ADVANCED LEVEL GEOGRAPHY

NATURAL LANDSCAPE: LANDFORM SYSTEM

Topic 5: Plate Tectonics

(I) INTRODUCTION :
1. Plate tectonics has deep environmental implications on many scales of
magnitude.

First, of course, is that the existing landform features of the continents and
oceans basins compose the solid framework of the Man‘s environment.

Continents, with their mountain are the rock platform where all terrestrial
ecosystems rest. These major crustal features are explained by plate
tectonics.

(What is mountains: Mountains are highlands reaching 1 km or more above

sea level, which cover 30 % of the earth surface. Mountains are different
from hill in terms of height and their horizontal extent)

2. Second, plate tectonics explains the global patterns of two major

environmental hazards : volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
(II) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
1. Core: [地核]

The earth is an almost spherical body of approximately 6370 km in

equatorial radius. The center is occupied by a CORE, a spherical zone about
3475 km in radius. It is believed that the outer core has the properties of
liquid (molten). However, the inner most part of the core with a radius of
1225km may be solid.

Iron(鐵), with small proportion of nickel (鎳), and radioactive elements is

considered as the substance in the core. Temperature in the Earth‘s core
may lie between 2200℃and 2750℃.

2. Mantle: [地幔]

Outside the core lies the mantle, a layer about 2895km thick, composed of
mineral matter in solid state. The mantle is probable composed largely of
mineral olivine. Its upper parts, at very high pressure, and under great
pressure, have acquired “plastic’ form allows them to flow and to convect
very slowly.

3. Crust: [地殼]

The outermost and thinnest of the Earth zone is the crust, a layer some 8 to
40 km thick (under certain mountains). Crystal rocks vary not only in
thickness and density, but also in composition. It includes oceanic crust
and continental crust.

Oceanic crust (mostly basaltic, basic rock) are those rock beneath the ocean
basins. It is also called sima because they are rich in iron, silicon and
magnesium.. It is the lower layer of the crust.

Continental crust (mostly granite rock) is the upper layer of the earth crust.
It is also called sial because they are acidic rock and rich in silica and
aluminum.

The base of the crust is marked by a rather clearly defined break called the
Mohorovicic Discontinuity or the Moho (莫霍界面). This sharp boundary
lies 32-48 km beneath the earth surface. In other words, MOHO is the
boundary between the crust and mantle.

4. Asthenosphere and Lithosphere

a. Asthenosphere: (軟流層/岩流圈)

It is part of the upper mantle, about 85 to 700 km below sea level.

It is a soft layer beneath the lithosphere.

It is semi-plastic state material (fluid and mobile) which is very hot

(1400℃)

The lithospheric crust moves over the soft asthenosphere.

The thermal generated conventional currents cause the lithosphere

above to drift.

b. Lithosphere: (岩石圈)

It is rigid outermost portion of the earth above the asthenosphere.

In include sima (continental crust) and sial (oceanic crust).

The convectional currents cause this layer to split into 7 major plates and
6 minor plates. Each plate has an average 100 km thick.

The continental plate (sima) is thicker than oceanic one plate (sial).
(III) WEGENER’s IDEAS OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT

大陸漂移學說
Wegener (阿爾費弗-魏格納) was German meteorologists. In 1911, his ideas
about continental drift really began to develop. In 1913, he published the
book, the “Origin of Continents” formally proposed the hypothesis of
continental drift.

1. Hypothesis:

Wegener‘s idea was that the continents had once all been joined together
225 million year ago in the Carboniferous Period (石炭紀). There existed a
single supercontinent on earth. He named it Pangaea (聯合古陸).

The Americas were fitted closely against Africa and Europe, while the
continents of Antarctica and Australia, India, and the island of Madagascar
were grouped closely around the southern tip of Africa.

Until about 180 million years ago, all the southern continents had still been
joined together into a large continents known as the Gondwanaland (S.
America, Africa, Arabia, Madagascar, India Antarctica, Austria and New
Zealand). In the Northern Hemisphere, a large continent known as the
Laurasia still existed (including N. America and Greenland)

Some time before the Tertiary periods (70 million years ago), the
supercontinent on earth ruptured into several fragments., which began to
drift apart.

The Americas pulled away from the rest of the Pangaea, leaving a great rift
that became the Atlantic ocean. Late, other fragments pulled away from
Africa, causing the opening up of the Indian Ocean.

Wegener proposed that the less dense continental rock moved like a great
gloating raft on a sea of denser oceanic crustal rock.

However, Wegener could not offer an explanation of what made the

continents move with what was called continental drift. His idea were
forgotten until the 1950 when more evidence to support them was
discovered.
2. Evidences

Wegener based his proposal on geological evidence which supports the

idea of continental drift:

a. There is a “jigsaw fit” of continental outlines on either side of the

Atlantic Ocean. In other word, there is a close match in shape of continent.
For example, the east coast of S. America and West coast of Africa.

b. Similar fossil plants , animals and past climates are found on either side
of the Atlantic Ocean.

c. Geological structures of similar age and formation occur on both sides of

the Atlantic Ocean, for example

-- the structure and characteristics of the Appalachians in North America

and the Hercynian fold mountain in Western Europe are very similar.

d. Coal seams which are sedimentary rocks associated with tropical swamps
are now found in polar regions where tropical forests will never flourish.

e. Evidence from paleomagnetism – the study of rock magnetism: (古地磁

學): The unusual magnetic patterns that are found in the rocks of the sea
floor are symmetrical because of the spreading of the sea floor away from
the mid - oceanic ridges in both direction.

As the materials moves from the ridge, new material is coming up to

replace it, aligning itself with the Earth’s magnetic field. Thus, the newly
added material along the crest therefore records any change in the earth’s
polarity and the eversed magnetic alignment in the lava on opposite sides
of the ridges matches exactly.

3. Results of the Continent Drift:

-- Separation of some continents, e.g. Africa, South America

-- Collision of other continents, e.g. Asia and India

-- development of fold mountains, faulting, earthquake.

(IV) Sea-Floor Spreading 【海底擴張】
During the 1950 and 1960, detailed mapping of the ocean floor was carried
out. This led to the discovery of the global oceanic ridge system.

For example, the mid-Altantic ridge System runs parallel to the continental
margins on the both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. A central rift valley exist
within the ridge showing that great forces are at the work, and volcanism
were formed. In 1960, Harris Hess proposed the idea of sea floor spreading,
where the ocean ridges are located above upwelling of large convection cells
in the mantle.

As rising material from the mantle spreads horizontally, sea floor is carried
away from the ridge crest. Due to the tear at the ridge crest produced by the
diverging movements provide pathways for the magma to intrude and
produce new oceanic crust. Thus as the sea floor moves away from the ridge
crest, newly formed crust replace it.
Hess further suggested that sinking portions of these convection cells are
located be

beneath the deep ocean trenches. Hence the older parts of the sea floor are
gradually consumed as they sink into the mantle.
Possible cause:

It has been suggested that the radioactive elements such as thorium and
uranium in the upper mantle give off heat which is responsible for the
energy required which set up convectional currents. These currents move in
a series of cells throughout the upper mantle and asthenosphere. These
currents rise under the oceans, then move out horizontally in either
direction, taking with them the continental rafts of the lighter material in
opposite directions and causing them to drift apart at present rats of about
2.5cm a year. This would result in tensional rifts or cracks in the ocean floor
midway 64000km. The most clearly section is

-- Mid-Atlantic Ridge

-- Eastern Pacific Ocean

-- the trench south-eastward from the Arabian Sea towards south-western

Australia and Antarctica

-- line of the Red Sea and the East African Rift Valleys along west coast of
North America.
(V) The Plate Tectonic Theory【板塊構造理論】
Definition:
The concepts of continent drift and sea-floor spreading was strengthened
by the theory of plate tectonic in 1970‘s.

“Tectonics” is a noun meaning “ the study of tectonic activity”. Tectonic

activity refers to all forms of breaking and bending of the entire
lithosphere under internal earth forces.

Plate Tectonic Theory suggests that the Earth’s Crust is divided into plates
that move slowly across the face of the global, driven by enormous
convection currents within in the mantle.

The lithospheric plate consists of about 12 plats of various size. The

lithosphere overlies much hotter material known as asthenosphere. The
plates are in very slow constant motion. All the major interactions between
plates occur along plate boundaries, and most earth’s seismic activity,
volcanism and mountain building occur along these zones of instability.
 A. Plate Boundaries:

There are three distinct types of plate boundary.

(1) Divergent constructive plate boundaries-- a zone of spreading. :

The convection currents continually push new material to the surface along the rifts,
forcing the sea floor to spread apart and creating new sea floor. These boundary provide
the power to drive the plates apart.

-- On the two sides of the mid-oceanic ridge, two oceanic plates are pulling apart.

-- The rising part of convectional currents of magma in the upper mantle

moves laterally and causes plates to split and diverge.

-- This plate activity tends to create a gaping crack in the crust. Thus,
magma is poured out through these great cracks of the mid-ocean ridges. As
the plates move apart and as the magma solidifies to form rocks, the plates
become enlarged through the accretion (growth by addition) of rocks along
their edges, therefore, the ocean floor is being continually pulled apart.
This is known as sea-floor spreading.

-- Therefore new crust is created in this zones of sea floor spreading and
volcanic activity because of such upwelling of magma.

! Sea floor spreading is-- a symmetrical process because equal amounts of

new rock materials are added to both diverging plates
! -- It is addition of oceanic crust.

-- There is a formation of mid-oceanic ridges.

-- There is small earthquakes along the mid-oceanic ridges

! This crustal separation is known to be taking place as the rate of about 2

to 5 cm per year.

(2) Convergent destructive plate boundaries : -- Zone of collision

The plates move together, causing lithosphere to be consumed by the mantle,

as it descends beneath an overriding plates.

-- Just as new ocean floor is being formed in some places, so in others it is

being destroyed.

-- Some plates collide against each other.

-- When convectional currents of magma in the upper mantle converge and

sink, this causes one plate to move towards to other and the plates collide.

-- The oceanic crust on either side of the mid-oceanic ridge is moving

toward the thick mass of continental lithosphere. Because the oceanic plate
is comparatively thin and dense, in contrast to the thick, buoyant
continental plate, the oceanic lithosphere bends down and plunges into the
soft asthenosphere. The process of downplunging of the plate beneath
another is called subduction.

-- It is because oceanic plate is made up of heavier igneous rocks, e.g. Basalt.

However, continental plate is made up of lighter igneous rocks, e.g. granite.

-- The downbending of oceanic crust forming trench. Destruction plate

boundaries produces a deep ocean trench on the ocean floor, parallel to the
plate boundary. Example of ocean trench can be found in West Pacific
Ocean-- the Philippines Trench (over 11km deep). It is produced by the
subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the Philippine plate.

-- There is cycling of material :

At collision plate boundaries, denser oceanic crust is squeezed down

and melts in the magma of the mantle. It is consumed, hence destroyed in
the mantle beneath the continent. A oceanic plate undergoing subduction
can transfer matter to the margin of the continental lithosphere and mantle.
The subducted plates is melted, forming magma which then penetrates the
continental crust in the form of igneous plutons (深成岩體). Most of the
downgoing plate is softened by heating and is reabsorbed into the
asthenosphere. Being less dense than the mantle, the molten crust materials
rises towards the ocean floor where much of it erupts as lava and together
the scrapped off sediments, building up a chain of volcanic islands or
island arc.

There are three kinds of converging plate boundaries :

(a). Collision of one oceanic plate and one continental plate:

! oceanic plate entrenches into the continental plate.

! When the two plates collide, the oceanic plate, being thin and dense,
in contrast to the thick, buoyant continental plate, plunges into the soft
asthenosphere.

! Associated landform features: oceanic trench, fold mountain.

(b ). Collision of two oceanic plates

 -- the more mobile one sinks and deflects in the steeply inclined zone
called subduction zone.

! When two oceanic crusts converge, one descends beneath the other,
starting volcanic activity similar to that at an oceanic-continental
convergent boundary.

! However, the volcanoes form on the ocean floor rather than on land,
and may form a chain of small volcanic islands called an island arc.

! For example, the Philippines and Japan are all examples of this
features. They are composed of volcanic rocks, and folded sedimentary
rocks, and have deep-sea volcanic features. Volcanic mountain chain
occur behind all subduction zones.

(c). Collision of two continental plates

-- Continental plates are much lighter than the asthenosphere, so they

are not subducted.

! When two continental plates collide, because they are of equal density,
neither sinks nor is subducted. Plates edges are compressed and
fractured. There is crushing and crumpling of the sedimentary materials
 between them. Sediments at continental boundaries are folded by
compression. Fold mountain ranges are resulted.

-- Therefore, the collision would result in folding (fold mountains) and

uplift of sediments, faulting, vulcanicity and earthquake.

-- E.g. Himalayas is formed by the collision of Indian plate and Eurasian

Plate.

Alps is formed by the collision of African plates and Eurasian plate.

 (3) Transform fault boundaries / Conservative Plate boundary:

It is one where the plates slide past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere.

-- 2 lithosphere plates may be in contact along a common boundary on

which one plate merely slides horizontally past the other with no motion of
divergence or convergence.

-- the plane along which motion occurs is a nearly vertical fracture

extending down through the entire lithosphere. It is called a transform fault.
(the plates neither gain nor lose material)
 Results - discontinuous of mid-oceanic ridges

- discontinuous of oceanic trench

- separation of land surfaces / e.g. San Andreas fault (California)

B. Basic Assumptions :

~ Rigid lithosphere plates have greater horizontal movement than

vertical movement.

~ Plate boundaries are geological active zones and coincide with

the narrow belts of earthquakes and volcanic activity.

~ Each plate is in relative motion with respect to each other.

C. Thus , the new theory of plate tectonics advances the idea

that the earth‘s crust is divided up into a number of rigid, shifting
plates of varying size -- 6 major ones which are continental
proportions and a number of others which are quite small -- and that
as these plates slide past one another, converge or move apart,
continents drift, mountains are formed, and new crust comes into
being.
D. The global system of lithospheric plates:

There are six major plates, each of enormous size.

(1) The Pacific Plate:

It consists entirely of oceanic lithospheric. Its relatively motion is

northwesterly and it has a subduction boundary along most of the
western and northern edge. The eastern and southern edge is mostly a
spreading boundary. The california portion is an active transform
fault . It is San Andreas Fault.

(2) The American Plate:

This include mot of the continental lithosphere of North and South

America, as well as the entire oceanic lithospheric lying west of the
mid-oceanic ridge.

The western edge is a subduction boundary and eastern edge is a

spreading boundary.

(3) The Eurasian Plate

This is the mostly continental lithospheric, but is fringed on the east,

west and south by oceanic lithoshpere.

(4) The Austral-Indian Plate:

This is mostly oceanic lithosphere but contains two continental

ithospheres – Australia and India

(5) The African Plate:

This plate has a central core of continental lithosphere surrounded by

oceanic lithosphere.
 (6) The Antarctic Plate:

This is completely enclosed by a spreading plate boundary. The

continent of Antarctica forms a core of continental lithosphere
surrounded by oceanic lithosphere.

There are six minor plates, each of intermediate to small size.

(1) the Nazaca Plate: it is oceanic lithosphere

(2) the Cocos Plate: it is oceanic lithosphere

(3) the Juan de Fuca Plate:

(4) the Phillippine Plate: it is oceanic lithosphere

(5) the Arabian Plate: its relative motion is northeasterly

(6) the Caribbean Plate: it has important transform fault boundaries

E. In general, tectonic activity takes 2 basic forms in the active
mountain-making belts :

(1) Crustal compression -- leads to folding -- produce a series of wavelike

undulations in sedimentary strata, called folds.

(2) Crustal spreading-- elsewhere, the crust may be pulled apart.

-- leads to faulting. Faulting accompanying crustal

spreading can be called rifting. By far the most important global rifting
occurs on the floor of the deep ocean.

F. The Causes of Plate Movement

-- Within the mantle, convection process occurs.

-- There is a circulation of hot and less dense material in the mantle.

-- The material rises toward the surface and spreads out, cools and then
sinks again............... (refer to previous notes)
G. Associated Landform Features Resulting from

Different Plate Boundaries

(a) Constructive Plate Boundary (建設性板塊邊界)

Spread floor spreading produced by divergent boundary causes a

number of landform features.

(1) Mid-Oceanic Ridge and rift valleys

- The ocean basins have a ridge that divides the basin half approximately.

- It is a belt of higher ocean floor in a central position in the ocean basins.

- The mid oceanic ridge consists of submarine hills rising gradually to a

central zone. In the middle of this is a narrow troughlike axial rift (槽谷)
where crust is pulled apart.

- the form of this rift suggests that the crust is being pulled apart along the
line of the rift axis.

- Magma pushes upward below the ocean. The magma rising from the
mantle below fills the widening crack in its center and solidifies to form
new crust in the floor of the rift valley.
- Finally, the continuous swelling of magma forms mid-oceanic ridges
along constructive plate boundary.

- the widening of the ocean basin can continue until a large ocean has
found and the continents are widely separated. Examples: Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and East Pacific Africa.

- the mid-oceanic ridge and its principal branches can be traced through the
ocean basins for a total distances of about 60000km.

- Mid-oceanic ridge divides the Atlantic Ocean basin from Iceland to the
South Atlantic, where it turns east and enters the Indian Ocean. There one
branch penetrates Africa while the other continues east between Australia
and Antarctica, then swings across the South Pacific. Nearing South
America, it turns north and penetrates North America at the head of the
Gulf of California.
- The axial rift is broken in many places along its length by crustal fractures
or fault. Motion on these fracture lines has caused the rift to be sharply
offset. The offsetting fractures extend far out on either side of the
mid-oceanic ridge.

- The axial rift also represents the boundary between adjacent lithospheric
plates that are undergoing separation.

(2). Ocean basin floor (大洋盆地)

-- it is a broad, deep plains on either side of the mid-oceanic ridge.

-- the surface is flat and smooth because it is built up of fine sediments and
the plain is called Abyssal Plain. The average depth is about 5 km.

-- Examples: the Bering Abyssal Plain, Sohm Abyssal Plain (West Atlantic).

(3). Continental margin

Rise -- Near the continents, the ocean floor begins to slope gradually
upward, forming the continental rise.

Slope -- The ocean floor then steepens greatly in the continental slope.

Shelf – At the top of this slope is the continental shelf, which is gently
sloping platform 120 to 160 km wide, e.g. along the eastern margin of North
America (Bermuda Rise).

(4). Volcanic islands and submarine volcanoes

Volcanic islands : Some very high peaks of the mid-oceanic ridges

appear on the ocean surface to form volcanic islands.

Sub-marine volcanoes/ Seamounts: Those lower peaks of the

mid-oceanic ridges remain under water to form submarine volcanoes.
(b) Destructive Plate Boundary (破壞性板塊邊界)

Converging plate boundary causes a number of associated Features :

-- Trench

-- Fold Mountains

-- Islands arc / arcs of volcanic islands

-- Volcanic activities

-- Earthquake and faulting

(1) Trench : (one oceanic plate & one continental plate)

-- Along the destructive plate boundary, the compression force push 2

plates together, an oceanic plates collides with a continental plate.
-- As the oceanic is heavier and denser, the edge of the oceanic plate is
drawn under the edge of the continental plate in the subduction zone. It is
called subduction process.

-- As the oceanic is sharply downbent, a deep, elongated trough called a

trench is formed. It can depths of seven kilometers. For example, Peru-Chile
trench. It is formed by the Nazca plate and South America Plate.

-- Earthquakes and vulcanicity comes together within the subduction zone.

(2) Island Arc : (Where two oceanic plates converge)

! Islands Arcs is found at the site where oceanic 2 lithospheric plates

converge.

! The more mobile one sinks and deflects in the steeply inclined zone
called subduction zone.

! When two oceanic crusts converge, one descends beneath the other,
starting volcanic activity similar to that at an oceanic-continental
convergent boundary. However, the volcanoes form on the ocean floor
rather than on land, and may form a chain of small volcanic islands
called an island arc. Sediments are also folded up as islands arc.

! For example, the Philippines and Japan are all examples of this
features. They are composed of volcanic rocks, and folded sedimentary
rocks, and have deep-sea volcanic features. Volcanic mountain chain
occur behind all subduction zones.
! It is the site of intense geological activities such vulcanicity, orogenesis,
and earthquakes. Islands arcs are volcanic in origin. For examples,
Japanese Islands, Java and other Indonesia Islands.

(3). Fold Mountain : (褶曲山脈)

-- Fold mountains are made of folded sedimentary rocks and are located in
narrow active zone where there are the convergence of lithospheric plates.

-- Many fold mountains chains are still active today as indicated by the
occurrence of arthquakes. They are found mainly within the Alpine
Himalayan and Circum-Pacific Belt.

-- All fold mountain chains contain strongly deformed rocks which have
been folded thrusted . For example, Rockies and Andes, Hamalayia and
Alps.
(i) Where one oceanic plate and one continental plate converge, usually
along the active continental margins, e.g. the Cordillera situation (South
America)

! Oceanic plate entrenches into the continental plate.

-- The Oceanic crust is thrust beneath the continental margin.

-- The oceanic crust on either side of the mid-oceanic ridge is moving

toward the thick mass of continental lithosphere. Because the oceanic plate
is comparatively thin and dense, in contrast to the thick, buoyant
continental plate, the oceanic ithosphere bends down and plunges into the
soft asthenosphere. The process of downplunging of the plate beneath
another is called subduction.

-- During the subduction process, the sediment , (which was filled in the
trench and laid on the oceanic floor), were squeezed and folded up as
folded mountain.

-- Thus, folded mountain were built along active continental margins

between oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere. They were quite
high and are called young fold mountain.
Case study: The formation of Andes in South America.
(ii) Where two continental plates converge, e.g. the Himalayian situation

-- Continental plates are much lighter than the asthenosphere, so they are
not subducted.

- When two continental plates collide, because they are of equal density,
neither sinks nor is subducted. Because of its greater buoyancy, a
continental plate can remain on the surface during convergence. Plates
edges are compressed and fractured.

There is crushing and crumpling of the sedimentary materials between

them. Sediments at continental boundaries are folded by compression.
Strong deformation of sediments laid down on the closing oceanic basin
follows.

Sea water starts to escape. The original oceanic crust is consumed and
buried underneath the series of sedimentary rocks. Fold mountain ranges
are resulted.

-- Therefore, the collision would result in folding (fold mountains) and

uplift of sediments, faulting, vulcanicity and earthquake.

-- Continents may eventually collide against each other producing a series

of elongated fold mountains of predominantly sedimentary rocks, even
though the velocities of the 2 colliding plates are only measurable in terms
of cm/year.

! The 2 continental masses are gradually welded into one, but as their
boundaries are still geological unstable, a number of shallow
earthquakes would occur.
C. Volcanic activities :

1. Vulcanicity

Vulcanicity is the transfer of hot magma from below or within the

earth crust to its outer surface, whether as flowing lava or as explosive
pyroclastic deposits along vents or fissures.
2. General distribution of volcanoes

a. Along Mid-oceanic ridges where new oceanic lithosphere is forming,

e.g. along the Atlantic and Pacific Oceanic Ridge system. This belts also
coincides with the areas which experiences earthquake frequently.

b. Along destructive plate margins

e.g. Circum Pacific Ring of Fire: e.g. Pacific plate margin, northeast margin
of Indian plate. The belt encircles the basin of the pacific Ocean and
account for 2/3 of the world’s volcanoes. Earthquakes are associated are
relatively frequent here. Most volcanoes are associated with zone of recent
mountain building.

e.g The Mediterranean-East African Belt: theses are the northern

edge of Mediterranean Sea, extend from the Azores through the northern
coast of the Mediterranean Sea to the South of Caspian. .

3. Vulcanicity of the Oceanic Ridges: (constructive plate boundaries)

Magma is injected into fault lines on the mid-oceanic ridges and this result
in volcanic activity, e.g. Iceland.

Oceanic vulcanicity mainly takes the form non-explosive fissures

eruptions from active spreading ridge systems forming extensive volcanic
ridge. With more intense outflow of lava there can be eruption and conical
or dome- shaped volcanoes high enough to emerge as volcanic islands,
seamounts or guyots. e.g. Azores Islands.

Many volcanic islands in the oceans can be considered as isolated

mountains.

4. Vulcanicity of fold mountain chains and island arc: (destructive plate

margins)

Along the destructive plate boundaries, convectional currents of magma in

the upper mantle lead the plates to collide. The oceanic plates is subducted
and squeezed into the subduction. Under great heat, oceanic edge melts in
the magma of the upper mantle. The magma pours out through lines of
weakness (faults) due to release of pressure.

~ In fold mountain belts and island arc, vulcanicity is mainly expressed in

the formation of volcanoes and the minor activity of hydrothermal
groundwater bodies. In general, it is due to friction by plate collision and
subduction.

(i) The island arc volcanoes:

~ These account for the rapidity of the world’s active volcanoes and are
mainly located along the northern and western Pacific Ocean, and along the
Indonesia Islands.

~ Vulcanicity is expressed in the form of vent eruptions. Because of

explosiveness and the high temperatures, the volcanic eruption may give
disastrous results, e.g. Mt. Pelee, Mt. Krakatao, Mt. Fujiyama, Mt. Mayon.
 (ii) Along the fold mountain belts:

~ The volcanoes are less active than oceanic volcanoes. Eruptions occur at
long intervals during which the central vent may be sealed off by volcanic
plug. For the young fold mountain belt, they are mainly of the composite
and acid lava cone varieties. For the old fold mountain belt, vulcanicity is
less intense and only ash is given out to form Ash and Cinder cone

~ For example, the Vesvuius Volcano, St. Helens..

~ Types of volcanoes:
5. vulcanicity and Man :

Vulcanicity eruption case study: Mount St. Helens, 1980.

Effects of vulcanicity on Man :

~ the top of the mountain blown apart.

~ a strong wind flattened trees. The national Forest Area was turned to
wasteland.

~ steam, gas, ash, rock debris and mud flows killed sixty people and large
numbers of animals.
~ the heat lead to snow and ice-melting, causing flash flooding and huge
mud flows blocking lakes and valleys.

~ a volcanic ash cloud rose high in the sky, then fell over the state of
Washington for fifteen hours depositing 600 000 tonnes of ash – people had
to wear masks to avoid choking in the dusty air.

~ finer ash was thrown high into atmosphere, causing sunsets.

~ the fear that Mount St Helens could go on eruptions over a long period of
time and that the damage would be beyond control.

(c) Transform Fault Boundary / Conservative Plate Boundary

(被動性板塊邊界)

Transform faults form where plates slide past one another without
construction and destruction. The motions occurs along a nearly vertical
fracture extending down through the entire lithosphere. Transform faults
often produce frequent seismic activity. Because of the type of bedrock,
these plates do not slide smoothly but appear to sticks at point. One of
these point is Southern California and another is under San Francisco, the
sites of great earthquake in 1906.

Earthquakes:

~ The earthquake is a form of energy of wave motion transmitted through

the surface layer of the earth in widening circles from a point of sudden
energy release – the focus. The seismic waves travel outward in all the
direction, gradually losing energy.

Focus – the place below the surface where the quake originates is
called.

Epicenter – the point on the surface of the earth vertically above the
focus is known..

Seismic waves – are generated in an earthquake.

(1) Causes of Earthquake:

~ All really big earthquakes are tectonic, that is, they are due to the
movements within the earth’s crust – particular the sudden slippage of rock
mass along a fault.

~ Earthquake are produced by normal fault, reverse fault or sudden

movements along transform faults.

e.g. the devastating San Francisco earthquakes of 1960 results from the
slippage along the San Andreas Fault.
 ~ Rocks on both sides of the fault is slowly bent over years. Energy
accumulates in the bent rock. When a critical point is reached, a large
quantity of energy is instantaneously released in the form of seismic waves.

~ Sometimes, minor earthquakes are the result of volcanic eruptions,

avalanches, explosion or the collapse of underground caves.

~ Man made earthquake:

Near the Rocky Mountains, many small earthquakes are produced by

the pumping of fluids under pressure into a well. The increased fluid
pressure within the rock causes the release of strain in small fault
movements, thus preventing a dangerous build up of strain.
 (2) Kinds: (Deep and shallow focus earthquakes)

Most shallow focus earthquakes occur near the trench area, while the deep
focus earthquakes occur far away from the trenches and near the island arc.

The zones of inclined seismic activity which extend from the trench into the
asthenosphere are called are called Benioff Zones (貝尼爾夫帶).

At the oceanic ridges, only the upper layers are brittle to cause earthquakes,
all of which have a shallow focus.

(3) Recording and Measuring intensity:

~ Earthquake waves are recorded by instruments known as seismographs.

~ To indicate the quantity of energy released, two scale are used –

The Richter Scale : named after the seismologist who devised it, ranges
from 0 to 9, most major earthquakes have magnitudes of about 6.5. the
largest earthquakes recorded, in Chile in 1960, reached a magnitude of 8.9.
The Modified Mercalli Scale:
(4) Location:

~ Seismic activity (earthquakes) shows a close geographic relationship to

the different kinds of lithospheric boundaries. The greatest intensity of
seismic activity is found:

1. Along converging plate boundaries where oceanic plates are undergoing

subduction. E.g. Japan, Alaska, Chile, and other zones close to trenches
and island arc of Pacific Ocean Basin.
2. Along the Transform Fault:

e.g. the most familiar one is the San Andreas Fault, which forms the
transform fault between America Plate and the Pacific Plate in California.

3. Along the spreading boundaries, most of these boundaries are matched

with Mid-oceanic ridge and its branches/transform fault. Most are small
earthquakes.

4. At scattered locations over the continental plates, for example, in Asia,

earthquakes can be related to the continental sutures between the
Eurasian plate and the Arabian and Austral-Indian plates.

P.S.: 68% of earthquakes are originated in the Circum –Pacific belt.

21% in the Mediterranean belt

11% in the Mid-oceanic Ridge and East African Rift Valle

(6) Case study:
(7) Earthquakes’ environmental hazards:

(i) Factors affecting the earthquake damage: Earthquakes damage generally

depends on the following:

~ Distance from the epicentre:

In small earthquakes, damage decrease with increasing distance from the

epicentre.

~ Frequency of seismic waves:

Damage increase with increasing frequency of vibration.

~ Building Design and materials:

Collapse of buildings is the major cause of deaths in earthquake.

e.g. build on artificially made ground, alluvium and waterlogged

sediments suffer greater damage than those founded on solid rock.
Fire is also accountable for deaths in some earthquakes. This is because
although wooden houses can survive the shaking, they are consumed in
fire.

~ Population density:

An earthquake will bring great death and destruction if it affects a densely

populated region where buildings are not earthquake-proof and most
people are indoors.

(ii) Earthquake hazards:

1. cause immense disturbance of the land, e.g. the displacement of fences,

roads, cracks and fissures opened up on the ground.

2. cause considerable damage, they may trigger off rockfalls, landslides and
avalanches.

3. Collapsing buildings, ruptured dams and gas or water pipes, and

consequent fires and floods may be devastating, destruction of
communication network.

4. Tsunami:

Due to the sudden movement of the sea floor or submarine earthquake,

those waves travel at a great speed in the open ocean. Wave height is low
in the open ocean. The they swept to land and increase its wave height.
These waves ruches at high speeds, smashing everything in its path.

e.g. in 1958, a tsunami some 30m in height approached the Alaskan

shore.

5. Loss of life
(8) Human Response and adjustment to Earthquake prediction:

(i) Factors influencing human response to earthquakes:

~ Earthquake experience

~ Earthquake perception

~ Earthquake magnitude, intensity, frequency.

~ Technological resources

~ Financial resources.

(ii) Preventive Measures:

a. Land use zoning:

To ban construction of buildings in high risk area, e.g. near fault.

b. Earthquake resistive and shock-proof building.

c. To predict the time and place of occurrence of earthquakes so as to

reduce

their effects, the following methods are used.

~ sensitive instruments measure the strain building up in the rock

~ changes in the tilt of the ground are measured.

~ changes in the Earth’s magnetic field are noted.

~ observations of ground water levels (e.g. wells), animals behavior, a

series of small tremors give warnings of the main earthquake.
d. Education of people on how to survive an earthquake is provided, e.g. in
Japan.

e. Improve the aftershock relief and backup services, e.g. fire prevention
measures and relief services.

f. International co-operation:

Developing countries often lack technological and financial resources

and hence are more exposed to disaster.

International aid is often needed in earth-quake hazards.

[END]

More information sheet:

Geological Time Scale:

A schemes of age classification has been evolved for geological time

extending back to about 600 million year ago, which is divided into three
Eras.

These are named Paleozoic (古生代), Mesozoic(中生代) and Cenozoic(後生

代).

All time before the three eras is designated as belonging to the Precambrian

(前寒武紀).

The eras are subdivided into Periods, which generally associated with the
major mountain building movements in the Earth’s History.
The stratigraphical column showing the divisions of geological time and
the age of certain events.