American Avalanche Association

and
USDA Forest Service National Avalanche Center

Snow, Weather, and Avalanches:

Observation Guidelines for Avalanche
Programs in the United States

© American Avalanche Association, 2010

ISBN-13: 978-0-9760118-1-1
 Snow, Weather, and Avalanches:
Observation Guidelines for Avalanche Programs in the United States

Prepared by the Working Group on Observation Guidelines:

Ethan Greene (chair), Colorado Avalanche Information Center

Dale Atkins, Recco AB
Karl Birkeland, USDA Forest Service National Avalanche Center
Kelly Elder, USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station
Chris Landry, Center for Snow and Avalanche Studies
Brian Lazar, American Institute for Avalanche Research and Education
Ian McCammon, Snowpit Technologies
Mark Moore, USDA Forest Service Northwest Avalanche Center
Don Sharaf, Valdez Heli-Ski Guides/National Outdoor Leadership School
Craig Sterbenz, Telluride Ski Company
Bruce Tremper, USDA Forest Service Utah Avalanche Center
Knox Williams, Colorado Avalanche Information Center

Issued by:
The American Avalanche Association
P.O. Box 2831
Pagosa Springs, CO 81147
[email protected]
www. americanavalancheassociation.org

Citation: Greene, E., D. Atkins, K. Birkeland, K. Elder, C. Landry, B. Lazar, I. McCammon, M. Moore,
D. Sharaf, C. Sternenz, B. Tremper, and K. Williams, 2010. Snow, Weather and Avalanches:
Observation Guidelines for Avalanche Programs in the United States. American Avalanche Association,
Pagosa Springs, CO, Second Printing Fall 2010.

Front cover photographs by Karl Birkeland, Kelly Elder, Dave Dellamora, Dave Madara, Mark Moore, Mt. Shasta Avalanche
Center, Mt. Washington Avalanche Center, Mark Mueller, Ben Pritchett, Billy Rankin, Don Sharaf, John Spitzer, John
Stimberis, John Talbott, and Bruce Tremper.

Back cover photograph by Craig Sterbenz.

ii
Preface
In 2004 the American Avalanche Association, in cooperation with the USDA Forest Service National Avalanche
Center, published the inaugural edition of Snow, Weather and Avalanches: Observational Guidelines for Avalanche
Programs in the United States. Getting to that point was a long and somewhat painful process taking several years,
numerous individuals, and many organizations working to find common ground. In the end, the guidelines reflected
our community’s best effort at merging the Westwide data standards (which had been widely used in the United
States since 1968) and the guidelines published by our friends north of the border at the Canadian Avalanche
Association. The CAA generously offered their guidelines as a template for ours in the hopes that our two
avalanche communities can eventually move toward a common document.

The trepidation we felt with the release of the first edition of these guidelines, which quickly became known as
SWAG, was unnecessary. It gained immediate acceptance by the U.S. avalanche community, as well as by
avalanche workers in many other countries. SWAG is now integrated into operations, handed out in avalanche
classes, and can be found in most patrol rooms and on most forecaster’s desks around the country.

SWAG aims to capture the techniques and tools currently being used by U.S. avalanche programs. Since these tools
are constantly evolving and being updated, so too must this document. Originally we aimed to update SWAG every
5 to 10 years. The fact that we are now producing an updated document only five years after the first edition
demonstrates the dynamic nature of our profession. In some sections of this edition you will find mostly minor
changes in the form of small corrections, additions, or clarifications. In other sections you’ll find more significant
changes, such as the addition of increasingly popular block tests that aim to index the fracture propagation
propensity of the snowpack. This edition also includes the new international snow classification scheme
(Appendix F) and avalanche danger scale (Appendix G).

The goal of SWAG remains the same. It is meant to be a professional reference that establishes common methods.
This benefits everyone by both increasing the ease of communication between operations, and by facilitating the
development of long term datasets that will provide future insights into avalanche processes. Despite the changes to
the current edition, we aimed to maintain the original tone of SWAG. As the late Ed LaChapelle pointed out nearly
thirty years ago, there is no one correct path to an accurate avalanche forecast. Similarly, there is not one set of
tools or one set methodology that must be used for avalanche operations. This document recognizes the unique
nature of many avalanche programs and their special needs, and strives to provide the flexibility necessary for them
to operate effectively while still providing a common language for all of us. Finally, this edition – like the first
edition – is not meant to inhibit creativity or innovation. We encourage experimentation and the development of
new tests and methods by practitioners and scientists alike, a fact emphasized in the major additions to Chapter 2.
Here you will find that some of the new sections came out of M.S. and Ph.D. theses, while others started with
discussions in a ski patrol shack.

Ron Perla provided extensive comments on the first edition of SWAG, and when he received his copy he wrote to
us that “I believe it's much more than just ‘Guidelines for Observations’. It's a valuable reference for a wide variety
of avalanche studies. I'll keep it close to my desk together with my very limited collection of references which I
expect to consult often.” We hope this edition also merits such high praise and that you will find it to be a valuable
and useful reference for your avalanche work.

Karl Birkeland
USDA Forest Service National Avalanche Center
Bozeman, Montana
September, 2009

iii
Acknowledgements
This document is a collection of protocols and common practices developed during more than 60 years
of avalanche work in the United States. Common practice in the United States, in turn, developed
through fruitful collaborations with scientists and practitioners in Canada, Europe, Scandinavia, Asia,
and other parts of the world. Although the people that contributed to what is now common practice are
too numerous to mention here, their contribution to our field and the methods described within this
document is significant.
The first version of this document started with a publication of the Canadian Avalanche Association
(CAA) entitled Observational Guidelines and Recording Standards for Weather, Snowpack, and
Avalanches (OGRS). The CAA has devoted a tremendous amount of time and money towards creating
and maintaining that document, which has become a symbol of professional practice in North America.
The CAA periodically revises OGRS and we have tried to include some of the changes they instituted
during the 2007 revision. I sincerely appreciate the CAA’s past and present efforts to promote common
practice among avalanche programs, and for allowing the U.S. community to benefit from their effort.
Within the CAA, Clair Israelson (former CAA Executive Director) and Ian Tomm (CAA, Executive
Director) both provided us with support and encouragement. Cam Campbell (CAA, Technical
Committee) helped us with CAA materials and their experience during the last revision of OGRS. Bruce
Jamieson provided both material and insight from the work of the Applied Snow and Avalanche
Research group at the University of Calgary.
The American Avalanche Association (AAA) and the USDA Forest Service National Avalanche Center
(NAC) provided the majority of the funds and infrastructure to develop this document and complete the
first revision. Janet Kellam (AAA, President), Mark Mueller (AAA, Executive Director), and Doug
Abromeit (NAC, Director) all contributed to this effort.
A public and technical review process dramatically improved the content of the first version. Although
we did not seek assistance from as large a group during the revision, their contribution remains a part of
this document. They include: Pat Ahern, Jon Andrews, Don Bachman, Hal Boyne, Doug Chabot, Steve
Conger, Nolan Doesken, Dave Hamre, Bill Glude, Liam Fitzgerald, Ron Johnson, Chris Joosen, Art
Judson, Janet Kellam, Tom Kimbrough, Mark Kozak, Bill Lerch, Chris Lundy, Tom McKee, Art Mears,
Peter Martinelli Jr., Rod Newcomb, Ron Perla, and Nancy Pfeiffer. I apologize to anyone that I forgot.
There are some individual contributions that are worthy of mention. Ian McCammon provided the field
book figures snow profile reporting forms, and density nomogram. Dale Atkins was very helpful in
creating the incident forms in Appendix H and the metadata fields in Appendix C. Dan Judd provided
the sample programs in Appendix E. Joyce VanDeWater drew the illustrations in Chapter 2. Charles
Fierz allowed us to include the new snow classification (Appendix F) and snow symbol fonts. Ron
Simenhois contributed most of the material in the Extended Column Test and Propagation Saw Test
sections. Many photographers provided images for this publication and they are listed with their
contribution.
Lastly I would like to thank the members of the Working Group on Observation Guidelines for their
dedication and patience during the development and revision of this document.

Ethan Greene
Working Group on Observation Guidelines, Chairman
August, 2010

iv
Contents
Introduction 1
1.0 Manual Snow and Weather Observations 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Objectives 3
1.3 Standard Morning Snow and Weather Observation 4
1.4 Manual versus Automated Observations 5
1.5 Time Periods for Manual Snow and Weather Observations 5
1.6 Equipment for Manual Standard Observations 5
1.7 Field Book Notes 6
1.8 Field Weather Observations 6
1.9 Location Ô 6
1.10 Date Ô 6
1.11 Time Ô 6
1.12 Sky Condition Ô 6
1.13 Precipitation Type, Rate, and Intensity Ô 7
1.14 Air Temperature Ô 9
1.14.1 Air Temperature Trend 9
1.15 Relative Humidity 11
1.16 Barometric Pressure at Station 11
1.16.1 Pressure Trend 12
1.17 20 cm Snow Temperature Ô 12
1.18 Surface Penetrability Ô 12
1.19 Form and Size of Surface Snow 13
1.20 Height of Snowpack Ô 14
1.21 Height of New Snow Ô 14
1.21.1 Snow Board Naming Conventions 15
1.22 Water Equivalent of New Snow Ô 16
1.23 Density of New Snow 16
1.24 Rain Ô 17
1.25 Accumulated Precipitation 18
1.26 Wind Ô 18
1.27 Blowing Snow at the Ridge Tops 19
2.0 Snowpack Observations 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Objectives 21
2.3 Standard Snowpack Observation 22

ÔSections that describe parameters included in a standard observation.

v
 2.4 Snow Profiles 23
2.4.1 Location 24
2.4.2 Frequency of Observations 26
2.4.3 Equipment 27
2.4.4 Field Procedure 27
2.5 Snowpack Observations 28
2.5.1 Snowpack Temperature 28
2.5.2 Layer Boundaries 28
2.5.3 Snow Hardness 29
2.5.4 Grain Form 30
2.5.5 Grain Size 32
2.5.6 Liquid Water Content 32
2.5.7 Density 33
2.5.8 Strength and Stability Tests 33
2.5.9 Marking the Site 33
2.5.10 Graphical Snow Profile Representation 34
2.6 Characterizing Fractures in Column and Block Tests 36
2.6.1 Shear Quality 37
2.6.2 Fracture Character 38
2.7 Column and Block Tests 37
2.7.1 Site Selection 37
2.7.2 Shovel Shear Test 40
2.7.3 Rutschblock Test 42
2.7.4 Compression Test 45
2.7.5 Deep Tap Test 47
2.7.6 Stuffblock Test 48
2.7.7 Extended Column Test 51
2.7.8 Propagation Saw Test 53
2.8 Slope Cut Testing 55
2.9 Non-Standardized Snow Tests 57
2.9.1 Communicating the Results of Non-Standardized Snow Tests 57
2.9.2 Cantilever Beam Test 57
2.9.3 Loaded Column Test 58
2.9.4 Burp-the-Baby 59
2.9.5 Hand Shear Test 60
2.9.6 Ski Pole Penetrometer 60
2.9.7 Tilt Board Test 61
2.9.8 Shovel Tilt Test 61
2.10 Instrumented Methods 62
2.10.1 Ram Profile 62
2.10.2 Shear Frame 66
vi
3.0 Avalanche Observations 69
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Objectives 69
3.3 Identification of Avalanche Paths 69
3.4 Standard Avalanche Observation 70
3.5 Avalanche Path Characteristics 71
3.5.1 Area and Path Ô 71
3.5.2 Aspect Ô 71
3.5.3 Slope Angle Ô 71
3.5.4 Elevation Ô 72
3.6 Avalanche Event Characteristics 72
3.6.1 Date Ô 72
3.6.2 Time Ô 72
3.6.3 Avalanche Type Ô 72
3.6.4 Trigger Ô 73
3.6.5 Size Ô 76
3.6.6 Snow Properties 77
3.6.7 Avalanche Dimensions Ô 78
3.6.8 Location of Avalanche Start Ô 79
3.6.9 Terminus Ô 80
3.6.10 Total Deposit Dimensions 81
3.6.11 Avalanche Runout 81
3.6.12 Coding Avalanche Observations 81
3.6.13 Comments 81
3.7 Multiple Avalanche Events 82
3.8 Additional Observations 83
3.8.1 Avalanche Hazard Mitigation Missions 83
3.8.2 Road and Railway Operations 83

Glossary 85
Appendix A: References 93
Appendix B: Units 97
Appendix C: Metadata 103
Appendix D: Observational Sites for Meteorological Measurements 105
Appendix E: Automated Weather Stations 111
Appendix F: ICSI Classification for Seasonal Snow Cover on the Ground 119
Appendix G: Avalanche Danger, Hazard, and Snow Stability Scales 129
Appendix H: Reporting Avalanche Involvements 135
Appendix I: Symbols and Abbreviations 145
Snow Profile Forms and Conversion Charts 147

ÔSections that describe parameters included in a standard observation. vii

Snow, Weather, and Avalanches
Introduction
This document contains a set of guidelines for observing and recording snow, weather, and avalanche
phenomena. These guidelines were prepared for avalanche forecasting operations, but can be applied to
other programs as well. The guidelines are presented as a resource of common methods and are intended
to promote efficient and fruitful communication among professional operations and between research
and operational communities.
The observations presented in this manual were selected to support active avalanche forecasting
programs. Observing these parameters will help avalanche forecasters make informed and consistent
decisions, provide current and accurate information, and document methods and rationale for operational
decisions. Recording these parameters will assist program managers to document and analyze unusual
events, apply pattern recognition and statistical forecasting methods, and assist research into snow and
avalanche phenomena. In addition, there is often little snow and weather data collected in mountainous
areas and data collected by avalanche forecasting programs can be used in climatological and mountain
systems research. Our hope is that this manual will help forecasters carefully choose the observations
that support their programs, and that those observations will generate high quality and consistent data
sets.
It is unlikely that any one operation will make all of the observations outlined within this document.
Individual program managers should select a set of parameters that their staff can observe routinely.
Programs with specialized needs may have to look elsewhere for information on additional observations.
A set of references is listed in Appendix A as a starting point.
Structure of this Manual
This manual is divided into three chapters and nine appendices. Within each chapter, methods for
composing an observational scheme are presented first. A standard observation is presented next, and
the remainder of each chapter is devoted to describing detailed methods for observing and recording a
particular phenomenon. The appendices provide additional information without distracting from the
main topics within the manual.
Units
The avalanche community within the United States typically uses a combination of English and
International (SI) unit systems. In this document we have attempted to adhere to the SI system whenever
possible. In the United States, personnel of avalanche operations and users of their products may not be
familiar with all SI units. Individual programs should choose a unit system that suits their particular
application. A recommended system of units, an alternative system of English units, and methods for
converting values between the two systems are presented in Appendix B. The most noticeable deviation
from the SI system is the unit for elevation. In North America most topographic maps use feet as the unit
for elevation. Therefore the recommended unit for elevation remains the foot. Throughout the document
the recommended unit appears in the text with the common alternative unit adjacent in parentheses.
Long-term data records should be stored in the recommended system of units in Appendix B. Data
records submitted to a central database are assumed to be in the recommended system unless otherwise
stated in the accompanying metadata file (see Appendix C).
Data Codes and Symbols
Symbols and data codes for many of the observations in this document appear in tables within each
section. The use of these codes will save space in field books and on log sheets. Many of the codes in
Chapter 1 follow conventions from the meteorological community. The codes in Chapters 2 and 3 were
chosen to conform to common methods in the avalanche community and to promote efficient
communication.

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Snow, Weather, and Avalanches