

(3)

In the above equations, and are the primary

inductance, secondary inductance, and mutual inductance,
respectively, on a per-phase base in the T-type equivalent
circuit. Note that another rotor interlinkage flux vector defined
by (3) is called the “current model flux vector” . The reason Fig. 14. Oscillograms of motor speed and current during automeasuring.
for applying the current model flux into the torque control
loop is that the current model flux is superior in stability to
the so-called “voltage model flux,” especially in the low-speed These are different in denominator from each other. The values
region. However, the calculation of the current model flux calculated from (6) and (7) are theoretically the same in steady
includes the motor speed , as shown in (3). state. However, the value calculated from (6) may contain an
The estimated torque from (2) is compared to its reference error due to a variation in , whereas that from (7) is not
torque . The error signal between them controls the voltage affected by the variation in because the denominator of
component of a voltage-source PWM inverter driving an (7) is the inner product of the two vectors and , where
induction motor. In an actual system, the rotor flux interlinkage a vector concerning the variation in is perpendicular to
vector is calculated by the following: the vector . However, the calculation of the denominator
of (7) practically produces some error in transient states. The
second term on the right-hand side of (8), therefore, is aimed
at correcting the first term in the steady state.
(4) 3) Automeasuring of Parameters: Any speed-sensorless
The first term on the right-hand side of (4) is called the vector-controlled system requires information on motor
“voltage model flux vector.” It is superior in transient response parameters to realize high performance. Ohmori et al.
to the current model flux vector, whereas it is inferior in have presented a speed-sensorless vector-controlled inverter
stability to the current model flux vector. The second term equipped with automeasuring of the motor parameters [17].
based on the current model flux plays an important role in Fig. 14 shows an oscillogram of motor speed and current
suppressing a drift incurred by the integration of voltage and during the automeasuring process. Automeasuring based on the
current in the first term, thus making a significant contribution T-type equivalent circuit of an induction motor is composed
to improving instability in the steady state of the low-speed of the following three tests:
region. In other words, the second term works to decrease the 1) no-load test—measure the mutual inductance and the
error between and in the steady state. iron loss conductance ;
2) Speed Estimation: Differentiating the phase angle of 2) dc test—measure the primary resistance ;
with respect to time on the stationary reference frame produces 3) single-phase test—measure the leakage inductance
its angular frequency, that is, the rotating angular speed of the and the secondary resistance .
rotor flux interlinkage . The slip frequency is calculated 4) Applications: Speed-sensorless vector-controlled sys-
from detected voltages and currents, as discussed later. As a tems are mainly being applied to industrial motor drives in
result, the rotor speed can be estimated as follows: which it is difficult to attach speed sensors mechanically, for
instance, newspaper printing machines. In addition, the re-
(5) placement of dc motor drives with speed-sensorless induction
In order to estimate the slip frequency , two frequencies, motor drives results in higher reliability, maintenance-free
and , are calculated as follows: operation, and lower costs coming from removing speed
sensors or shaft encoders. Typical examples of application are
discussed below.
(6)
Offset printing machines do not require high accuracy of
speed control in normal operating conditions, but require a
(7) high response of starting and smooth rotation speeds as low
as 1/70–1/100 of the rated speed during the plate cylinder
(8) cleaning operation and the setting of the form plate. In a
conventional drive system, two motors are used; one is aimed
AKAGI: STATE-OF-THE-ART OF POWER ELECTRONICS IN JAPAN 353

Fig. 15. Thyristor module consisting of seven LTT’s rated at 6 kV and 2.5
kA.

at normal operation, and the other is exclusive for low-speed

operation. A speed-sensorless vector-controlled system makes
a single induction motor capable of achieving a wide range
of speed control, thus replacing the two-motor system with a
single motor.
As a replacement for dc motor drives, sensorless drive
systems are now being applied to the helper roller in paper
coating machines which do not require such high accuracy of
speed control. The main roller, however, is still driven by a
vector-controlled system with a speed sensor because the speed
accuracy of today’s sensorless vector-controlled systems is not Fig. 16. Thyristor valves for the 250-kV 300-MW HVDC transmission
sufficient for the main roller speed control. system.

VII. HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS TABLE IV

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE HVDC SYSTEM
In 1993, an HVDC transmission system rated at 300 MW
(250 kV and 1.2 kA) was installed in commercial service
to supply a submarine cable transmission system under the
channel between the islands of Hokkaido and Honshu. Each
high-voltage thyristor valve in this system consists of a series
connection of several thyristor modules. Fig. 15 is a photo-
graph of a thyristor module consisting of a series connection
of seven LTT’s rated at 6 kV and 2.5 kA. The introduction of in achieving fast and precise power flow control irrespective
the LTT’s makes a great contribution to the development of of the difference between phase angles at the sending and
compact and reliable thyristor valves. Fig. 16 shows a thyristor receiving ac terminals, providing a higher degree of power
valve used in this HVDC transmission system [18]. stability in both power systems.
An HVDC transmission system of 1.4 GW ( 250 kV and
2.8 kA) at the first stage and then 2.8 GW ( 500 kV and VIII. ADJUSTABLE-SPEED PUMPED-STORAGE
2.8 kA) at the final stage is now under construction, aimed at GENERATOR/MOTOR SYSTEMS
commercial operation by the beginning of the 21st century [1].
Fig. 17 and Table IV show the main circuit and specifications Recent progress in power electronic technology has made
of the HVDC system using LTT’s of 8 kV and 3.5 kA. The it possible to achieve adjustable-speed operation of 300–400-
HVDC system will be able to control a bidirectional power MW generators in hydroelectric power plants.
flow of 2.8 GW through a 51-km-long submarine transmission
cable and a 51-km-long overhead transmission line between A. Line-Commutated Cycloconverter-Based System
the islands of Shikoku and Honshu. The main reason for In December 1993, a 400-MW adjustable-speed pumped-
introducing the HVDC system into such a short-distance power storage system was commissioned along with a 400-MW
transmission system is that the 51-km-long submarine cable conventional constant-speed pumped-storage system at
would impose restrictions on the sending power capacity in Ohkawachi hydroelectric power plant, owned and operated
an HVAC system because a large amount of leading current by the Kansai Electric Power Company of Japan [19],
would flow through nonnegligible parasitic capacitors in the [20]. Fig. 18 shows the arrangement of the adjustable-speed
submarine cable. Thus, the HVDC system is estimated to pumped-storage system. The field windings of the 20-pole
be lower in total construction costs than the HVAC system. generator/motor of 400 MW are excited with three-phase low-
The commercial operation of the HVDC system will result frequency ac currents, which are supplied via slip rings by
354 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 13, NO. 2, MARCH 1998

The 400-MW adjustable-speed pumped-storage genera-

tor/motor system has the following potential advantages over
the conventional constant-speed system.
1) High-speed active power control can be achieved by
the combination of the cycloconverter and the inertia
effect of rotating parts. For instance, the actual input
active power follows its reference with the ramp re-
sponse spending 20 s from 256 to 400 MW in pump
mode without any time delay. This makes a significant
contribution to the improvement of frequency control,
especially in pump mode at night.
2) The total operational efficiency of the system increases
by 3%.
3) The stability of the adjustable-speed system under line
fault and reclosing conditions is far superior to the
conventional constant-speed system.
4) The adjustable-speed generator/motor system can be
used as a FACTS device.
These excellent characteristics have been verified by field trials
Fig. 17. Circuit configuration of the 6500-kV 2.8-GW HVDC transmission and subsequent commercial operation.
system.

B. GTO Rectifier/Inverter-Based System

Another adjustable-speed system of 300 MW has been
installed at the Okukuyotu II power plant owned and operated
by the Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. A voltage-source
PWM rectifier/inverter using GTO thyristors rated at 4.5 kV
and 3 kA is connected between the stator and rotor winding
terminals of the generator/motor instead of a line-commutated
cycloconverter. The capacity of the GTO rectifier/inverter
system is 40 MVA. The power circuit of each three-phase
GTO rectifier is composed of three single-phase voltage-
source PWM rectifiers, and six GTO rectifiers are connected
to two excitation transformers, thus forming the GTO rectifier
system having positive and negative dc terminals and a neutral
terminal. The power circuit of each three-phase GTO inverter
is a three-level voltage-source PWM inverter, and three GTO
inverters are connected in parallel through ac reactors. This
forms the GTO inverter system, the ac terminals of which are
connected to the rotor terminals via three slip rings without
transformers. The switching frequency of the GTO thyristors
is 500 Hz [21]. This adjustable-speed system manufactured by
Toshiba was commissioned last year.

IX. ACTIVE FILTERS FOR POWER CONDITIONING

Fig. 18. Adjustable-speed pumped-storage system.
Attention has been paid to active filters for power condi-
tioning: reactive power/negative-sequence compensation, har-
a 72-MVA 3-phase 12-pulse line-commutated cycloconverter. monic compensation, harmonic damping, flicker compensa-
The armature terminals, rated at 18 kV, are connected to tion, and/or voltage regulation. Active filters in a range from
a 500-kV utility grid through a step-up transformer. The 10 kVA to 60 MVA have been installed in Japan [22].
output frequency of the cycloconverter is controlled within Fig. 19 shows a power system delivering electric power to
5 Hz, and the line frequency is 60 Hz. This enables the the Japanese “bullet” trains on the Tokaido Shinkansen. Three
cycloconverter to operate with circulating current-free mode shunt-active filters for compensation of fluctuating reactive
in the adjustable-speed system, which has a synchronous current/negative-sequence current have been installed in the
speed of 360 rpm with a speed range from 8.3% (330 rpm) Shintakatsuki substation by the Central Japan Railway Com-
to 8.3% (390 rpm). Speed control provides the capability pany [23]. The shunt-active filters, manufactured by Toshiba,
to control the input power in a range of 80 MW in pump consist of voltage-fed PWM inverters using GTO thyristors,
mode. This system was manufactured by Hitachi. each of which is rated at 16 MVA. A high-speed train with a
AKAGI: STATE-OF-THE-ART OF POWER ELECTRONICS IN JAPAN 355

Fig. 19. The 48-MVA active filter installed for power conditioning in the Shintakatsuki substation.

(a) (b)
Fig. 20. Compensation effect on the impact drop, variation, and imbalance of voltage: (a) before and (b) after compensation.

maximum output power of 12 MW draws unbalanced varying power quality. The concept of the instantaneous active and
active and reactive powers from the Scott transformer, the reactive power theory, or the so-called “ - theory” [24] in
primary of which is connected to the 154-kV utility grid. More the time domain, has been applied to the control strategy for
than 20 high-speed trains pass per hour during the daytime. the shunt-active filter.
This causes voltage impact drop, variation, and imbalance at Fig. 20 shows voltage waveforms on the 154-kV bus and
the terminals of the 154-kV utility system, accompanied by a the voltage imbalance factor before and after compensation,
serious deterioration in the power quality of other consumers measured at 14:20–14:30 on July 27, 1994. The active filters
connected to the same power system. The purpose of the shunt- are effective not only in compensating for the voltage impact
active filters with a total rating of 48 MVA is to compensate drop and variation, but also in reducing the voltage imbalance
for voltage impact drop, voltage variation, and imbalance at factor from 3.6% to 1%. Here, the voltage imbalance factor
the terminals of the 154-kV power system and to improve the is the ratio of the negative to positive-sequence component in
356 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 13, NO. 2, MARCH 1998

the three-phase voltages on the 154-kV bus. At present, several [10] D. M. Divan, “The resonant dc link converter—A new concept in static
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[12] H. Fujita and H. Akagi, “Pulse-density-modulated power control of a 4
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