ST 18
ST 18
References:
Introduction
Dr. RKL Su 1
At junctions of members (beam/beam, beam/column);
Where members change shape (step in beam, change in column section);
Where concentrated loads are applied (by beam, column or applied load);
Where the depth of a member is similar to, or greater than, its length (pile
cap, deep beams, corbels, nibs)
Where openings through members.
In all the above problems, the standard bending theory and detailing methods
may not be applied. Strut and tie modelling is a very useful tool to analyze and
design those complex regions in concrete structures.
In strut and tie modelling the internal forces in a region are represented as
compressive concrete struts tied together by tensile ties (the reinforcement)
which together act like a truss.
The historical development of the strut and tie model is briefly summarized
below,
The truss analogy is clearly a highly simplified and idealized model to simulate
the behaviour of a real beam. Extensive experimental work undertaken in
Europe and the United States in the 1920s and 1930s showed that the truss
analogy provided a safe, if at times rather conservative, method for predicting
the strength of beams in shear and flexure. However, no serious rational
alternative was found to the truss method for practical analysis and design.
Laboratory studies carried out in the late 1940s and 1950s confirmed that the
simple truss analogy could overestimate the need for shear reinforcement.
Various semi-empirical modifications of the truss equations were developed for
design, and an empirically modified truss model has been subsequently used for
shear design in the United States, Canada, Australia, and in some European
countries.
The strut and tie modelling of complex regions in reinforced concrete structures
has now been recognised in many national and international codes and standards,
including the Australian Standard AS3600, CEB/FIP-Model Code 90, Eurocode
2, Norway Standard NS3473E, Canadian Standard CAN3-A23.3-94, New
Zealand Standard NZS3101: Part 1 and 2-2006, and American Standard ACI
318-08.
Dr. RKL Su 3
(ties or stirrups). The compressive stress of struts and nodes need to be limited.
Bond slip failures need to be avoided. As the strain compatibility is not
considered in the lower bound theorem, more than one admissible strut and tie
model may be developed.
Example of B D
D B B D
& D regions
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Example - Column or wall with concentrated loads
F F/h F F
d=h D D
= + B = B
D D
h
Applying the principle of Saint-Venant, it is assumed that the local stresses in (c)
are negligible at such distance which is approximately equal to the maximum
distance between the equilibrium force themselves.
F/2
h
F
h/2 F/2
σ0
h σ0
h1 h
h2
h1 h2 h h
h2
h1 h
h2 h
h1
h
h h
2h
h
h
h
h
h
h h
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Design of B & D Regions
The design of B (Bernoulli or Beam) region is well understood and the entire
flexural behavior can be predicted by simple calculation. However, even for the
most common cases of D (Disturbed or Discontinuity) regions, engineers’ ability
to predict capacity is either poor (empirical) or requires substantial computation
effort (finite element analysis) to reach an accurate estimation of capacity
Prerequisites
Dr. RKL Su 7
Methods for Formulation of Strut and Tie Models
There are basically three method for the formulation of strut and tie models.
They are (1) Elastic analysis based on stress trajectories, (2) Load path approach
and (3) Standard model.
Deep beam under loading Stress fields Strut and tie models
Dr. RKL Su 8
Notations: Solid lines denote tension paths and broken lines denote compression
paths.
Example 1
A B A B
q q q
A B A B A B
Define the geometry Connect the load paths of Simplify it to strut and
and loading the related loads. tie model
Introduce forces T and C
for equilibrium
F F F
q q q
F B1 B2 B1 =B2 F B1 B2
Define the geometry Connect the load paths of Simplify it to strut and
and loading the related loads. tie model
Introduce forces T and C
for equilibrium
Dr. RKL Su 9
Comments on Load Path Method
To take into account the practicable and workable reinforcement layout, we may
have the following additional considerations.
(1) The arrangement of rebar should satisfy the practical requirements of
simple construction, that is, using straight bars with a minimum number
of bends, laid out in orthogonal arrangement parallel to the edges of the
structures, whenever possible;
(2) The edges and surfaces of the structure should be fitted with near-surface
reinforcement (distribution bars) in order to control cracking;
(3) In the cracked state, the reinforcing bars will channel the flow of tensile
forces. In order to get a more realistic load, it is therefore essential to
introduce, in the modeling stage, the form of tensile ties whenever their
position is known in advance.
(4) The arrangement of reinforcement should ideally be designed to cover the
effects due to various load cases.
(5) The formation of cracks and the plastic deformation of the structural
material will redistribute the internal forces, defined on the basis of the
theory of elasticity. In selecting the model, it is useful to realize that the
structure tends to carry the loads with the least internal forces and
possible deformations. Since reinforced ties are much more deformable
than concrete struts, the model with the least and shortest ties will be the
best. The product of the tie length li and the tensile forces Ti can be used
as a simplified criterion for optimizing a model: Ti li = minimum
Example: Two different strut-and-tie models for the same structure. The good
model (a) has shorter ties than the bad model (b)
q q
Dr. RKL Su 10
(6) In strut and tie modeling, a small number of forces is used to represent the
continuous stress distributions in a real structure. Care must be taken to
choose an appropriate number of forces to suit the situation.
(7) At the boundary between a D-region and a B-region the distributed
stresses have to be represented by a statically equivalent set of discrete
forces. The situation is illustrated in the following diagrams for a single
end anchorage in a prestressed beam.
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Standard Strut and Tie Models
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Standard Strut and Tie Models
Stepped beams
Cranked beams
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Standard Strut and Tie Models
Wall openings
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Standard Strut and Tie Models
Reinforcement details
Longer
lap
Ties
Unbalanced
moment
Dr. RKL Su 15
Struts
For dimensioning, the various cases of stress fields, including those of the
B-regions, may be covered by means of only three typical configurations,
namely;
Bottles
Example
transverse
tensile stress generated
P
σ=P/A
The bottle-shaped stress field occurs in many design situations and often
explains the need for transverse reinforcement in compressive concrete to
control the cracks which tend to develop parallel to compressive stresses.
Dr. RKL Su 16
Fans
A fan-shaped stress field shown below can occur where a force is introduced and
channeled through an element which is itself fan-shaped. The fan may also
appear in a region where a radial pattern of cracks has developed. The fan is
fundamentally different to the bottle in which no transverse tensile stress field
exists.
Fan-shaped
Prisms
The prism is the simplest compressive stress field. Without any narrowing or
splaying of the stress trajectories, there are no associated transverse tensile
stresses induced in the concrete. Prisms occur in B-regions in the compressive
flange of a beam. They can also develop in a web where a parallel pattern of
inclined cracks has formed. The prismatic stress field is assumed to occur in a
simple compressive strut.
Prismatic
Dr. RKL Su 17
Strength of struts
The major factor affecting the compressive strength of a strut is the cylinder
concrete compressive strength f’c (or cube concrete compressive strength fcu).
The Design Strength of Strut may be taken as (Su & Looi, 2016).
f strut s f cu 0.4 f cu (1)
Nodes
Nodes may be classified according to the number of entering elements, and their
types (struts or ties). For a three-element node, the possible combinations are:
CCC; CCT and CTT. The C refers to a compression strut and the T to a tension
tie. The CCT case occurs frequently.
Type of nodes
Dr. RKL Su 18
Strength of nodes
In a strut-and-tie model the tensile and compressive elements meet at the nodes.
The nodes, initially idealized as points, may in fact extend throughout a
significant part of the D-region.
Uniform load on a
Smeared node
deep beam
Conc. node
Conc. node
Concentrated nodes are often the most highly stressed and hence most critical
parts of the D-region. In determining the size and shape of a concentrated node
the locations of individual reinforced bars have to be considered carefully, as
well as the size of any adjacent bearing plate. When the node contains steel bars
which have to be anchored, the anchorage length also has to be considered in
relation to the magnitude of the node. The shape and size of the node are likely
to govern the size of the adjacent struts, rather than vice versa. Three
dimensional effects may also be significant, for example if the bearing plate is
not as wide as the beam it supports.
Dr. RKL Su 19
The strength of concrete in the nodal zones depends on a number of factors such
as (1) the confinement of the zones by reactions, compression struts, anchorage
plates for prestressing, reinforcement from the adjoining members, and hoop
reinforcement; (2) the effects of strain discontinuities within the nodal zone
when ties strained in tension are anchored in, or cross, a compressed nodal zone;
and (3) the splitting stresses and hoop-bearing stresses resulting from the
anchorage of the reinforcing bars of a tension tie in or immediately behind a
nodal zone. The Design Strength of Node is expressed as,
f node n f cu (2)
a3 C1 a3 C1
σ a1 σ1 a1
σ σ3
C3 C3 α
σ σ2 C2
C2
a2 a2
force C3 C2 C1
=σ×b C3=(C12+C22)1/2
size of node a3 a2 a1
a3=a1cosα+a2sinα
a2
a1 C1
C2 σ3=C3/(a3×b)
Dr. RKL Su 20
Strength of bearing
When the size of support is smaller than that of the node, higher stresses would
be developed at the bearing face. A plinth is introduced to spread the load.
Node
A2
2 A1 < A2
Plinth 1 > 2
Bearing 1
1 2
A1
Stress developed on the bearing
Foster and Gilbert (1996) further pointed out that when sufficient distribution
bars are added, diagonal cracking would be distributed more evenly across the
compressive strut. Moreover, the provision of distribution bars reduces
transverse strains and hence increases the efficiency of the strut. Foster and
Gilbert (1997) assessed the web splitting failure mode by a strut-tie system.
They found that for an increase in the concrete compressive strength, there is a
corresponding increase in the minimum distribution bars. This is because
members with higher strength concrete are generally stressed to higher levels in
the compression struts and thus are subject to greater bursting forces. By
assuming cracked concrete maintains residual 30% of tensile strength, the
minimum recommended distribution bars varied from 0.2% to 0.4%, for
concrete grade f’c from 25MPa to 80MPa, respectively.
The strength of a steel tie may be taken as 0.87fy, where 0.87 is the partial safety
factor of steel reinforcement as according to British Standard BS8110 or Hong
Kong Code. For control cracks at compressive struts, a minimum reinforcement
of 0.4% should be evenly distributed at each face of the section considered. For
beam sections the amount of minimum compressive reinforcement could be
reduced to 0.2%, as suggested in Table 9.1 of Hong Kong Code (Table 3.27 of
BS8110). For brackets, corbels or nib design, to improve crack control, a
minimum amount of horizontal steel equal to 50% of the main tensile
reinforcement should be distributed over 2/3 (close to the tension side) of the
effective depth of the section considered (cl. 9.8.3 Hong Kong Code).
Unreinforced Concrete
The strength of the ties solely provided by the tensile strength of the concrete for
tie without reinforcement is not recommended.
Dr. RKL Su 22
Anchorage
Safe anchorage of ties in the node has to be assured; to achieve this, minimum
radii of bent bars and anchorage lengths of bars are selected following the code
recommendations. The tension tie reinforcement must be uniformly distributed
over an effective area of concrete at least equal to the tie force divided by the
concrete stress limit for the node. The anchorage must be located within and
‘behind’ the nodes. The anchorage begins where the compression stress
trajectories meet the bars and are deviated.
Rebar dia.
Tie force sn
Depth
Node of node
sn
Conc. load
sn ≤ 3
Depth of node
If the length of the bearing plate is smaller than that of the node, a plinth can be
added to make up the remaining size. If the bursting stress is high, additional
longitudinal steel may be required in the nodal region.
Rebar dia.
Tie force
Node
≥ 30o
Conc. load
Depth of node
Dr. RKL Su 23
When the required anchorage length is insufficient, the bar may be extended
beyond the node region. The tensile forces introduce behind the node can resist
the remaining forces developed within the nodal regions.
Back
face of
Tie force Reinforcing bars node
Node
Anchorage length lb
When the width of bearing is smaller than the overall width of the member,
extended nodal zones as shown below can be adopted. In such case, transverse
reinforcement (i.e. the horizontal legs perpendicular to the tie bars) should be
added to resist the bursting stress and transverse tension developed.
Extended
nodal zones
Transverse reinforcement
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Design Examples
Two design examples related with deep beam and dapped-end beam are given
below to demonstrate the design procedure of STM.
850 850
In this example, a 400 mm wide and 4000 mm deep rectangular deep beam
subjected to two ultimate concentrated loads, 3000 kN and 6000 kN respectively
as shown in Figure 1 is considered. The characteristic cube strength of concrete
fcu = 45 MPa and yield strength of ribbed steel bar fy = 500 MPa are assumed.
Following the procedures of STM described, the design of the deep beam can be
accomplished in the following steps.
Dr. RKL Su 25
deep beam is considered as a D-region.
By considering the global equilibrium of the applied and reaction forces, the
support reactions at A and B are found to be 3941 kN and 5059 kN, respectively.
Maximum bearing stress is therefore equal to 5059×103/(400×1400) = 9.0 MPa.
From cl.2.7.9.4, CoP Precast Construction 2016 (or cl.5.2.3.4, BS8110), the
allowable bearing stress is 0.4×45 = 18 MPa which is greater than the bearing
stress of 9.0 MPa. The maximum bearing stress at the loading point is
6000×103/(400×850) = 17.6 MPa. Referring to Table 1, the node efficiency
factor with uniaxial CCC condition is 0.45. The allowable bearing stress is then
0.45×45 = 20.25 MPa which is greater than the bearing stress of 17.6 MPa.
Dr. RKL Su 26
of nodes. The horizontal compressive force at node D is equal to the tensile
force at node B. When the depth of node D is equal to ‘a’, the depth over which
the tie force distributed is also a. From Figure 2, tan α =
[4000-(a+a)/2]/(3200-850/4) from the geometry. The tie force AB is equal to
5059/tanα = 5059×2988 / (4000-a).
5059×2988/(4000-a) ≦ 18×10-3×(a×400)
Solving the above equation, the minimum a is 621 mm and α = 48.5o.
Dr. RKL Su 27
70
70
which is less than the ultimate compressive strength of strut (i.e. 18 MPa) .
Dr. RKL Su 28
The required steel for distribution bars is 400×1000×0.2% = 800mm2/metre.
Using T10-200 each face and both ways is sufficient. The R.C. detail for the
deep beam is summarized in Figure 4.
A
CL of support C
L of support
4T16 T10-200 E.F.
T10-200E.F.
(a)
B
CL of support C
L of support
4T32 T16-275E.F.
T10-150S.S.
B-B
(b)
Figure 4. RC details for deep beam (a) STM approach; (b) conventional
approach.
Dr. RKL Su 29
Example 2. Design of Dapped-end beam subjected to uniformly distributed
load
Dapped-end beams are commonly used in pre-cast concrete structures. Such a
beam subjected to a factored uniform load of 130 kN/m over a span of 6.5 m is
shown in Figure 5. As in the previous example, the characteristic cube strength
of concrete fcu = 45 MPa and yield strength of ribbed steel bar fy = 500 MPa are
assumed.
W = 130kN/m
400
2T16
150
400
d = 640
80kN
300 4T32
422kN
Section at midspan
Span = 6500
First, the B-region at the mid-span of the beam is designed. The ultimate
moment is equal to 130×6.52/8 = 686 kNm. Following the Hong Kong code
(cl.6.1.2.4), the moment arm z= 564 mm and the required area of longitudinal
steel is 2791 mm2. Providing 4T32 with steel area of 3216 mm2 is enough.
Following the procedures of STM, the design of the D-region of the dapped-end
beam can be accomplished in the following steps.
Dr. RKL Su 30
494kN
50.6o
574kN
(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) The inter-boundary resultant forces at the D-region of dapped end
beam; (b) The idealized STM.
Dr. RKL Su 31
Design of tension ties
AD: 432×103/(0.87×500) = 993 mm2, try 4T20 (Aspro. = 1256 mm2)
CB: 446×103/(0.87×500) = 1025 mm2, try 3T16 closed stirrups
(Aspro. = 1206 mm2)
CF: 365×103/(0.87×500) = 829 mm2, area of 4T32 bars is sufficient but
anchorage will need to be checked
DF: 354×103/(0.87×500) = 813 mm2, try T12-8 legs (Aspro. = 904 mm2)
At Nodal Zone B, because of a concern about spalling of the concrete cover, the
concrete outside of the anchoring tension tie reinforcement is neglected. The
required width of the nodal zone = 446×103/(0.40×45×320) = 77 mm. A spacing
of 75mm between the 3T16 closed stirrups will provide a nodal zone width of
2×75+16 =166 mm, which is conservative.
Nodal Zone C anchored two tension ties, hence, the allowable nodal stress factor
is 0.36 according to Table 1 under CTT condition. The required depth of the
node is 365×103/(0.36×45×320) = 70 mm. To achieve this nodal zone depth,
provide T20 horizontal U-bar with 50 mm spacing above the layer of T32 bars.
Dr. RKL Su 32
Check compressive struts
As the compressive strut CD represents a fan-shape region of radiating struts,
further checks of strut stress at node D are not required. The strut stress at the
base of the fan is:
fs=576×103/[320(76cos50.6o+166sin50.6o)] = 10.2 MPa
The design strength of the strut is equal to 0.4fcu= 0.4×45 = 18 MPa which is
greater than the strut stress fs.
Thus the stress in all struts at Nodal Zone B (neglecting concrete cover) equals
fs = 550×103/(177×320) = 9.7 MPa
which is less than the strut capacity 18 MPa. The other struts meeting Node B
will have the same compressive stress, hence they will not be critical.
At node A, when the design nodal stress is 0.4fcu, the required depths of the node
are 75 mm and 73 mm in the vertical and horizontal directions respectively. As
100×100×15 mm thick angle is provided, the stresses in the node and strut are
not critical, further checks of the strut stress at node A are not required.
Dr. RKL Su 33
B 4T16
2T16 U bars
2T16
4T20 welded
frame bars
to angle
welded to angle D
A
T16-75 T12-150 (4legs)
closed
50
C
T20 –U bar 4T32
850
(a)
2T16
T10 - 4 legs
4T20
T12-175 (2legs).
4T32
(b)
Dr. RKL Su 34
Discussion
The above two examples are now redesigned following the local design code
and detailing practices. The associated RC details are shown in Figure 4b and
Figure 7b respectively. Significant differences in STM details and conventional
details are observed and are summarized below:
(1) Smaller size reinforcement bars of T32 rather than T40 are used for the
deep beam by adopting the STM approach. This was to ensure that sufficient
anchorage length for T32 bars could be developed within the bearing (node)
region. Premature anchoring failure could be avoided.
(2) The main longitudinal reinforcement is distributed within a region of 600
mm depth, rather than around 300mm depth, in the case of the STM
approach and the conventional approach, respectively. The nodal stress was
reduced by choosing deeper anchors at supports and hence avoided
overstressing in the STM.
(3) All the main reinforcements are extended into the nodal zone using the
STM approach without any curtailment of bars. Using the conventional
flexural theory without considering the high internal shear load (which also
requires longitudinal steel to take up the induced tensile force, Schlaich et al,
1987), the variation of tensile force in main reinforcements was
misunderstood to follow the distribution of the bending moment diagram i.e.
zero at supports and gradually increasing up to a maximum value at the
section with maximum point load. It is clear from the prediction of STM that
uniform tensile tie force would be developed within the whole length of the
reinforcement ties, as strut action rather than beam action is predominant.
Rogowsky and MacGregor (1986) considered similar deep beams and
compared the internal stress distribution in longitudinal bars computed by
STM and determined from experimental results and confirmed the accuracy
of STM. It is important to aware that the same principle (i.e. do not curtail
the main tension reinforcements unless shear induced tension has been duly
considered) is applied for structures with high shear loads such as pile caps
and transfer structures to avoid premature yielding of main reinforcement.
(4) For the dapped-end beam in Example 2, a steel angle together with
welded ties is used to strengthen the bracket in the STM approach to prevent
bearing type of failure as shown in Figure 8a.
(5) In STM approach, a group of vertical hanger ties (T16-75 closed links)
near the bracket is used to pick up the vertical forces from the bottom to the
top of the beam. However, similar measure was not implemented in the
Dr. RKL Su 35
conventional approach. When the associated STM is developed as shown on
Figure 8b, bond failure is likely to occur due to insufficient developed length
for the 4T32 bars to transfer the vertical force to the inclined strut. It should
be emphasized that this failure of bond could lead to catastrophic collapse of
the whole pre-cast beam.
(6) In the STM detail, additional horizontal bars were distributed over
two-thirds of the effective depth of the bracket. Those additional bars can
effectively prevent the vertical interface crack developed between the
bracket and the full-depth of beam, as shown in Figure 8c.
(7) It is noted that an alternative arrangement of using inclined links at the
dapped end is recommended by BS 5400. The experimental results by
Mattock and Theryo (1986) found that this arrangement also performs
satisfactorily. However, designers should ensure that the inclined links and
the horizontal tension bars can be properly anchored into the dapped-end
region by providing sufficient anchorage lengths (Figure 8d).
Bond slip
Corner
failure and
failure
crack induced
(a) (b)
Additional Insufficient
horizontal anchors for
bars can avoid the tension bars
interface crack between
the dap and the full depth
beam
(c) (d)
Figure 8. Common detailing problems at dapped-end (a) corner failure; (b) bond
failure; (c) interface crack and (d) insufficient anchors.
Dr. RKL Su 36
References and recommended reading
* Special interest
[1] British Standards Institution (BSI). Eurocode 2, Design of Concrete Structures,
Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings (DD ENV 1992-1-1: 1992),
Commission of the European Communities, 1992.
* [2] Canadian Standards Association (CSA). Design of Concrete Structures
(CAN3-A23.3M94), Structural Design, Rexdale, 1994.
[3] Committee BD/2. Australian Standard, Concrete Structures (AS 3600-1994),
Standards Association of Australia, 1994.
[4] Concrete Design Committee. The Design of Concrete Structure (NZS 3101: Part 1
and 2: 1995), New Zealand Standard, 1995.
* [5] Comité Euro-international du Béton. Bulletin d’information No.213/214, CEB-FIP
Model Code 1990, Thomas Telford, 1993.
[6] Ritter W. Die Bauweise Hennebique, (The Hennebique Method of Construction)
Schweizerische Bauzeitung, (Zürich): 33(7): Feb. 1899, 59-61.
[7] Mörsch E. Der Eisenbetonbau-seine Theorie und Anwendung,(Reinforced Concrete
Construction-Theory and Application) 5th Edition, Wittwer, Stuttgart, Vol.1, Part I
1902, Part 2, 1922.
[8] Rausch E. Berechnung des Eisenbetons gegen Verdrehung und Abscheren (Design of
Reinforced Concrete for Torsion and Shear), Julius Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1929.
[9] Slater, Lord and Zipprodt. Shear tests of reinforced concrete beams, Technical
papers, US bureau of Standard: 314, 1927.
[10] Richart and Larsen. An Investigation of Web Stresses in Reinforced Concrete Beams,
University of Illinois Engineering Experimental Station Bulletin: 166, 1927.
[11] Rüsch, H. Über die Grenzen der Anwendbarkeit der Fachwerkanalogie bei der
Berechnung der Schubfestigkeit von Stahlbetonbalken (On the Limitations of
Applicability of the Truss Analogy for the Shear Design of RC Beams), Festschrift F.
Campus ‘Amici et Alumni’, Université de Liège, 1964.
[12] Kupfer H. Erweiterung der Möhrsch’schen Fachwerkanalogie mit Hilfe des Prinzips
vom Minimum der Formänderungsarbeit (Expansion of Mörsch’s Truss Analogy by
Application of the Principle of Minimum Strain Energy), CEB Bulletin: 40: Paris,
1964.
[13] Leonhardt F. Reducting the shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams and
slabs, Magazine Concrete Research: 17(53): December 1965, p187.
* [14] Marti P. Basic tools of reinforced concrete design, ACI Journal: 82(1):
January-February 1985, 46-56.
* [15] Collins MP and Mitchell D. A rational approach to shear design – the 1984
Dr. RKL Su 37
Canadian Code Provisions, ACI Journal: 83(6): November-December 1986,
925-933.
* [16] Rogowsky DM and Macgregor JG. Design of reinforced concrete deep beams,
Concrete International: Design & Construction: 8(8): August 1986, 49-58.
* [17] Schlaich J, Schäfer K and Jennewein M. Toward a consistent design of structural
concrete, PCI Journal: 32(3): May-June, 1987, 74-150.
[18] Adebar P, Kuchma D, and Collins MP. Strut-and-tie models for the design of pile
caps: experimental study, ACI Structural Journal: 87(1): January-February, 1990,
81-92.
[19] Adebar P and Zhou L. Design of deep pile caps by strut-and-tie models, ACI
Structural Journal: 93(4): July-August, 1996, 437-448.
[20] Alshegeir A and Ramirez JA. Strut-tie approach in pretensioned deep beams, ACI
Structural Journal: 89(3): May-June, 1992, 296-304.
[21] Siao WB. Strut-and-tie model for shear behavior in deep beams and pile caps falling
in diagonal splitting, ACI Structural Journal: 90(4): July-August 1993, 356-363.
[22] Tan KH, Weng LW and Teng S. A strut-and-tie model for deep beams subjected to
combined top-and-bottom loading, The Structural Engineer: 75(13): 1997, 215-225.
[23] Ove Arup & Partners. The design of deep beams in reinforced concrete (CIRIA
Guide 2), London, Construction Industry Research & Information Association,
January, 1977.
* [24] MacGregor JG. Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, Prentice Hall (Third
Edition), 1997.
[25] Hwang SJ, Yu HW and Lee HJ. Theory of interface shear capacity of reinforced
concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE: 126(6): June 2000, 700-707.
[26] Hwang SJ, Fang WH, Lee HJ and Yu HW. Analytical model for predicting shear
strength of squat walls, Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE: 127(1): January
2001, 43-50.
[27] Nielsen MP, Braestrup MW, Jensen BC and Bach F. Concrete plasticity, beam
shear in joints – Punching shear, Special Publication of the Danish Society of
Structural Science and Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen,
1978.
* [28] Foster SJ and Gilbert RI. The design of nonflexural members with normal and
high-strength concretes, ACI Structural Journal: 93(1): January-February 1996,
3-10.
[29] Ramirez JA and Breen JE. Proposed design procedure for shear and torsion in
reinforced and prestressed concrete, Research Report 248-4F, Center For
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, 1983.
[30] Ramirez JA and Breen JE. Evaluation of a modified truss-model approach for
Dr. RKL Su 38
beams in shear, ACI Structural Journal: 88(5): September-October 1991, 562-571.
[31] Alshegeir A. Analysis and design of disturbed regions with strut-tie methods, PhD
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